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WHY IS THIS HAPPENING?
A CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION APPROACH TO
WORK EXHAUSTION CONSEQUENCES
JO ELLEN MOORE
Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville
Department of Computer Management and Information Systems
Campus Box 1106
Edwardsville, IL 62026-1106
Phone: (618) 650-5816
Fax: (618) 650-3979
Email: joemoor@siue.edu
Acknowledgment:
I thank Dennis W. Organ for his encouragement in this project and
Consulting Editor Blake Ashforth for his assistance in guiding the
manuscript toward publication.
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WHY IS THIS HAPPENING?
A CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION APPROACH TO
WORK EXHAUSTION CONSEQUENCES
ABSTRACT
In an effort to clarify the literature on work exhaustion (or job burnout), the present article
integrates causal attribution research and the burnout and exhaustion literature to develop an
attributional model of work exhaustion consequences. The proposed attributional model
suggests that an individual experiencing work exhaustion will not exhibit all of the job attitudes
and behaviors found to correlate with exhaustion. Rather, the individual is likely to experience a
subset of these, depending on the individual's perceptions regarding the cause of exhaustion.
Implications and directions for future research are discussed.
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The effective implementation of individual, managerial, and organizational practices to
deal with work exhaustion depends on a clear and accurate understanding of the concept (Cordes
& Dougherty, 1993). The existing literature, heavily based on correlational studies with few
attempts to provide theoretical frameworks for relationships (Kilpatrick, 1989), implies that an
individual experiencing work exhaustion exhibits a slew of reactions including reduced
organizational commitment, diminished self-esteem, and turnover.
In an effort to clarify and refine the research on work exhaustion, causal attribution theory
is applied to develop a model of consequences for the employee experiencing exhaustion. The
present article begins by providing a review of the work exhaustion construct that elucidates a
potential problem in its conceptualization. The proposed route to improving our
conceptualization of the construct involves the incorporation of causal attribution theory.
Accordingly, prior research in work exhaustion and causal attribution is integrated to develop an
attributional model of work exhaustion consequences and associated propositions. Implications
and directions for future research are then discussed.
WORK EXHAUSTION IN THE RESEARCH LITERATURE
The phenomenon of work exhaustion is addressed in the literature through research in the
areas of tedium and job burnout. "Tedium" is defined as a state of physical, emotional, and
mental exhaustion caused by long-term involvement in demanding situations (Pines, Aronson, &
Kafry, 1981). Researchers suggest that tedium results from having too many negative and too
few positive features in one's environment -- that is, too many pressures, conflicts, and demands
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combined with too few rewards, acknowledgments, and successes (Kanner, Kafry, & Pines,
1978). "Job burnout" focuses on the emotional exhaustion dimension of tedium and is defined as
a response to the chronic emotional strain of dealing extensively with other people (Maslach,
1982).
The measure of exhaustion most widely used is based on the three-component model of
job burnout developed by Maslach and Jackson (1981, 1986). They define job burnout as a
psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization (a negative, callous, or
excessively detached response to other people who are usually the recipients of one's service or
care), and diminished personal accomplishment (a decline in one's feelings of competence and
successful achievement) that can occur among individuals who work in human service. Their
measure consists of three subscales, one for each of the three components of burnout. The
Maslach and Jackson operationalization is a generally accepted and psychometrically sound
method for assessing job burnout in human service professions (Cordes & Dougherty, 1993).
With the exception of Pines et al. (1981) who used a tedium measurement scale, nearly
all work exhaustion research has utilized the Maslach and Jackson conceptualization and, in
effect, has focused on emotional exhaustion in human services work. A revised
conceptualization of job burnout, not restricted to the emotional dimension of exhaustion and
designed to apply to a wide range of occupations, was recently developed by Schaufeli, Leiter,
and Kalimo (1995). The newer conceptualization and measure facilitate the examination of
general exhaustion in corporate environments, a much-needed area of research as noted by
Cordes and Dougherty (1993). Like the Maslach and Jackson model, the Schaufeli et al.
conceptualization consists of three components: exhaustion, cynicism, and decreased
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professional self-efficacy. Exhaustion is defined as the depletion of mental resources, cynicism
is defined as a mental distancing from one's work, and professional self-efficacy is defined as
perceived effectiveness and accomplishment at work.
In summary, the concept of work exhaustion is clearly at the core of all three
conceptualizations (the tedium construct and both job burnout conceptualizations). Schaufeli,
Enzmann, and Girault (1993) note that tedium, as defined by Pines and her colleagues, is
essentially describing a state of exhaustion. Similarly, many researchers contend that emotional
exhaustion is the core component in the Maslach and Jackson conceptualization of job burnout
(e.g., Cordes, Dougherty, & Blum, 1997; Gaines & Jermier, 1983; Koeske & Koeske, 1989;
Maslach, 1982; Shirom, 1989). Finally, in the more recent conceptualization of general burnout,
Schaufeli et al. (1995) clearly explicate exhaustion as one of the three components.
The domain of work exhaustion in the present effort encompasses emotional exhaustion
(the focus of Maslach and Jackson and a dimension of the tedium construct) and mental
exhaustion (also a dimension of the tedium construct and the focus of Schaufeli et al.). The
physical dimension of the Pines et al. tedium construct, however, is not included because
physical exhaustion is likely to have a different set of causes and consequences and may be
experienced quite differently than emotional and mental exhaustion. Finally, work exhaustion in
the present effort is not confined to being caused by dealing extensively with other people, as the
Maslach and Jackson construct has been. To summarize, the work exhaustion construct in the
present effort is defined as the depletion of emotional and mental energy needed to meet job
demands.
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Isolating the Work Exhaustion Construct
Although work exhaustion is clearly at the core of the conceptualizations identified in the
research literature, prior conceptualizations have tended to confound work exhaustion with the
occurrence of other job attitudes and behaviors. In a review of research on job burnout, Shirom
(1989) argued that depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishment confounded
Maslach and Jackson's construct of burnout by including coping behaviors and consequences.
Specifically, Shirom classified depersonalization as one method of coping with emotional
exhaustion and referred to a diminished sense of personal accomplishment as a potential
consequence of burnout. Indeed, Maslach herself originally described depersonalization as a
response to emotional exhaustion and referred to diminished personal accomplishment as a result
of continued depersonalization (Maslach, 1982).
Empirical support for the isolation of the exhaustion construct is found in the work of
Leiter (1989; 1991a,b; Leiter & Durup, 1996) and Koeske and Koeske (1989). The studies by
Leiter and his colleague provide empirical evidence to support a process model of job burnout,
which views depersonalization as a response to emotional exhaustion. Similarly, an effort by
Koeske and Koeske to examine the construct validity of Maslach and Jackson's three-component
conceptualization of burnout led them to conclude that depersonalization and diminished
personal accomplishment are consequences that may result from emotional exhaustion.
The phase model of burnout developed by Golembiewski and his colleagues (see, for
example, Golembiewski, 1996; Golembiewski, Boudreau, Munzenrider, & Luo, 1996) provides
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further support for isolating the exhaustion construct. Inherent in the phase model is the
assumption that an individual experiencing burnout does not necessarily experience high levels
of depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishment. That is, an individual can exhibit
a high level of emotional exhaustion, yet low levels of depersonalization and/or diminished
personal accomplishment.
A basic premise of the present article is that an individual experiencing work exhaustion
may or may not adopt the associated job attitudes and behaviors included in the three-component
conceptualizations. Rather, the attitudes and behaviors included in the Maslach and Jackson
(1981) and Schaufeli et al. (1995) models -- depersonalization, diminished personal
accomplishment, cynicism, and decreased professional self-efficacy -- are possible consequences
of work exhaustion. As such, they would be conceptually separated from the exhaustion
construct and would join the list of other variables identified by researchers as potential
consequences of exhaustion (e.g., reduced job satisfaction, higher turnover).
By allowing the three-component models of burnout to guide our research, we may be
inadvertently restricting our attention to exhausted workers who exhibit the associated reactions
(e.g., depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishment) and failing to recognize the
experiences of workers who react differently to exhaustion. It is imperative, therefore, to isolate
the work exhaustion construct to fully understand its effects.
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Antecedents and Consequences
Because the model to be proposed is based on empirical results of studies investigating all
three exhaustion concepts (tedium, emotional exhaustion, and Schaufeli et al.'s exhaustion), an
overview of antecedents and consequences that have emerged from those streams of research is
provided in this section. Empirical studies have consistently identified the following antecedents
to emotional exhaustion and tedium: role conflict and role ambiguity (e.g., Burke & Greenglass,
1995; Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986; Lee & Ashforth, 1993a; Pines et al., 1981); role
overload (e.g., Cordes, Dougherty, & Blum, 1997; Jackson et al., 1986; Leiter, 1991b; Pines et
al., 1981); interpersonal conflict (e.g., Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Pines et al., 1981); lack of
autonomy (e.g., Jackson et al., 1986; Pines et al., 1981); and lack of rewards (e.g., Jackson et al.,
1986; Pines et al., 1981). Preliminary data also provide support for the relationship of exhaustion
as measured by Schaufeli et al. to work overload and role conflict (Leiter & Schaufeli, 1996;
Schaufeli et al., 1995).
Consequences of emotional exhaustion receiving consistent empirical support include:
reduced job satisfaction (e.g., Burke & Greenglass, 1989, 1995; Maslach & Jackson, 1984a;
Wolpin, Burke, & Greenglass, 1991); reduced self-esteem (e.g., Golembiewski & Kim, 1989;
McCranie & Brandsma, 1988; Rosse, Boss, Johnson, & Crown, 1991); reduced organizational
commitment (e.g., Jackson, Turner, & Brief, 1987; Leiter, 1991a; Leiter, Clark, & Durup, 1994;
Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Thomas & Williams, 1995), and higher turnover and turnover intention
(e.g., Firth & Britton, 1989; Jackson et al., 1986; Jackson et al., 1987; Lee & Ashforth, 1993a;
Maslach & Jackson, 1984a,b; Thomas & Williams, 1995). Significant correlations have also
been found between tedium and the consequences of reduced job satisfaction and increased
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turnover and turnover intention (Pines et al., 1981). Furthermore, preliminary data provide
support for the relationship of exhaustion as measured by Schaufeli et al. (1995) to higher
turnover intention (Leiter & Robichaud, 1995). In addition to the evidence provided by
individual studies, a recent meta-analysis of correlates to the emotional exhaustion dimension of
job burnout provides strong support for the antecedents of role conflict, work overload, and lack
of autonomy and the consequences of increased turnover intention and reduced organizational
commitment (Lee & Ashforth, 1996).
Studies examining the influence of person factors (or individual differences) on the
occurrence of exhaustion have generally not produced conclusive evidence of significant effects.
It should be noted, however, that a significant inverse correlation between age and emotional
exhaustion has been reported in controlled studies (e.g., Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982; Maslach &
Jackson, 1984b). In general, the research community appears to have reached agreement that
individual difference variables have little direct effect and certainly do not act alone in the
occurrence of work exhaustion; rather, job factors appear to be the key predictors (Maslach &
Schaufeli, 1993). This view is shared by Cherniss (1993) who noted that most of the research to
date tends to suggest that adverse organizational conditions are more significant in the etiology of
job burnout than are personality factors. Further, Hallsten (1993) asserts that without
organizational problems, burnout is unlikely to occur for professionals. In other words, work
exhaustion tends to result from what the organizational behavior literature refers to as a "strong
situation" -- i.e., a situation in which environmental factors tend to overpower individual
differences (or person factors).
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Nonetheless, Cordes and Dougherty (1993) note that the moderating effects of
individual difference variables have generally not been studied, or results were not significant
and thus not reported. They encourage further research to investigate potential interaction effects
of person and situational factors on the occurrence of work exhaustion.
REVIEW OF PERTINENT ATTRIBUTION LITERATURE
The present effort posits that an exhausted individual is likely to exhibit a particular
subset of the consequences previously identified in the literature. The explanatory variable -- the
variable that will predict which of the consequences the exhausted individual will experience -- is
proposed to be the individual's causal attribution for the exhaustion. Early on, Maslach (1982, p.
14) noted the importance of cause in the exhaustion experience: "If the . . . causes are not
recognized or appreciated, we can be sure that attempted solutions for burnout will be misguided
or incomplete." Moreover, Pines and Aronson (1988) contend that how individuals perceive the
cause of their exhaustion and attribute the blame has enormous consequences for action.
The attributional literature provides support for this view, as Kelley (1973) insists that an
individual's attribution for the cause of an effect forms the basis for decisions about how to act in
order to bring about the continuance or discontinuance of that effect. Exhaustion is a negative
experience for the individual (Maslach, 1982) and, as such, the individual will desire to bring
about a discontinuance of work exhaustion. Hence, attribution theory provides an appropriate
basis for modeling reactions to exhaustion, and a brief review of relevant attribution literature
follows.
Heider (1944, 1958) is generally considered the "father of attributional social
psychology." A major contribution of Heider was the crucial distinction between personal and
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situational causes. Weiner (1985, 1986) extended Heider's single internal-external dimension
of causal attribution to include the dimensions of stability and controllability. In doing so,
Weiner provided a framework that permitted a more detailed differentiation among causal
attributions. For example, internal attributions perceived to be controllable can be distinguished
from internal attributions deemed not controllable.
Specifically, Weiner (1985) defined three dimensions of the causal attribution: causal
locus (whether the cause is internal to the person or external), stability (whether the cause is
constant or variable over time), and controllability (whether the cause is under volitional control
or not). More recently, McAuley, Duncan, and Russell (1992) identified two dimensions of
controllability: whether the cause is controllable by oneself, and whether the cause is
controllable by others.
Weiner (1985) also developed an attributional theory of motivation and emotion that
proposed laws linking attributional thinking and specific feelings. The theory posits that some
emotions result directly from the situation or outcome, while the occurrence of other emotions
depends on the causal attribution for the situation. Weiner refers to the reactions that are
independent of the causal attribution as general emotions and refers to the attribution-dependent
reactions as distinct emotions.
Numerous empirical studies have provided support for Weiner's theory of motivation and
emotion. For example, Weiner and his colleagues (Weiner, 1985; Weiner, Russell, & Lerman,
1979) found evidence that an individual experiencing a negative event feels sad and frustrated
regardless of the causal attribution. Additional research identified guilt and shame as distinct
emotions felt by an individual attributing an internal cause for a negative event (Brown &
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Weiner, 1984; Covington & Omelich, 1984; Weiner et al., 1979; Wicker, Payne, & Morgan,
1983). Similarly, anger has been identified as a distinct emotion felt when the cause of the
negative event is perceived to be external and controllable by others (Weiner, 1985; Averill,
1983), and hopelessness has been identified as a distinct emotion felt when the cause is perceived
to be stable (Weiner, 1985; Weiner et al., 1979).
ATTRIBUTIONAL MODEL OF
WORK EXHAUSTION CONSEQUENCES
The proposed attributional model of work exhaustion consequences is presented in Figure
1 and builds upon work begun by Moore (1998). The boxes in the figure identify the general
elements; specific constructs are listed below the boxes. This model expands the existing
framework (antecedents  work exhaustion  consequences) by incorporating the role of the
individual's attribution of the cause of work exhaustion. Relationships among the elements in the
model are drawn from the work of Weiner and his colleagues (Weiner, 1985; Weiner, 1986;
Weiner et al., 1979). As Weiner's theory sought to present an attributional view of emotional
reactions to success or failure, the proposed model seeks to provide an attributional view of
attitudinal and behavioral reactions to work exhaustion. Weiner's theory of motivation and
emotion is considered to be the most fully developed theory we have regarding consequences of
causal attributions (Harvey, Ickes, & Kidd, 1978) and, therefore, was closely followed in the
development of the proposed model.
------------------------------------------------------Insert Figure 1 about here
-------------------------------------------------------
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Whereas Moore (1998) provided an exploratory investigation into possible
relationships between causal attribution for exhaustion and some job attitudes, the proposed
model more fully explicates the role causal attribution is expected to play in the occurrence of job
attitudes and behaviors of the exhausted employee. The attitudinal and behavioral consequences
reflected in the present model include those identified in the existing literature, as well as the
ancillary components of the Maslach and Jackson (1981) and Schaufeli et al. (1995)
conceptualizations (depersonalization, diminished personal accomplishment, cynicism, and
decreased professional self-efficacy). The general elements of the model are discussed in turn
and lead to the development of research propositions regarding attitudinal and behavioral
reactions to work exhaustion.
As previously discussed, research has shown that antecedents to work exhaustion tend to
be situational factors rather than individual difference factors (Maslach & Schaufeli, 1993).
Specifically, empirical research has consistently identified role overload, role conflict and
ambiguity, interpersonal conflict, lack of autonomy, and lack of rewards as primary antecedents
to work exhaustion.
Causal search refers to the process of determining why the event or outcome has
occurred. Thus, causal search in this model represents the process by which the individual
attributes the cause of his or her work exhaustion. Researchers generally agree that exhaustion is
a gradual process. For example, Pines and her colleagues (1981) describe exhaustion (tedium) as
a situation in which the negatives come to significantly outweigh the positives in the work life of
the individual. Similarly, Maslach and Leiter (1997) describe burnout as a process during which
energy turns to exhaustion, work involvement turns to cynicism, and efficacy declines. As a
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gradual eroding process, there is typically no on-off switch in the exhaustion experience
(Cordes et al., 1997), no specific event that will always trigger the causal search. Nonetheless,
characteristics of the exhaustion experience compel the individual to determine why the
exhaustion is occurring. The attribution literature indicates that a causal search tends to be
initiated when an individual is confronted by a situation that is unexpected, negative, or
important (Weiner, 1985). The experience of work exhaustion is likely to possess all three of
these properties and, hence, trigger a causal search.
The point at which an individual acknowledges his or her exhaustion may vary,
depending on individual differences and situational cues. For example, working tons of overtime
but still missing an important target date may act as a cue that directs an individual to
acknowledge exhaustion and search for the cause. Or, a spouse or close friend remarking on the
mood of the individual might provide such a cue. Regardless of specific situational cues, if the
downward spiral of exhaustion is not circumvented, the negative nature of exhaustion will
inevitably trigger the individual's search for the cause.
The outcome of the causal search is the causal attribution -- the individual's perception of
why work exhaustion has occurred. According to Weiner (1985) and McAuley et al. (1992), the
main properties of the causal attribution reached by the individual are causal locus, controllability
by others, controllability by self, and stability. The model proposes that characteristics of the
causal attribution will influence the individual's attitudinal and behavioral reactions to work
exhaustion.
The modeling of attribution-independent and attribution-dependent attitudinal reactions
is based on (and is analogous to) the general emotions and distinct emotions in Weiner's (1985)
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theory of motivation and emotion. Patterned after Weiner, the model in Figure 1 posits that
some attitudinal reactions (e.g., lower job satisfaction) result directly from the work exhaustion
experience, regardless of causal attribution; whereas, other attitudinal reactions (e.g., lower selfesteem at work) are proposed to be dependent on the individual's causal attribution for the work
exhaustion (e.g., whether the individual perceives the cause to be internal).
Finally, the model posits that the individual's behavior (specifically, behavior undertaken
to bring about a discontinuance of work exhaustion) is influenced by: attitudinal reactions that
are independent of causal attribution, characteristics of the causal attribution, and attitudinal
reactions that are related to the causal attribution. In addition, situational factors and individual
difference factors may influence the occurrence of a particular behavior.
Potential actions taken by a worker to alleviate exhaustion include depersonalization,
voluntary turnover, attempts to change the work situation, and attempts to change oneself.
Depersonalization has long been associated with the experience of exhaustion in the job burnout
literature. Shirom (1989) views depersonalization as a means of coping with exhaustion and, as
such, it is a potential behavior exhibited by exhausted workers. Hirschman (1970), in his treatise
on exit, voice, and loyalty, viewed exit (voluntary turnover) as an attempt to escape from an
objectionable state of affairs, and viewed voice as an attempt to change an objectionable state of
affairs. Hence, voice is one method by which a worker might attempt to change the work
situation. An exhausted employee may also attempt to change himself or herself to alleviate
work exhaustion. Such attempts would include the initiation of formal or informal training to
improve on weaknesses or deficiencies deemed responsible for the exhaustion.
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The model also reflects feedback loops whereupon successful actions undertaken to
alleviate exhaustion may reduce the antecedents, and unsuccessful actions may reactivate the
causal search. When actions fail to alleviate exhaustion (e.g., attempts to change the situation
fail, or exhaustion persists despite depersonalization), the individual may reassess perceptions of
the cause of exhaustion. This reassessment could lead to a change in attribution or could modify
the individual's perceptions regarding the cause (e.g., "the cause is more stable, unlikely to
change, than I realized", or "I don't have as much control over this as I thought"). The revised
perceptions regarding the cause of exhaustion would then influence attribution-dependent
attitudinal reactions (such as organizational commitment and cynicism) and the occurrence of
further actions to alleviate work exhaustion.
The attributional model of work exhaustion consequences provides the foundation for the
generation of research propositions. In the following sections, propositions are developed
regarding the influence of causal attribution on attitudinal and behavioral reactions to work
exhaustion. The attitudinal propositions are organized by attribution-independent and
attribution-dependent reactions and are followed by the behavioral propositions.
Propositions for Attribution-Independent Attitudinal Reactions
Existing research on work exhaustion provides support for reduced job satisfaction as an
attitudinal reaction to exhaustion (e.g., Wolpin et al., 1991). Conceptually, job satisfaction is a
general attitude toward one's work and, as such, its role may be viewed as analogous to the role
of a general emotion in Weiner's model. A regression analysis examining the influence of work
exhaustion and causal attribution on job satisfaction in a small sample of technology
professionals (Moore, 1998) provides preliminary support for the classification of job satisfaction
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as an attribution-independent consequence. Specifically, Moore found that degree of work
exhaustion explained 12% of the variance in job satisfaction, whereas the causal attribution
dimensions (causal locus, controllability by others, controllability by self, and stability) did not
enter the equation. Extended analysis of the data reported in Moore (1998) provides assurance
that the attributional dimensions did not significantly mediate the relationship between work
exhaustion and job satisfaction (Baron & Kenny, 1986)1.
Hence, the model posits that reduced job satisfaction will be associated with work
exhaustion regardless of the causal attribution reached by the individual. This leads to the
following proposition.
Proposition 1: Extent of work exhaustion is a significant predictor of (and is
negatively correlated with) job satisfaction, whereas perceptions regarding the
cause of exhaustion (causal locus, controllability by others, controllability by self,
and stability) are not significant predictors.
The domains of the personal accomplishment and professional self-efficacy constructs
from the exhaustion literature appear to overlap with each other and with the construct of selfesteem at work. To review, professional self-efficacy is defined as perceptions regarding one's
effectiveness and accomplishment at work (Schaufeli et al., 1995), and personal accomplishment
is defined as one's feelings of competence and successful achievement in one's work (Maslach &
Jackson, 1986). As such, two dimensions are represented in both constructs: (1) a dimension
1 Regression results from test for mediation: work exhaustion  controllability by others was significant at p < .05
and work exhaustion did not contribute significantly to the other attributional variables; work exhaustion  job
satisfaction was significant at p < .05; work exhaustion and the four attributional variables  job satisfaction was
not significant at p < .05 (and no beta coefficients were significant).
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2
dealing with one's own competence , and (2) a dimension dealing with one's accomplishment
and successful achievement. This is not unlike the distinction between expectancy and
instrumentality in expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964). Whereas perceived competence can be
viewed as analogous to expectancy (the effort-performance link), perceived accomplishment and
achievement would be similar to instrumentality (the performance-outcome link).
I argue that these two dimensions (perceived competence and perceived accomplishment
and achievement) represent distinct constructs and that exhausted individuals do not necessarily
experience both. In other words, perceptions of competence and perceptions of successful
accomplishment do not always occur in conjunction with one another. For example, an
exhausted employee who is frustrated about not being able to achieve set goals may or may not
also perceive a decline in his or her competence. Rather, a decline in perceptions of
accomplishment and successful achievement may be a common response for exhausted workers,
but a decline in perceptions of competence may be dependent on how the worker attributes the
cause of exhaustion.
Of the two dimensions identified, the first appears to overlap with the construct of selfesteem at work (defined as an individual's self-appraisal of competence and personal worth in the
immediate work setting) which is addressed in a later proposition. At this time, a proposition is
advanced for the second dimension: perceptions regarding one's accomplishment and successful
achievement at work.
2 Although the term “effectiveness” as used by Schaufeli et al. (1995) in their definition of professional self-efficacy
could be indicative of either competence or achievement, three of the six items in their operationalization of the full
construct reflect a competence component: In my opinion, I do a good job; I can effectively solve problems that arise
in my work; At my work, I feel confident that I am effective at getting things done.
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By definition, exhaustion results from long-term involvement in demanding situations
(e.g., Pines et al., 1981). Antecedents to work exhaustion, by their very nature, tend to interfere
with a worker's ability to meet job demands and are likely to generate frustration. The emotion
of frustration has been established both theoretically and empirically as a general (attributionindependent) reaction to a negative experience (Weiner, 1985; Weiner et al., 1979). Maslach and
Leiter (1997, p. 27) identify frustration as one of the "emotional hallmarks of burnout" and
contend that exhausted workers experience frustration because they are blocked from achieving
their goals. Accordingly, diminished perceptions regarding one's accomplishment and successful
achievement at work are proposed to be associated with work exhaustion regardless of the causal
attribution, and the following proposition is advanced.
Proposition 2: Extent of work exhaustion is a significant predictor of (and is
negatively correlated with) perceived accomplishment and achievement at work,
whereas perceptions regarding the cause of exhaustion (causal locus,
controllability by others, controllability by self, and stability) are not significant
predictors.
Propositions for Attribution-Dependent Attitudinal Reactions
Self-esteem at work refers to an individual's self-appraisal of competence and personal
worth in the immediate work setting (Rosse, Boss, Johnson, & Crown, 1991). A general
association between work exhaustion and reduced self-esteem is supported by the existing
literature (e.g., Golembiewski & Kim, 1989; Rosse et al., 1991). More specifically, the
reformulation of learned helplessness theory suggests that internal explanations for bad events
are associated with loss of self-esteem (Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1995). Empirical support
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is provided by Weiner (1985; Weiner et al., 1979) who found that reduced feelings of selfworth result from an internal attribution for a negative event. Accordingly, a worker who
attributes his or her exhaustion to a personal deficiency or weakness (e.g., "it's my fault -- I'm too
slow") is expected to experience diminished self-esteem at work, and the following proposition is
extended.
Proposition 3: The extent to which the cause of work exhaustion is perceived to
be internal is negatively associated with self-esteem at work.
A negative association between work exhaustion and organizational commitment is
evidenced in the existing literature (e.g., Leiter & Maslach, 1988). However, neither attribution
nor exhaustion research has addressed the potential relationship of an employee's causal
attribution for work exhaustion to his or her level of organizational commitment. Logically, one
would expect an exhausted worker who perceives the cause of exhaustion to be external and
controllable by others in the organization (e.g., caused by the failure of management to allocate
sufficient resources to meet demands) to be more likely to report reduced organizational
commitment. Specifically, the worker would be expected to experience a decline in affective
organizational commitment, i.e., a weakening of identification with and involvement in the
organization (Meyer & Allen, 1997). The exhausted employee may begin to question whether
personal values and goals are in line with the organization's and may feel less attachment to the
organization.
Maslach and Leiter (1997) provide an example of how an organization's cost-cutting
measures can be at odds with values such as quality of work and the welfare of staff members.
An exhausted retail salesperson described the following situation: "Customer service has been
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gradually deteriorating due to diminished staffing and increased busywork. Staff morale is
poor because changes are made with seemingly no thought to how they affect customer service.
The staff are providing fewer services even though they are working harder" (Maslach & Lieter,
1997, p. 57). This illustrates a situation in which an exhausted worker appears to perceive the
cause to be external and controllable by others in the organization (i.e., "due to diminished
staffing and increased busywork") and senses a disconnect between the goals and values of the
organization and personal goals and values. The following proposition reflects the expected
association between causal attribution for work exhaustion and affective organizational
commitment.
Proposition 4: The extent to which the cause of work exhaustion is perceived to
be external and controllable by others in the organization is negatively associated
with affective organizational commitment.
Dean, Brandes, and Dharwadkar (1998) conceptualize organizational cynicism as a
negative attitude toward one's employing organization, comprising three dimensions: a belief that
the organization lacks integrity, negative affect toward the organization, and tendencies to
disparaging and critical behaviors toward the organization. Organizational cynics believe
practices of their organization lack such principles as fairness, honesty, and sincerity.
In general, Weiner (1983) noted an association between the controllability dimension of
the causal attribution and sentiments toward (and evaluations of) others. More specifically, the
emotion of anger has been theoretically and empirically linked with external and controllable
causal attributions for a negative event (Averill, 1983; Weiner, 1985). That same emotion, anger,
is associated with cynicism (Dean et al., 1998). Hence, an exhausted worker who perceives the
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cause of exhaustion to be external and controllable by others in the organization (e.g., caused
by managerial decisions perceived to be lacking in fairness or integrity, such as the imposition of
unrealistic deadlines) is more likely to adopt a cynical attitude. Accordingly, the following
proposition is extended.
Proposition 5: The extent to which the cause of work exhaustion is perceived to
be external and controllable by others in the organization is positively associated
with organizational cynicism.
Propositions for Behavioral Reactions
Behavioral propositions focus on the prediction of actions undertaken to alleviate
exhaustion. The influence of the causal attribution dimensions is of particular interest in the
development of these propositions. Situational and individual factors related to a particular
behavior, while acknowledged in the model, are not incorporated in the propositions. Similarly,
attribution-independent and attribution-dependent job attitudes are expected to contribute to the
behavioral responses but are not included in the present propositions.
The extent to which the cause is perceived to be stable (or unchanging) is posited to
influence the occurrence of depersonalization behavior. Support is found in the work of Koeske
and Koeske (1989) who concluded that depersonalization is likely to result from persistent
exhaustion. In other words, an exhausted worker who sees no relief in sight is more likely to
engage in depersonalization. Hence, the following proposition is extended.
Proposition 6: The extent to which the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be
stable is positively associated with depersonalization behavior.
23
Similarly, the extent to which the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be stable is
proposed to influence the occurrence of voluntary turnover. The extent to which the cause is
perceived to be within one’s control is also expected to contribute. Hirschman (1970) in his
discussion of exit and voice noted that an employee’s decision to exit is often made in light of
prospects for the effective use of voice. Indeed, Withey and Cooper (1989) found that
dissatisfied employees who exited firms felt more pessimism about the prospects for change in
the work situation than those who enacted voice responses.
Whereas the work in exit and voice often implies an external cause for the negative work
situation, research also suggests that internal causes perceived as stable and uncontrollable may
contribute to turnover. Seligman and Schulman (1986) provide evidence that internal, stable, and
global atttributions for bad events (i.e., “it’s my fault, it isn’t going to change, and it’s going to
undermine everything I do”) contribute to voluntary turnover. Furthermore, Ford (1985)
identified “abandonment” as a predicted response to organizational performance downturns
attributed to both internal and external causes perceived to be permanent and uncontrollable. In
summary, workers who perceive the cause of exhaustion to be unchanging and not under their
control (regardless of causal locus) are posited to have a higher propensity to leave the job.
Accordingly, the following proposition is offered.
Proposition 7: The extent to which the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be
stable and not controllable by oneself is positively associated with voluntary
turnover.
A key action often undertaken by employees to change a work situation is voice.
According to Hirschman (1970) and Withey and Cooper (1989), employees who are optimistic
24
about change in the work situation are more likely to voice (rather than exit). Hom and
Griffeth (1995) suggest employees are more likely to voice complaints and concerns when they
believe supervisors will listen. Learned helplessness theory also reminds us that a perception of
controllability contributes to the likelihood that a person will take action such as voice to try to
change the situation (Peterson et al., 1995).
It follows, then, that an exhausted worker is more likely to exercise voice when the cause
of exhaustion is perceived to be external and controllable by others in the organization. And, the
worker is even more likely to speak up when he or she believes that voice can influence those in
control. For example, an exhausted worker who attributes the cause of exhaustion to poor
resource allocation decisions made by others will more likely voice concerns to people in the
organization who may influence allocation decisions. Moreover, the tendency to voice will be
strengthened when the worker believes that he or she can influence those who make the resource
allocation decisions. Accordingly, the following propositions are extended.
Proposition 8a: The extent to which the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be
external and controllable by others in the organization is positively associated
with attempts to change the work situation through voice.
Proposition 8b: Higher perceptions of controllability by oneself will strengthen
the positive association of external causal locus and controllability by others with
attempts to change the work situation through voice.
Hom and Griffeth (1995) suggest that employees who attribute performance to internal
and controllable causes (such as hard work and developed abilities) may be more likely to take
action toward improvement when they experience performance problems. Therefore, the extent
25
to which an employee perceives the cause of exhaustion to be internal and controllable by
oneself (e.g., inexperience with a software package or other tool) is proposed to influence the
occurrence of attempts to change oneself. Such efforts include the initiation of formal or
informal training and other means of improving on one’s deficiencies and weaknesses.
Accordingly, the following proposition is offered.
Proposition 9: The extent to which the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be
internal and controllable by oneself is positively associated with attempts to
change oneself (e.g., seek formal or informal training).
DISCUSSION
By examining work exhaustion within a theoretical framework that provides insights into
individual reactions, the proposed model contributes a foundation for future research that can
enrich our understanding of the phenomenon. Simply stated, the attributional model of work
exhaustion consequences contends that, instead of experiencing the plethora of job attitudes and
behaviors shown to correlate with work exhaustion in the existing literature, an exhausted
individual is more likely to experience a particular subset of these.
The propositions drawn from the model and its supporting literature posit that lower job
satisfaction and lower perceptions of accomplishment and achievement at work are generally
associated with the work exhaustion experience, whereas other attitudinal reactions depend on
the causal attribution for the exhaustion. Specifically, lower organizational commitment and
higher organizational cynicism are expected to accompany work exhaustion when the individual
perceives the cause to be external and controllable by others in the organization. Lower selfesteem at work is expected to accompany exhaustion when the cause is perceived to be internal.
26
Further, depersonalization is expected to occur more frequently when the exhausted
individual perceives a high level of stability in the cause of exhaustion. Voluntary turnover is
posited to be more likely to occur when the cause of exhaustion is perceived to be stable and not
within one’s control. Voice as an attempt to change the work situation is proposed to occur more
frequently when the exhausted worker perceives the cause of exhaustion to be external and
controllable by others in the organization and believes he or she can influence others to address
the cause. Finally, attempts to change oneself are expected to occur most often when the
employee perceives the cause of exhaustion to be internal and controllable by oneself.
Directions for Future Research
Empirical efforts are needed to test the model and propositions developed in the present
article. In addition to testing the associations stated in the propositions, studies employing
longitudinal designs are required to test the causal directions implied by the model.
The present effort identified a potential interaction among the causal attribution variables
in relation to voluntary turnover (see Proposition 8), and further efforts to recognize interactions
are encouraged. For example, the stability attribution dimension could act as a moderator of the
effects of other attribution dimensions on attitudinal and behavioral consequences of work
exhaustion. In other words, high perceived stability of a cause could conceivably strengthen a
negative association between perceived controllability by others and organizational commitment.
Weiner (1985, p. 563) alluded to the potential for stability to moderate the effects of other
attribution dimensions in his discussion of the emotion of anger: ". . . we tend to be more angry at
others when perceived controllable behavior . . . is stable rather than unstable."
27
Although Weiner's (1985, 1986) attributional theory, on which the present model is
based, indicates that general and distinct emotions are independent, he acknowledged that this
issue has not been fully resolved. Therefore, in tests of the proposed model of work exhaustion
consequences, researchers are encouraged to explore the potential for paths between the
attribution-independent and attribution-dependent attitudinal reactions.
Because the core of the proposed model consists of individual perceptions and attitudes
traditionally measured by self-report methods, common method variance is an issue to be
considered in the design of studies to test the model. Although researchers strive to use multiple
methods and multiple sources in collecting data, Spector (1994) acknowledged that there are
many instances in which the constructs of interest simply demand the use of self-reports (e.g.,
when the construct involved is attitudinal or perceptual). Most of the independent and dependent
variables in the proposed model are traditionally measured by self-report methods because they
are, by definition, internal attitudes and perceptions. However, methods other than self-report
need to be utilized wherever possible in testing a model of this nature. For example,
observational measures can and should be developed to assess work exhaustion, organizational
cynicism, depersonalization, attempts to change the work situation, and attempts to change
oneself. Observational measures will provide data from different sources and methods and can
triangulate and support the validity of self-report measures.
The ordering of occurrence for the traditional burnout components of emotional
exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment has been much
discussed and researched. Currently, a sequencing of [emotional exhaustion 
depersonalization  diminished personal accomplishment] is generally presumed to exist,
28
although conclusive empirical evidence has yet to emerge (Cordes et al., 1997; Ashforth &
Lee, 1997). Cordes and her colleagues (1997) suggest that the inconclusive results may stem
from a paucity in theory development in the area of burnout. And this lack of theoretical
development, in turn, may be causing us to overlook variables critical to the burnout process.
The attributional model of exhaustion consequences offers a theoretical framework that may
elucidate crucial variables and enable researchers to more fully explicate relationships among
components of the traditional Maslach and Jackson (1981) burnout model.
Moreover, separating the diminished personal accomplishment construct into distinct
constructs regarding competence and successful achievement may help to more clearly elucidate
the relationships among the elements. In the existing literature, emotional exhaustion has
consistently shown a stronger relationship with depersonalization than either of those elements
has shown with diminished personal accomplishment (Ashforth & Lee, 1997). Refining the
conceptualization of diminished personal accomplishment and developing measures for the two
distinct components (competence and successful achievement) may enhance our understanding
of the relationships among the Maslach and Jackson burnout components.
Furthermore, the proposed model acknowledges that actions that fail to alleviate
exhaustion (actions such as depersonalization or an attempt to change the work situation) can
influence perceptions of the cause of exhaustion and, in turn, affect the reactions of the exhausted
individual. This feedback loop suggests that a more complex relationship may exist among the
traditional burnout components of exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal
accomplishment.
29
Finally, future research may determine that some attributions are more likely than
others in the experience of work exhaustion. Moreover, certain occupational groups or work
environments may be linked to particular attributions for exhaustion. For example, external
attributions for exhaustion may be common in overburdened, deadline-driven technology
professionals, whereas internal attributions may more often occur in emotionally-taxing
environments often encountered by healthcare workers.
Bottom line, the incorporation of causal attribution in the study of work exhaustion
should help to refine our understanding of how individuals react to exhaustion. For example,
Lee and Ashforth (1993b) failed to find a significant association between emotional exhaustion
and perceived helplessness in a study of managerial burnout. It may be that causal attribution
operates as an intervening variable; perhaps helplessness is an attribution-dependent reaction to
exhaustion, more likely to be elicited when the exhausted individual perceives the cause to be
highly stable and beyond his or her control.
Practical Implications
If verified empirically, the proposed model elucidates the role of causal attribution in the
exhaustion experience and has implications for the workplace. Although some have argued that
a misattribution of “unrealistic optimism” in the face of negative occurrences can serve to reduce
anxiety (e.g., Taylor, 1989), psychologists have generally maintained that accurate perceptions
and interpretations of reality are essential to psychological well-being. Failure to accept blame
for something that in fact one caused, or assuming blame for a negative occurrence that one did
not actually cause, leads to poor adjustment (Jahoda, 1958). Essentially, unrealistic optimism
can keep people from perceiving the objective threats and addressing them (Weinstein, 1980,
30
1982). Empirical support for making accurate attributions is provided by Miller and Hoppe
(1994) who found no evidence that attributing involuntary job loss to external rather than internal
causes was more adaptive or resulted in lower psychological distress.
Hence, exhausted workers and their managers are encouraged to seek an accurate
determination of the cause of exhaustion. If the assessment of the cause is inaccurate, actions
taken to alleviate the exhaustion are likely to be fruitless. For example, a worker who perceives
exhaustion to be due to his or her own inabilities may initiate some form of training; however, if
the exhaustion is actually due to a humanly impossible workload, the actions taken by the worker
are likely to be ineffective and exhaustion would continue.
Maslach and Leiter (1997) contend that burnout is a bigger problem than any one person
can handle. It is important for an exhausted worker to enlist the aid of coworkers or managers to
bring additional perspectives to the process of accurately identifying the cause. Furthermore,
when the cause of exhaustion involves the work environment, an individual is rarely able to
effect changes to the environment without cooperation and assistance from others (Maslach &
Leiter, 1997). Not only should exhausted workers seek assistance from others in the workplace,
coworkers and managers should approach workers they suspect may be experiencing exhaustion
in order to assist in the identification of the cause and the development of an action plan to
address the source of exhaustion.
Finally, if empirically verified, the model would lead to the establishment of sets of job
attitudes and behaviors associated with particular attributions for exhaustion. For example, an
exhausted employee who perceives the cause to be internal is likely to experience a decline in
self-esteem at work, in conjunction with lower job satisfaction and lower perceptions of
31
accomplishment and achievement, and may request some form of training to help meet the
demands of the job. Knowledge of specific combinations of reactions can help us to recognize
exhaustion and can provide initial insights into the exhausted worker's attribution of the cause.
The establishment of clusters of reactions to exhaustion would also help us move beyond the
(perhaps overly simplistic) view of exhaustion as an experience primarily accompanied by
reactions of depersonalization and diminished personal accomplishment.
CONCLUSION
The present article reflects an attempt to refine and effect some order in the body of
research on work exhaustion. Attribution theory and research tell us that an individual's
attribution for a negative event, such as work exhaustion, forms the basis for decisions about how
to act in order to bring about the discontinuance of it. Hence, the proposed attributional model of
work exhaustion consequences is a logical and much-needed step toward making sense of the
wealth of correlational data on exhaustion.
32
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Author Biography
Jo Ellen Moore is an assistant professor of Computer Management and Information
Systems at Southern Illinois University - Edwardsville. She holds a Ph.D. from the Indiana
University Kelley School of Business and a master's degree in psychology from Illinois State
University. Her current research interests include the management of information systems
professionals and technology.