Brouwer degree
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topological degree
A fundamental concept in algebraic topology, differential topology and mathematical
analysis. It is rooted in the fundamental work of L. Kronecker [a5] for systems of smooth
real-valued functions
of real variables such that is a regular value for ,
is bounded and the do not vanish simultaneously on
Letting
, Kronecker showed in 1869 that the number
defined (in modern notation) by the integral
where
equal to
.
, is
, when this sum makes sense, i.e. when the
Jacobian of does not vanish on
(cf. also Jacobian). The special case when
and
is a closed simple curve was already considered by A. Cauchy in 1837 (the
winding number). After several interesting applications to differential equations and
function theory by H. Poincaré in 1882–1886 and P.G. Bohl in 1904, in 1910–1912,
L.E.J. Brouwer [a2] and J. Hadamard [a3] made this Kronecker integral a topological tool
by extending it to continuous mappings and more general sets . Hadamard refined
Kronecker's analytical approach, but Brouwer created and used new simplicial techniques
to define a (global) degree
for continuous mappings
between two
oriented compact boundaryless connected manifolds of the same finite dimension. He
used it to prove the theorems on invariance of dimension and invariance of domain (cf.
also Brouwer theorem). Kronecker's integral can be seen as a special case of the Brouwer
degree
, or of the (local) Brouwer degree
defined as follows (cf. also Degree of a mapping).
If
is open and bounded, the Brouwer degree
of a continuous
mapping
can be defined for each
using an
approximation scheme introduced by M. Nagumo [a8] in 1950. The idea consists in
defining it first for smooth and a regular value of , through the formula
,
and then to approximate the continuous function and the point above by a sequence of
such functions and points for which this definition holds. This is possible by the
Weierstrass approximation theorem (cf. Weierstrass theorem) and the Sard theorem. The
degrees of the approximations stabilize to a common value, denoted by
and being an algebraic count of the number of counter-images of under in , which is
stable for small perturbations of and . A similar approach can be used to define
when and are oriented boundaryless differentiable manifolds.
Contents
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1 Properties and axiomatic characterization.
2 Product theorem.
3 Fixed-point theorems.
4 Degree of symmetric mappings.
5 Other approaches and extensions.
o 5.1 References
Properties and axiomatic characterization.
The first basic property of the Brouwer degree is its additivity-excision: if
are disjoint open subsets such that
and
, then one has
.
The second property is its homotopy invariance: let
set,
then
, let
is independent of .
be a bounded open
be continuous, and let
It has been shown in the 1970s (see [a9] for references) that the Brouwer degree can be
uniquely characterized as the integer-valued function
on the set
;
by the additivity-excision and the homotopy invariance properties, together with the
following direct consequence of the definition (the normalization property): if
,
then
.
The additivity-excision property implies the existence property: if
then
.
,
Easy consequences of the homotopy invariance are the equalities
when
on
, and
when and belong to the same component
(with the common value written
).
of
The existence and homotopy properties have many important applications in studying the
existence and bifurcation of solutions of various types of equations.
Product theorem.
In 1934, J. Leray [a6] proved a useful product theorem for the Brouwer degree: let
and
, with
, be continuous functions such that
. Denoting by the bounded components of
, one has
, where only finitely
many terms are different from zero.
This result has deep applications in topology, for example the Jordan separation theorem:
for homeomorphic compact subsets and of , the sets
and
have
the same number of connected components.
Fixed-point theorems.
An easy consequence of the Brouwer degree is the following Knaster–Kuratowski–
Mazurkiewicz fixed-point theorem, first stated and proved in 1929 [a4]: let
be the closed ball of centre and radius and let
be a continuous function
such that
. Then there is at least one
such that
.
The special case where
is the Brouwer fixed-point theorem [a2],
which has many different and useful equivalent forms.
Degree of symmetric mappings.
Useful computational results hold under symmetry assumptions. The oldest one, which
corresponds to -symmetry, was conjectured by S.M. Ulam and proved by K. Borsuk in
1933 [a1]: let be a bounded open symmetric neighbourhood of the origin in and let
be a continuous odd function such that
is odd.
This result and its more recent
; then
-version are basic in critical point theory [a7].
Other approaches and extensions.
The Brouwer degree is a very versatile concept which can be defined through techniques
of algebraic topology, differential topology or algebraic geometry. For example, if
is continuous and
homomorphism on the homology groups of
is the induced
over (cf. also Homology group), then
is isomorphic to and hence becomes multiplication by an integer, which is
. If is any continuous extension of to the closed unit ball
, then
.
In 1995, H. Brézis and L. Nirenberg [a10], [a11] defined a Brouwer degree for certain not
necessarily continuous mappings belonging to a Sobolev or other function space.
Extensions of the Brouwer degree to various classes of mappings between infinitedimensional spaces are also known. The most fundamental one is the Leray–Schauder
degree, defined in 1934 for compact perturbations of the identity defined on the closure
of a bounded open subset of a normed vector space (cf. also Degree of a mapping).
References
[a1] K. Borsuk, "Drei Sätze über die -dimensionale euklidische Sphäre" Fundam.
Math. , 21 (1933) pp. 177–190
[a2] L.E.J. Brouwer, "Ueber Abbildungen von Mannigfaltigkeiten" Math. Ann. , 71
(1912) pp. 97–115
[a3] J. Hadamard, "Sur quelques applications de l'indice de Kronecker" J. Tannery (ed.)
, Introduction à la théorie des fonctions d'une variable , 2 , Hermann (1910) pp.
875–915
[a4] B. Knaster, C. Kuratowski, S. Mazurkiewicz, "Ein Beweis des Fixpunktsatzes für
-dimensionale Simplexe" Fundam. Math. , 14 (1929) pp. 132–137
[a5] L. Kronecker, "Ueber Systeme von Funktionen mehrerer Variabeln" Monatsber.
Berlin Akad. (1869) pp. 159–193; 688–698 Zbl 02.0203.02
[a6] J. Leray, "Topologie des espaces abstraits de M. Banach" C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris ,
200 (1935) pp. 1082–1084 Zbl 0011.16402 Zbl 61.0613.03
[a7] J. Mawhin, M. Willem, "Critical point theory and Hamiltonian systems" , Springer
(1989) MR0982267 Zbl 0676.58017
[a8] M. Nagumo, "A theory of degree of mapping based on infinitesimal analysis"
Amer. J. Math. , 73 (1951) pp. 485–496 MR0042696 Zbl 0043.17802
[a9] E. Zeidler, "Nonlinear functional analysis and its applications" , I , Springer (1986)
MR0816732 Zbl 0583.47050
[a10] H. Brézis, L. Nirenberg, "Degree theory and BMO" Selecta Math. , 1 (1995) pp.
197–263 MR1354598 Zbl 0868.58017
[a11] H. Brézis, L. Nirenberg, "Degree theory and BMO" Selecta Math. , 2 (1996) pp. 1–
60 MR1422201 Zbl 0868.58017