THIRD YEAR PHYSICS LABS 640-393 and 640-394 SEMESTER ONE, 2009 GENERAL NOTES: This is a collection of documents introducing you to the 3rd year lab experience. I will be communicating by email to your university accounts throughout the semester, so please get in the habit of checking them every so often. Enclosed you will find a form that needs to be returned, either electronically or in person wherein you will choose which experiments you would like to do. To this end, a description of the experiments is included. Also included are important dates, a description of how the system works, and a really useful guide to writing 3rd year lab reports. You should read all attached material carefully and inform me of your preferences as soon as possible; first come, first served. Feel free to contact me with any queries or comments. The surest way to contact me is by email: part3@physics.unimelb.edu.au We look forward to seeing you all in the course of the semester. Enjoy your time in the labs! Best regards, Stephen Marshall & Roger Rassool Part III Lab coordinators SCHOOL OF PHYSICS Part III Laboratories - 2009 IMPORTANT DATES Tuesday 10th March: The laboratory coordinator should have been informed of your preferences for experiments by the end of this day at the very latest. Thursday 12th March: at 9 am: INTRODUCTORY SESSION A short introductory session will be held in the Part III John Rouse Reading Room (ground floor, Nuclear Building, directly beneath the Part II laboratory). This session will be most useful to students who have not done any work in the third year laboratories before. It will be short, so be punctual. Tuesday 17th March at 9 am: COMMENCEMENT OF PART III LABS Students participating in experiments starting from this date must bring a bound A4 notebook for this and every other laboratory session. Most experiments are located on the ground floor of the Nuclear building, astronomy Labs will be conducted on level 2. Research experience laboratories will operate both at University and at the Synchrotron, these will also require work outside of the normal laboratory timetable to accommodate available beamtime. A book of around 70 pages should suffice for any given experiment, but most experiments will not require this much space. Depending on your lab allocation, you may or may not receive your books back in time to write the next lab up in them, so it is wise to assume that a new book will be required for each experiment. It is intended that a final version of the laboratory session allocations will be posted on the part III webpage (www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~part3) by Wednesday Wednesday 11th March. Intermediate versions will be posted as soon as preferences are received. GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS Part 3 Office The Part 3 (3rd year) Laboratory Office is located in Room N210 in the Nuclear Physics Building, where you will find the Part 3 laboratory coordinator, Stephen Marshall. However, I am not always in my office! The best and preferred way to contact me is by email. All announcements and general communications relating to laboratory work will be made via email to the student lists, the part 3 website, and the LMS. Notices may also appear on the notice boards in the corridor outside the John Rouse Reading Room and in the relevant laboratories. The coordinator's office hours will appear on the office door during semester, but you can make an appointment to see me at any time (contact details below). Part 3 Lab website All the relevant information that you need will be posted on the part III website: http://www.ph.unimelb.edu.au/~part3/ , which is being migrated to http://thirdyearlabs.ph.unimelb.edu.au as soon as possible (a quick link will take you to the correct one). Here you will find this mailout, timetables, and copies of the lab notes. It is a really good idea to print out copies of the notes before you enter the lab. Note that the compilation date appears on the front- be careful to use the most recent version of the notes. Copies of all this information will be moved to the LMS, however the website will always be more up to date. Laboratory Session Times Laboratory work is done in the mornings from Tuesday to Thursday. The laboratory hours are from 9.00 am to 1.00 pm, and you are expected to be in attendance for the full 4 hours. Your timetable may list Tuesday’s session as running from 8-12, this is due to a timetabling issue, Laboratories will still run from 9-1, however the last hour of Tuesdays session may be used to attend physics colloquia (rather than being in attendance at the labs). Students will work in pairs (occasionally threes) over the course of 2 weeks to complete a single experiment, and will complete a total of three experiments over an 8 week laboratory timetable (with 2 weeks stand down). Students experiencing clashes between their lab work and lectures/tutorials for other subjects should contact the lab coordinator first, and then negotiate with demonstrators. Research Experience Laboratories will require work outside of these hours to accommodate availability at the synchrotron. The Reading Room The John Rouse Reading Room is open from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm Monday to Friday throughout the semesters, and is a dedicated space in which third year physics students can work during the day, whether related to laboratory work or other studies. However, laboratory related work has priority during lab times. Borrowing reference texts Most of the reference texts can be found in the Baillieu library, but there are some texts available for loan from the part 3 office, and reading room. It is worthwhile having a look at the references, especially if you feel that you don’t quite understand some aspect of the experiment. Laboratory Reports Experimental work and data are to be recorded in your laboratory notebook as your experiment proceeds, so there is no need to spend a great amount of time writing up. You should, however, allocate some time after each lab session to update your log. You are not expected to generate a lengthy report written after completion; a short conclusion is sufficient. We do expect a competently maintained, legible and concise experimental notebook reflecting the actual work done. You are strongly advised to consult your demonstrators at an early stage of each experiment for both advice and criticism on what is required for the report and other aspects of your work, for each different experiment. Handing in Laboratory Reports Laboratory notebooks are to be placed in the slots provided outside the corridor on Level 2 leading to the Part II Laboratory by 5 pm on the Friday of the final week of the experiment or laboratory unit. Note this allows one day after your laboratory unit is completed until the lab book is to be handed in. Penalties may be imposed on your laboratory mark for late books unless either a medical certificate is produced, or prior alternate arrangements have been made with the part 3 lab coordinator (Stephen). Medical certificates etc. should be handed in directly to the part 3 lab coordinator. Notebooks should never be handed directly to demonstrators – we need to keep proper records of their receipt, marks and return to student. Books will generally be marked and returned within 2 weeks, but for practical reasons, this may not always be possible. Assessment Your written log book is worth 2/3 of your mark for each experiment. The other 1/3 is based on your performance in the lab-teamwork, experimental skills, and attitude. If you are unsure what we are looking for, ask your demonstrators. They will be the ones assessing you. There is a marking scheme descriptor posted on the website which covers the approach demonstrators will take in assessing each component of your log book. The Journal report Each student will be expected to write up one of the experiments as a formal report, called the Journal report. It will be expected to be of a professional standard, both in presentation and content. It will be worth a set 15% of the final lab mark. Further details will be supplied at an introductory meeting around the middle of semester. SELECTION OF EXPERIMENTS Students intending to undertake Third Year Physics Laboratory will have enrolled in one or more of 640-393 or 640-394, though students choosing to major in physics and/or intending to apply for entry to the 4th year honours/masters program normally do a full 12 weeks (both units 393 and 394). Please read the following notes carefully and indicate (preferably by email) the experiments to which you would prefer to be allocated, for 640-393 or 640-394. You should not exceed 6 weeks in any given semester. You should indicate your first preferences (at least 6 weeks worth in total) and at least two second preferences. You should also nominate if you are interested in being part of the research experience program, which will be offered as a substitute for third experiment of high performing students. You will note that in Part III you typically spend quite long periods on individual experiments, and consequently will only be able to undertake a limited selection of the many experiments available. You should also note that while many of the Part III lecture courses cover material that is also covered in some of the experiments, no Part III lectures are prerequisites for or in any way coordinated with Part III laboratory work. You may choose some experiments to complement your course work and extend your breadth of experience, and others to go deeper into areas of particular interest to you. For these reasons you may wish to consult with Part III lecturers or the part 3 lab coordinator before making your preferences. All students must have their laboratory selections for semester I made before 10th March, 2008. Every effort will be made to accommodate them, however please note that preferences received after the due date may have selections further restricted due to timetable limitations. Stephen Marshall Part III Laboratory coordinator Roger Rassool Part III Academic coordinator Room N210 Nuclear Building, School of Physics University of Melbourne, Room 409 email: roger@physics.unimelb.edu.au Phone 03 8344 5100 email: part3@physics.unimelb.edu.au Phone 03 8344 5077 SCHOOL OF PHYSICS Part III Laboratories OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS NUCLEAR/PARTICLE PHYSICS The overall purpose of the laboratory is to acquaint students with the procedures of nuclear physics. These are now in widespread use in all branches of the physical sciences. In the laboratory students use radiation detectors to observe charged particles and gamma rays, and nuclear reactions are analysed. Mossbauer Effect (2 weeks) The Mossbauer Effect is the resonant absorption and emission of gamma rays by nuclei. The problem with such absorption/emission involves the recoil of the nucleus and, although the recoil energy is tiny, it is enough to prevent such absorption from taking place. By fixing the nucleus in position in a crystal allows that recoil to be absorbed by the crystal, allowing for incredibly accurate measurements of the gamma ray energies. This is the most accurate experiment in the Part III labs with measurements possible to 1 part in 109. Exploiting this effect then allows for very detailed elemental analysis in applied physics. The experiment involves setting up a Mossbauer system and using it to identify 57Fe, the nucleus for this case, in various molecules, and the physics thereof. KEK, Analysis of B Meson Decay (2 weeks) One of the fundamental questions in particle physics is why the universe is dominated by matter and not by anti-matter. CP (Charge-Parity) violation is one way of explaining this asymmetry. This phenomenon was first observed in the neutral Kaon (KL) system in 1964. The extent of the CP violation, however, was insufficient to explain the asymmetry. Thus the search continued. In this lab the students will be looking at data from the Belle experiment, which was designed to measure CP violation in the B meson system where the effect is expected to be larger. This data was part of the data set that was used to discover CP violation in B meson system by studying the decay times of the B0 and mesons. Utilising a 3-D event display to view and interpret both the Belle detector and the decay of the B meson, the students will be required to reconstruct the B meson decay chain contained in the data. Muon Detection and Lifetime Measurement (2 weeks) In this experiment a multi-layer system of absorber and scintillator panels is used to detect muons and measure their lifetime. A convenient source of muons is the decay of pions generated in the upper atmosphere by incident cosmic ray protons. Fast electronics and accurate timing is used to detect the passage of muons through horizontal scintillator panels connected by light guides to photomultiplier tubes. Some of these may stop in the apparatus, detected by their non-passage through lower scintillator detector panels and side veto panels. These decay via muons decaying to (electron + neutrino + antineutrino), with a lifetime of about 2 microseconds, whereupon the emitted electron may be detected. Students build up the detector system with appropriate timing and logic connecting the various individual detectors in a fashion similar to that of the vastly larger and more complicated detector systems used in modern high energy accelerators. SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS Scanning Probe Microscopy (2 weeks) The techniques used in Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) allow for the highest resolution 3D measurements of surface properties of materials to date. SPM incorporates Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), which is sensitive to inter-atomic Van der Waals forces as well as electromagnetic forces, and Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM), in which a tip is magnetized in order to render it sensitive to magnetic forces. In this experiment students will examine the surface topology and magnetic properties of a hard disk as well as other materials using both AFM and MFM modes of the SMEENA scanning probe microscope. Students will gain an understanding of the forces involved in AFM, an understanding of electron tunneling, and how SPM allows for the imaging of materials at high resolution in atmosphere and at room temperature. Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (2 weeks) Analysing semiconductors (e.g. Silicon wafers) using Deep Level Transient Spectroscopy (DLTS) reveals vital information about the nature and effect of defects present in the semiconductor. DLTS is one of the few techniques that probes the traps in the band-gap introduced by ion implantation of dopants. The experiment involves analyzing a Silicon wafer which has been implanted with light ions, and characterizing the defects arising from implantation. The sample is cooled with liquid nitrogen, a metal contact is deposited to form a Schottky diode, and the capacitance measured under a variety of voltage pulses and temperatures. Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (2 weeks) Using SQUIDs, as they are known, is one of the most sensitive ways of measuring a magnetic field currently available. For this reason, they are widely used in medical applications such as Magnetic Resonance Imaging. The heart of the SQUID is an interface of two superconductors called a Josephson junction, through which Cooper pairs of electrons tunnel according to quantum mechanics. This experiment will introduce the SQUID and explore its basic properties. ATOMIC-OPTICAL & MAGNETISM The experiments in the Atomic - Optical and Magnetism Laboratory centre about the study of electron energy levels in atoms and molecules. In the Atomic - Optical laboratory students observe the spectra arising from various transitions using precision optical systems and analyze their results by directly applying their knowledge of Quantum Mechanics. Zeeman Effect (2 weeks) The Zeeman Effect involves the splitting of electronic energy levels by the application of a magnetic field. A precision Fabry-Perot etalon is used to observe the low level spectral line splitting due to the Zeeman effect in mercury. The Fabry-Perot etalon is a sensitive instrument capable of precise measurements of visible light wavelengths (1 in 5 x 107 accuracy). Students apply the fundamental principles of quantised angular momenta in an attempt to develop an understanding of the observed phenomena. Hyperfine Structure (2 weeks) The Bohr model of atomic structure predicts, quite accurately, the electronic energy levels of Hydrogen atoms. Larger atoms with more electrons have more complex spectra, with energy levels dependent on electron-electron, spin-orbit and relativistic effects. These effects create the ‘fine structure’ of atomic spectra. Atomic energy levels may also be affected by extremely weak interactions between the orbiting electrons and the nuclear magnetic dipole, and electric quadrupole, moments. These effects produce extremely fine splitting of spectral lines. This hyperfine structure is observed and measured by students using a Czerny-Turner spectrometer. Students perform an extensive quantum mechanical analysis of their data based on a model of the interactions involved. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (2 weeks) Nuclei placed in an external magnetic field will have their atomic energy levels split into 2s+1 sub-levels (where s is the nuclear spin). Resonant absorption and emission of radio-frequency photons will induce transitions between the sub-levels. The phenomenon of NMR is studied and observed in a variety of materials, using a RF generator and detector interfaced with a fast Digital Storage Oscilloscope. The form of signal detected is affected by a number of secondary effects, including spin-lattice interactions, spin-spin interactions, thermal effects, and chemical effects. These effects are observed and explained by the students. Students develop skills in the use of a modern fast Digital Storage Oscilloscope interfaced with a laboratory computer. Optical Pumping (2 weeks) Optical pumping involves shining light at a collection of atoms in order to raise some of their electrons from the ground state into an excited state. Such a process is at the heart of lasers and slow atom optics. In this case, you will be exciting gaseous Rubidium using a discharge lamp pulsing at radio frequency. By using a magnetic field and a polariser, you will be 'pumping' the electrons from the ground state into a particular excited sublevel, and comparing the absorption characteristics of the gas with those predicted by quantum mechanics. ASTROPHYSICS Observational Astronomy (2 weeks) This includes a set of four exercises and short projects aimed at familiarizing students with some of the techniques of practical astronomy. It does not assume any previous background in astronomy. The topics covered will include: (i) Charge Coupled Device (CCD) analysis of a galactic star cluster. This will enable a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram to be established yielding information on stellar temperatures, luminosities and masses. (ii) Measurement of the Milky Way rotation curve. Using a small radio telescope to observe the velocity of neutral hydrogen in the Milky Way, a picture of how our galaxy rotates can be obtained. (iii) Clusters of Galaxies photographed with the 48’’ Schmidt telescope are examined to estimate the value of the Hubble constant and thus the age of the Universe. (iv) Uncatalogued Asteroids captured on high quality photographic plates are analysed to determine the location and thickness of the asteroid belt as well as an estimate of the total number of asteroids present in the belt. Computational Astrophysics (2 weeks) This experiment involves astrophysical simulation exercises based on a laboratory computer. Students use Fortran or C to write computer programs to perform numerical simulations of processes of astrophysical interest. Students can develop algorithms for the simulation of binary stars, atmospheric braking for spacecraft, and the passage of a black hole through our solar system. RESEARCH EXPERIENCE Please note that if you choose any of these labs, it may possibly involve work outside of normal lab hours. You will be provided with plenty of notice so that you can make appropriate arrangements. Before undertaking any of the field work, you will have to undertake and complete the necessary OH&S Safety training. RE-1 Linear Accelerator, Booster and Storage Ring: The linear accelerator (or linac) uses a series of RF cavities, operating at a frequency of 3 GHz, to accelerate the electron beam to an energy of 100 MeV, over a distance of around 15 metres. Due to the nature of this acceleration, the beam must be separated into discrete packets, or 'bunches'. These bunches are then directed into the booster where further acceleration of the beam to 3GeV is achieved by a simultaneous ramping up of the magnet strength and cavity fields. Finally, the electrons are extracted from the booster and delivered to the storage ring, 216 metres in circumference and comprised of 14 nearly identical sectors. Each sector consists of a straight section and an arc, with the arcs containing 2 dipole 'bending' magnets each. Each dipole magnet is a potential source of synchrotron light and most straight sections can also host an insertion device. A range of research experience based experiments will be offered in collaboration with the Aust. Synchrotron Accelerator Physics Group . These will typically consist of spending the first week at university attending mini seminars with accelerator physicists from the synchrotron. In the second week of the laboratory, you will have an opportunity to be based at the synchrotron. RE-2 Advanced X-ray Diffraction (2 weeks) The scattering of x-rays is a powerful method of determining the arrangement of atoms within a crystal. Interpretation of the angles and intensities of these scattered beams can lead to the production of a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their disorder and various other information. Since very many materials can form crystals — such as salts, metals, minerals, semiconductors, as well as various inorganic, organic and biological molecules — X-ray crystallography has been fundamental in the development of many scientific fields. A range of research experience based experiments will be offered in collaboration with the beam line scientists at the Australian Synchrotron. In the second week of the laboratory, you will have an opportunity to be based at the synchrotron. RE-3 Radio Telescope (2 weeks) The radio telescope on top of the Redmond Barry Building will be used by students to measure Doppler shift in various stellar objects. Radio spectra have some distinct advantages over optical spectra in determining redshift. Firstly visible light is far more prone to dust extinction than radio signals, and due to the amount of dust within our galaxy, this can pose problems for optical measurements. Data from the telescope will be collected remotely, and students will gain experience programming the telescope to run unattended. Other observations may be undertaken, and a determination of the speed of galactic rotation, as a function of distance from the galactic center can be made. Please note that safety regulations are to be observed in the laboratories at all times. SCHOOL OF PHYSICS Part III Laboratories REQUEST FOR LABORATORY ALLOCATION, 2008 Please email your preferences to part3@physics.unimelb.edu.au before Tuesday 10th March, 2009. If you don’t have email access, you can complete this form in hardcopy and snailmail it to Stephen Marshall, School of Physics. University of Melbourne, or hand it in to my office, level 2 Nuclear Building. Students must complete 6 weeks worth of laboratory work (usually 3 experiments) in any given semester. Students may not undertake more than 6 weeks of experiments in any single semester. Please indicate the experiments you prefer to be enrolled in by placing a number 1 next to them. Also, place a number 2 next to at least two additional experiments which will be used if any of your first choices are unavailable. Also indicate if you are interested in being selected for the research experience based laboratories. SURNAME: OTHER NAMES: STUDENT NUMBER: CONTACT TELEPHONE: Email address: I am providing my preferences for 640-393 only 640-394 only Both 640-393 and 640-394 LABORATORY PREFs EXPERIMENTS Nuclear and Particle Physics Mossbauer Effect Computer analysis of KEK data Muon detection and lifetime measurement Semiconductor Physics Scanning Probe Microscopy DLTS SQUIDs Atomic-Optical and Magnetism The Zeeman Effect Hyperfine spectra in Hg Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Optical Pumping Astrophysics Observational Astronomy Computational Astrophysics Research Experience (tick one or all you would be interested in) RE-1 Accelerator Physics RE-2 Advanced XRD RE-3 Radio Telescope You may note any special requests, e.g., exceptionally loaded parts of semesters which you would like kept free of prac. Stephen Marshall Part III Laboratory coordinator Room N210, School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052. email part3@physics.unimelb.edu.au Phone 03 8344 5077 THIRD YEAR LOG-STYLE REPORTS AND HOW TO WRITE THEM In third year we ask you to provide a log-style report at the end of the fortnight. This is a hybrid term, implying an approach which is both chronological and rigorous with respect to the physics (careful analysis including errors, clear explanations of motivations and understandings). Those of you who have done the second year physics laboratory subject should already be familiar with the basic requirements – in third year we expect to see “the same, but more”. It might be useful for you to think a little about the way our expectations of you have changed since you started doing physics in first year. Demonstrators in first year, though they are trying to teach you some physics, are also trying to make sure that you understand the very basics of report writing – what an aim should be like, the fact that your method should be what you do as you do it, the importance of labeling axes on graphs… In second year we assume that you know these sorts of things, and concentrate on emphasizing the importance of rigour in scientific method – typically this comes through as an obsession with error analysis and method, with “doing it properly”. By the time you reach third year, demonstrators expect that you have already had two years of training in the basic requirements of a scientific report (structure, rigour), and feel free to concentrate on different things – specifically your understanding of the (often quite high level) physics you’re doing! Having said that, your demonstrators realize that third year marks can be important, and that students are keen to gain a good understanding of each subject’s requirements. It’s very important that you understand the criteria on which you will be assessed. It’s also important that you know why your assessment takes the form it does. This handout attempts to explain some of these matters. You should feel free to consult your demonstrators and the laboratory coordinator about them at any time. Log Books and Reports A log is a detailed and honest account of what you do as you do it. It involves taking note of instrument settings, file names, sources of uncertainty, problems with the equipment (and how these were solved or why they weren’t), descriptions of both things you did wrong and things you did right. This is the way you show us that you are applying the scientific method to the problem you are investigating. A report is more like a story – the story of how your understanding has grown. It’s full of sentences (or dot points!) explaining what’s going on, why you’re doing things, how your results connect up with the theoretical understanding you have. This is the part that teaches your reader all about the experiment. It also explains the significance of your results, and their limitations. One of the reasons we ask you for this hybrid-style report is because your lab report has to fulfill two aims. One is to act as a true scientific log. Anyone should be able to take your log book into the lab and replicate your experiment exactly without needing to refer to other materials. You should be able to take your log book back into the lab 3 years later and repeat the experiment, find your old results (i.e. have a record of your file names and what each file was) and check that the new results and the old ones are the same (to within error!). The second aim is pedagogical – we need to find out how much you understand. For this reason, and because being able to convey results clearly is an important skill in science, your report needs to have some basic structure to it: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) There has to be some background theory – we need to know you understand the context within which the experiment is being carried out, and what makes it interesting or significant. (Why do I care about finding this number?) There has to be an aim – we need to know that you understand what you’re trying to achieve. There has to be a thorough method (i.e. show us you knew what you were doing and why at each step). Since this is a log-style report, we actually expect to see one large Method/Results/Analysis section. Often you will start with some simple measurement, do some basic analysis, and then go back and take more (or different) measurements. The latter measurements will only be possible because of the extended understanding the first measurements/analysis provided. You need to show us that you understand both the significance of the first measurements and the motivation for taking the new ones. There has to be some theory in the body of the report. Normally the background theory you provided at the start will only be an overview, which you will need to extend as you proceed. Extensions to the theory (derivations etc) should be integrated into your Results/Analysis. They will be part of your explanation of your experimental results. There has to be a conclusion. This should summarise your results (with uncertainties, and comparisons to expected values if necessary), answer the aim, and perhaps include a brief statement of the limitations of your results. We have to know you understand what you found out. What is not required is an extended discussion – that should all be part of your analysis. You conclusion, like your aim, should be concise. A good way to make sure that your report stays clear and thorough is to keep a very specific reader in mind – someone stupid, lazy and mean. If you can get someone like that to understand what you’re doing and believe that you did it in a scientific way, you’re bound to get a good mark! Some tactics for achieving both of these aims: a) Firstly, it’s a good idea to start with the background theory, even before the aim. That way you can define the important terms, give an overview of what’s being investigated, and then make your statement of the aim of the prac very concise and specific. b) An excellent tactic is to write only on the facing page of the book – this gives you the left hand side of the book to use for rough notes and sketches, or “back of the envelope” calculations. c) Don’t be afraid of spending time writing in class – you will only find out if you really understand the experiment when you try to write it down, and it’s much better to do that while your demonstrators are there to help out when you get stuck. d) You will probably need to spend half an hour or so after each prac session updating your log book. This is common practice in any research lab, and is one of the skills you need to develop. e) Keep things neat on the way through – i.e. put results straight into tables rather than keeping scraps of paper with wandering columns and random numbers written on them. That way if you run out of time at least your results are clear, and you have something to refer to. It also makes keeping track of your uncertainties – either as a single figure at the top of the column, or as an extra column – easy. f) It’s a good idea to number the pages of your log as you go. That way if you answer a question on the second day, do some more work and then realize your answer wasn’t quite right it’s very easy to go back, cross it out, and refer your reader forward to another page. g) Lots of students like to get their calculations “right” before they commit them to “proper paper” – this is a waste of time for two reasons. One is that whatever happens you’re going to have to include a sample calculation in your report, so if your “practice” calculation is correct you’ll just have to transcribe it. The other is that if you spend all day struggling with a calculation but then just present a single clean number in the report, your reader will have no understanding of why you (for example) didn’t get all of the analysis finished. The phrase “this is wrong because” is just as important as “this is because” – in some ways it’s more important, because it shows us how you coped with problems, whether you were critically evaluating your results on the way through etc. Even an admission like “Apparently I can’t use a calculator – comparison with my partner showed a discrepancy between our results. I’ve done these calculations again on the next page…” is evidence of the fact that you’re checking that your results can be replicated. h) Make your diagrams nice and big – at least a third of a page. That makes them easier for you to draw and easier for your reader to understand. i) Take the extra time in Excel to add proper titles to your graphs, axes etc when you first create them. You will typically be producing multiple graphs, and it’s very, very easy to forget which is which. These are by no means the only tactics you can employ, and you will no doubt develop your own way of working over the course of your weeks in the lab. The best way to avoid having to be up all night the night before you hand your reports in, though, is simply to do things properly while you’re in the lab. Although it’s important to be able to get a rough idea of how things work, the real key to good science is pedantry – doing things carefully in the first place, and then double-checking afterwards. There are quick and dirty ways of doing things, (and if you’re running low on time you may find that your demonstrators tell you about them so that you can get some sort of a result before the end of the prac,) but in general you are in the third year labs to show us that you can do science. This means that the answer to the question “do I have to (repeat these measurements, do errors for this…)?” is almost always “yes”. A Note On Lab Performance You receive a mark out of 10 for your performance in the lab. This makes up one third (1/3) of the mark you receive for each experiment. It is often the result of discussion between your demonstrators, so that one bad day doesn’t affect your mark too much in a two week lab. It involves an assessment of how you perform while actually in the laboratory, and includes things like: a) b) c) d) were you in regular attendance? did you work safely? did you approach the experiment methodically, and with attention to detail? did you work effectively with your partner? (Did you sit back and let them do the work? Did you ignore them or monopolise the equipment so that they were unable to work?) e) did you show an understanding of experimental technique? f) were you able to identify problems as they arose, and perhaps suggest solutions? g) were you able to work independently, attempting the solution to problems before coming to your demonstrator? (NB this does NOT mean you should avoid asking questions! It means that your demonstrators are not there to do the prac for you – they will point you in the right direction, then expect you to make an attempt yourself.) A Final Note The catchword of the third year labs is independence. In these labs you will have the time to really explore some serious physics, and though your demonstrators will be there to act as guides, they will expect you to be working independently of them most of the time. They will show you how things work, point out the danger areas, and refer to you to books where you can find out the details, but they won’t be standing behind you, watching over your shoulder. They expect you to be mature enough experimentalists to be able to cope with some of the problems you encounter on your own. They also expect you to be mature enough to come and ask them for help when you’re stuck – if you tell them you’re OK (even though you’re struggling) they’re quite likely to take you at your word. Having said that, they are all there because they love physics and enjoy working with you – they are one of the best resources available to you, so make use of them and enjoy the labs as much as you can!