English 418
Second Language Acquisition
Session Two, Part Two Notes
Goals/Objectives:
1) To gain an understanding of the program models available at the Secondary Level
2) To gain an understanding the various Bilingual Education Programs that are available and examine their strengths and
weaknesses
3) To gain an understanding of English-Medium Models and examine their strengths and weaknesses
Questions/Main Ideas (Please Notes:
write these down as you think
 Program Models
of them)
 Language and education policies are realized at the classroom level through a variety of
instructional programs
 Programs for English language learners at the Secondary Level come in many forms
ranging from teaching in the native language to complete submersion
 Program Models
 Bilingual Models
 There are (at least) five bilingual models found in the field today:
 Transitional Bilingual Education Programs
 Developmental Bilingual Education Programs
 Dual Language Programs
 Bilingual Immersion Programs
 Heritage Language Programs
 Program Models
 Transitional Bilingual Education (TBE) Models
 TBE programs, also called early-exit programs, are the most common type of bilingual
programs in the U.S.
 TBE programs target ESL students who speak the same L1
 Usually found in primary grades of elementary school
 Program Models
 The goal of TBE programs is to transition ESL students to a mainstream English-only
classroom as quickly as possible
 By providing content-area instruction in the students’ native languages, schools can ensure
that students do not fall behind academically while they are learning English
 Program Models
 Most TBE programs begin in kindergarten
 Through these programs, students learn about 90% of their language arts and other content
areas in their native language
 About 10% through sheltered instruction
 Students also received daily ESL instruction
 Program Models
 Each year the amount of native language instruction is decreased and the amount of
sheltered instruction is increased
 Students first learn to read and write in their L1, which ensures that they do not fall behind
academically while learning English
 Program Models
 After 2 to 3 years, the students are transitioned to English language arts instruction
 The following year they are placed in mainstream English-only classrooms
 Some weaker versions attempt to transition students to English-only classrooms much
earlier
 Program Models
 Ramirez, Yuen, Ramey and Pasta (1991):
 TBE programs are more effective that English-medium programs
 But less effective than other bilingual education models
 In ensuring L2 students reach parity with their English-speaking counterparts
 Program Models
 The following challenges have been identified:
 TBE programs tend to have a “language-as-problem” orientation and thus take a “deficit
view” of L2 students
 Because the goal is a quick transition to English, these programs tend to lead to subtractive
bilingualism
 Program Models
 TBE programs reflect an assumption that L2 students can become proficient in English and
ready for all-English instruction in 2 to 3 years
 In actuality, few students can become fluent that quickly
 Program Models
 These students may also be segregated from the academic mainstream for all or most of the
day, making it difficult for them to find opportunities to interact with and learn alongside
English proficient peers
 Many students don’t begin schooling in the U.S. in kindergarten
 Program Models
 Developmental Bilingual Education (DBE) Programs
 Also sometimes called maintenance or late-exit bilingual education
 DBE programs are much less common
 Lack of federal funding for the model
 Like TBE programs, they target students who speak the same L1
 Program Models
 Most often found in elementary schools
 Are taught by qualified bilingual teachers
 Goals are different, however
 DBE programs aim to help the students develop both English and their native language, so
they become fully bilingual and biliterate
 Program Models
 Students achieve academically through both languages and develop a positive sense of
their cultural heritage and ethnolinguistic identies
 Most DBE programs begin in kindergarten
 Continue to 5th or 6th grade
 Some last through middle school
 Program Models
 As in TBE programs, students initially receive about 90% of their content-area instruction,
including initial literacy instruction, in their native language
 Sheltered instruction increases with each grade level until students receive an equal
balance of instruction in both languages
 Program Models
 In this model, the native language of students is viewed as a resource, used for instructional
purposes, and further developed even after the L2 student has attained sufficient proficiency
in English to handle mainstream instruction
 Much more likely to produce proficient bilinguals by the time they graduate form high
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school
Program Models
Proponents of this model - it is much more empowering to the parents who lack
proficiency in English, because they are able to be much more involved in their child’s
education, including being able to help their children with their reading and other
homework
L2 students achieve parity with peers and become bilingual, biliterate, and bicultural
Program Models
Schools with DBE programs face political pressure to push English literacy earlier and
faster, particularly in states where high-stakes tests are administered only in English
Administrators worry that students won’t have the English skills necessary to pass the test
Program Models
Dual Language Programs
Sometimes called two-way immersion or dual language immersion
Are designed for even numbers of English speakers and L2 speakers from the same
language background
Aim to develop the following for both groups:
Program Models
Bilingualism and biliteracy
Academic achievement in two languages
Cross-cultural understanding
Dual language programs typically begin in kindergarten (or pre-K) and continue through the
elementary school grades
A growing number continue through middle or high school
Program Models
Both groups spend most of the day in the same classroom, where they receive content-area
instruction in both languages from qualified bilingual teachers
Content-area instruction is taught in sheltered English and in a sheltered version of the other
language to make instruction comprehensible for the non-native speakers of those languages
Program Models
Students learn to read and write in both languages, either simultaneously or first in one
language and later in the other
Teachers also provide daily ESL instruction for their L2 students
 And instruction in the other language for the native English-speaking students
 Program Models
 The two prototypical dual language models are the 50/50 model and the 90/10 model,
referring to the percentage of time allocated to each language for instructional purposes
 In the 50/50 model, 50% of the instruction is in the native language of the L2 students and
50% in English
 Program Models
 In the 90/10 model, 90% of instruction is in the L2 native language for the first few years
and 10% in English
 As the students move up in grade level, the amount of instruction in each language balances
out to 50/50
 Program Models
 The original practitioners of this model advocated a rigid separation of the two languages
for instructional purposes
 This has received criticism, since it doesn’t reflect how languages are used in real life
 It doesn’t take advantage of the two systems for social or academic purposes
 Program Models
 It does not affirm students’ identities
 Theoretically, this model puts L2 students on an equal footing with English-speaking peers
 When instruction is in the non-English language, the English-speaking students must rely
on L2 peers, just as L2 students rely on English-speaking students when the instruction is in
English
 Program Models
 Both languages serve as a resource for the other group
 There are several challenges associated with this model, however:
 Easy to develop Spanish programs
 Not so easy for lower-demand languages
 Hard to find qualified teachers and materials for these languages
 Program Models
 Hard to find enough students to balance out the program
 The dominance of English in the U.S. makes it difficult to get students to see the value of
both languages equally
 Potential cultural imbalances in the classroom favor the more vocal middle-class English
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speaking constituents
Program Models
Bilingual Immersion Programs
These programs, not to be confused with English immersion programs, target Englishspeaking students exclusively
The goals are for English speakers to become bilingual and biliterate
To achieve academically in both languages
To develop cross-cultural understanding
Program Models
Model was developed in Canada, where native English speakers are immersed for contentarea instruction in French
In the U.S., bilingual immersion has been used with Hawaiian and Native American
students in their “native” language, which they may or may not have learned at home
Program Models
Bilingual instruction begins in the non-English language, which is typically the language in
which the students have the least amount of proficiency
As the students increase their proficiency in the non-English language, English is slowly
introduced
Program Models
Eventually, both languages are given an equal amount of instructional time
Typically, programs end in 5th or 6th grade
Program Models
Heritage Language Programs
This is a fairly new term in the U.S.
Refers to a wide range of programs (including the bilingual models already described), such
as in-school and after-school or weekend programs, in which language minority students
have an opportunity to learn their “native” or “heritage” language
Program Models
In-school programs can often provide foreign-language credit
Many such programs are offered by community-based organizations within language
minority communities, such as the Chinese and Korean schools run on the weekends by
Chinese American and Korean American associations, temples, and churches
Program Models
 English-Medium Models
 In general, bilingual education models are considered more effective than English-medium
programs
 However, they are not always feasible
 In a few states, anti-bilingual education legislation mandates English-only approaches
 Program Models
 In many communities educators, parents, or community members may be opposed to
bilingual education because of their ideologies or misunderstandings of the programs
 In many other communities, there are simply too many language groups in a single school
without enough speakers of the same L1 to make the program practical
 Program Models
 In the Los Angeles Unified School District, for example, roughly 90 different languages are
spoken on any given day (which does not include dialects!)
 In English-medium program models all subjects are taught in English
 Program Models
 Pull-Out ESL Instruction
 Pull-out ESL is a commonly used model, particularly in elementary schools where L2
learners make up a small portion of the total school population
 In these schools L2 learners are typically spread across several classrooms, usually in
mainstream classes taught by instructors not ESL trained
 Program Models
 A certified ESL teacher pulls small groups of L2 learners out of their regular classrooms to
provide ESL instruction, typically for 30-60 minutes or more a day
 Ideally students are offered daily instruction, but some schools are able to offer it only 2-3
days a week due to a shortage of ESL teachers
 Program Models
 This model has been highly criticized as ineffective
 There are many problems:
 First, students miss out on instruction in their regular classrooms when they are pulled out
 Second, may lead mainstream instructors to view the L2 student as the ESL instructor’s
responsibility
 Program Models
 Third, many students feel stigmatized about being pulled out day after day in front of their
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English-only peers
Finally, ESL instruction provided by the pull-out teacher typically is not coordinated with
what the students are learning in their regular classrooms
Program Models
This is largely due to the fact that ESL teachers generally pull students from several
different classrooms, making it very difficult to coordinate with every teacher
Additionally, mainstream teachers may be unwilling to collaborate
Pull-out models may also be more expensive than other models
Program Models
Generally, they require that one or more teachers be hired in addition to the regular teaching
staff
Another difficulty is finding space for the pull-out class, because many schools are already
overcrowded
ESL classrooms are often in portable classrooms away from “real” classes
Program Models
In many instances, ESL instructors do not have their own classrooms, so they conduct
classes wherever they can – cafeterias, auditorium lobbies or the stage, in teachers lounges,
converted closets, storage rooms, etc.
These poor accommodations send the signal to L2 students that ESL instruction is a low
priority and L2 students are second-class citizens
Program Models
Certainly, pull-out classes are better than no instruction at all
Research shows that pull-out students are more active, engaged, and vocal than students
who receive no instruction at all, making greater progress in both language and academic
development than they would have without pull-out instruction
Program Models
In-Class ESL Instruction
In-class instruction is provided by the regular classroom teacher
Benefits:
Students to not miss anything in class by being pulled out
Classroom teachers can coordinate their ESL instruction to prepare L2 learners for specific
sheltered content lessons
Program Models
 The classroom teachers can take full responsibility for the educaiton of all their students
 What the classroom teachers learn about the L2 learners through ESL instruction can help
them tailor their content-area instruction to appropriate levels
 Program Models
 The classroom teachers can coordinate interactions between L2 learners and English
proficient students in the classroom that will further assist them in acquiring English
 Furthermore, the school saves money by not having to hire additional teachers
 Program Models
 For this model to be fully effective, teachers must complete certification
 They must also be provided with an ESL curriculum and instructional materials
 This can be frustrating if teachers find they need to create their own curriculum or make or
buy their own materials
 Program Models
 Sheltered (Structured) English Immersion
 Sheltered English Immersion, sometimes called structured English immersion, typically
refers to self-contained grade-level classrooms for L2 learners with teachers who are trained
and certified to provide language and content instruction for L2 students
 Program Models
 In SEI classrooms, the classroom teacher provides daily ESL instruction and sheltered
content-area instruction
 In addition, even though all instruction is in English, teachers may make use of primary
language support
 SEI = ESL + sheltered instruction + Primary language support
 Program Models
 In other words, a high quality SEI program includes daily direct, systematic ESL
instruction, sheltered content-area instruction and ample primary language support
 SEI is mandatory in California, Arizona and Massachusetts where voter initiatives restrict
the use of bilingual education
 Program Models
 Prop 227, Article 2 states: “Children who are English learners shall be educated through
sheltered English immersion during a temporary transition period not normally intended to
exceed one year”
 Unfortunately, no research exists that shows L2 students can learn enough English in one
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year to be placed in mainstream classes
Program Models
Article 3 states: “The requirements of Section 305 may be waived with the prior written
informed consent, to be provided annually, of the child's parents or legal guardian under the
circumstances specified below and in Section 311.
Program Models
Such informed consent shall require that said parents or legal guardian personally visit the
school to apply for the waiver and that they there be provided a full description of the
educational materials to be used in the different educational program choices and all the
educational opportunities available to the child.”
Program Models
Submersion
Also known as Sink or Swim
One final approach to teaching L2 learners is to do nothing at all for them
Submersion means placing the L2 student in a mainstream classroom where there is no ELS
instruction, no sheltered instruction, and no primary language support
Program Models
The student is left to “sink or swim”
Unfortunately, submersion is very common, even though it is in violation of federal law
Program Models
The Adult/College Level
At the adult or college level, most students receive L2 instruction through Intensive
English Programs or IEPs
As the name implies, students spend a sizeable number of hours per week studying the L2,
often 4-5 days per week
Program Models
As in most secondary models, students study the fours skills areas
Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
And sometimes Grammar
Program Models
 Unlike good bilingual programs, however, these skills are generally not integrated
 Instead, students will study the isolated skill in separate classes, each generally one hour
long
 Thus, students may have five separate English classes per day
 Program Models
 While this may make it difficult for students to integrate language skills, it does make it
easier to focus on the specific skills needed by individual students
 Thus, students who have good reading and writing skills (and the commensurate good
grammar skills) may only take the listening and speaking course, saving them money and
time
Summary/Minute Paper: