CHAPTER 8
WATER SUPPLY AND USE
Water Sources
In a region, which is characterized by very limited precipitation, the judicious use of fresh, potable
water is of utmost importance. Let us first review the natural sources of this precious commodity.
Rivers and Canals
Continually flowing rivers were the backbones of the early civilizations in the Indus valley, in
Mesopotamia and Egypt. They sustained flourishing cities and agriculture in zones with long periods
of draught. Their flow varied with the yearly seasons, their predictable flooding depositing fertile
sediment. Surely, there were exceptions of too much or too little water, but in general a dependable
supply was assured. It was up to human organization to make the most extensive and efficient use of
the liquid resource: to devise irrigation systems, to zone agricultural activities, to apportion a vital
commodity. This led to consolidated administrations, which soon translated into rigid social structures
and hierarchies from all-powerful rulers and priests down to landowners, technocrats and tillers of the
soil.
There was a time when all the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers was under cultivation
thanks to an extensive system of irrigation canals (ghayl). When the continual maintenance of the
system was interrupted by the invasion of Mongols in the 13th century, the canals silted up and
subsequent governments were not able to put them back into operation. Nowadays dams are
constructed to facilitate irrigation schemes.
The primary use of river water was for irrigation. All terrain slightly lower than the irrigation intake
could be served by gravity distribution of the water. In order to cultivate land above the river level, the
water has to be lifted.
Lakes
The formation of lakes is rare in arid regions and if groundwater happens to surface in low-lying
basins, the effect of evaporation soon turns it brackish and with time we have either a salt lake or
dangerous salty mud flats (sabakha).
Springs and Fountains
The happy occasion of water emerging from the ground due to the appropriate geologic and
topographic circumstances – usually impermeable strata and valley formations – gives rise to a spring.
Thanks to the filtering and mineralizing action of the soil such water is in most cases clean and tasty.
Therefore, springs were always treasured and protected as a gift from the gods. Underground springs
may sustain a pond from which the water is fetched, but usually springs occur in hilly terrain above
the surrounding farmland, to where the water can be distributed by canals or piping. The Romans were
masters in supplying big cities with excellent spring water via systems of canals following the
contours of the land and crossing valleys on huge aqueducts.
Fountains fed by piping finally discharge drinking water at appropriate points, such as street-corners
(sebil = alms). Public water kiosks or elaborate fountain pavilions were built under Ottoman rule and
are known as fawara.
Wells
Any precipitation, which does not run off as surface water to form brooks or rivers, will enter the
ground and either be consumed by plants or move on below ground according to the force of gravity
and the changing geological formations. This creates a variable groundwater table. By digging a
vertical shaft we are able to reach the water below the ground: we have made a well. Its capacity will
depend upon the porosity of the soil and the ambient supply of water. Lifting water up by means of
rope and bucket is a tedious job. Making water accessible by steps and handing it by bucket chain
from person to person is not much of an improvement (the ‘singing wells’ of Africa are famous for the
rhythmic songs of the lifting crews). Generally, it is the women’s task to fetch the water and the
regular gatherings turned this into an important social function.
Remains the use of animals to pull up large buckets full of water or Needless to say that both have
limited capacities.
Water Lifting Devices

Manual
Counterbalanced levers. Since pulling down a weight is less strenuous than lifting, the use of
counterbalanced levers is common. The shadouf is common along the Nile, as are draw-fountains all
over the world.
The Screw of Archimedes. A double helix inside a tube is lowered into the water. By rotation the
water is lifted up and discharged.
 Animal power
Animal-powered drawing wells consist of ramps upon which an ox moved back and forth. The
length of the ramp will equal the depth of the well, 20 m being not uncommon.
A system of horizontal and vertical cogwheels with a chain of jugs is driven by the animal in a
circular motion.
 River driven
The waterwheel (noriah) only works where the flow of a river is sufficient to drive it. The most
spectacular examples are found in the Syrian town of Hama. There the Orontes river has cut a deep
valley, way below adjacent land. Since time immemorial huge wooden wheels up to 20 m in diameter
are slowly and creakingly turning along the riverbanks. Equipped with paddles and water scoops they
lift the water up to dump it high into wooden channels, which carry the water to town and fields.
Water storage
Water storage is essential on the public as well as the individual level. It still remains accepted
practice to equip every home with its own storage tank. It will bridge the times of interrupted water
supply and provide some water pressure. Among the most famous communal water tanks are those of
Kairouan in Tunisia.
It is also good practice to collect scarce rainwater as far as possible. Run-off from roofs and paved
courtyards can be channeled into underground cisterns, after passing screens and sand traps. Final
settlement of sediment happens in the cistern, resulting usually in drinking water quality.
Since piped-in water was unknown it had to be fetched from the nearest well or bought from the
water peddlers passing by. Big water jars were placed on hollowed-out stands wherever needed. Water
was then sparingly dispensed with cups and pitchers. Rarely was it discarded straight away, but rather
collected in further receptacles for secondary use, finally for irrigation.
Special features are cooling alcoves for earthenware water jugs. Instead of simply hanging the jug
into a window, the projecting alcove increases air circulation and hence evaporation and cooling
effect. Often this facility is placed in the semi-public zone to serve people. It also has the effect of
humidifying the air in the room, highly desirable in areas with low relative humidity.
Water Mining
In mountainous and arid situations any water received by the peaks generally descends underground
on hillsides or below dry river beds (wadis). Since the essential problem is to lift ground water to the
surface, it is logical to tap the underground water at a level high enough to allow surface distribution
by means of gravity flow. Employing mining techniques, that means by underground tunneling, the
water can be collected at the upper wadi parts or along hillsides. Such systems of horizontal wells are
restricted to mountainous areas and known as qanat in Iran, falaj in the Gulf countries and Oman or
foggara in North Africa. Particularly in Oman they have been carried to perfection, providing year
round running water to large communities. They allow the cultivation of terraced land high above
wadi level.
On the basis of property sizes an overseer (wakil) administers the water distribution and
maintenance of the irrigation system. As in all irrigation works, distribution depends upon an intricate
system of sluices, which are opened and closed according to a fixed time schedule, often in reference
to a public sundial. In some places water is auctioned off in half-hour flow increments and prices may
fluctuate 700% according to season.
The underground part of a falaj works like a minimal gradient sewer with frequent manholes for
inspection, but instead of discharging sewage from the community, it brings fresh water to people,
animals and fields. The canals are cut like mines, just large enough to work in a stooped position and
to move the rubble to the nearest manhole. Once above the ground, the water is carried in open
channels, following the contours of the terrain. Interfering valleys or gorges are either crossed by
means of an aqueduct, usually built over palm trunks on pillars, or by means of an inverted siphon
(gharaq falah), when flash floods are likely to destroy an aqueduct. A special version of aflaj collects
water from wadi bottoms by underground dams. Usually, there is a water flow below the gravel of a
dry wadi. When the wadi bottom turns into a shelf of rock, a substantial amount of water can be
diverted by construction of a dam, which connects sidewise to a falaj channel. Normally, the dam is
hidden below the wadi gravel and flood water simply flows above it. The great oasis of Nizwa in
Oman is supplied by such an aflaj.
Water distribution within the community was subjected to a strict hierarchy: first came drinking
water and mosque supply, then washing and irrigation. The danger of contamination from latrines,
slaughtering and refuse were fully recognized. The careful management of fresh water and the
predominantly dry climate greatly reduced this problem and epidemics repeatedly striking medieval
Europe were unknown in the Arab Region.
Water Features
Since water is valued in the Arab Region, not only as regards pure life support but also as a source of
enjoyment, great care is taken to make the most of it. Apart from its careful collection and distribution
for daily use, water features are an important design element, used for cooling effect as well as visual
and acoustical pleasure. This applies above all to mountainous regions, where the effect of flowing
water can be exploited.
The guiding principle is maximum effect with minimal expenditure. Instead of having large surfaces
with excessive evaporation losses, water is carried in shallow and narrow, but long ponds,
accompanied by pathways and planting. By passing water in thin sheets over decorated surfaces such
as mosaic work, the effect of vivid colors and sparkling water can be combined. Textured surfaces will
create special reflections and sounds. Such inclined panels (shadirwan) were placed against the wall of
important rooms and their audio effect served also to mask confidential conversation between guest
and host.
Given enough pressure, fine jets of water may be arranged in bundles or in linear fashion, to create
an elegant play of liquid arches and the cooling sound of subtle splashing. Never will water be used as
a demonstration of power and abundance, as typical for western installations.
Recent Developments
In the field of water supply modern technology has brought drastic changes, which too often are
counter-productive in the long run. The introduction of motor-powered pumps has upset the
equilibrium between natural supply and daily use. Groundwater tables have steadily fallen, wells went
dry and in coastal areas saline water is pushing inland. Countries with access to the sea and abundant
energy have taken to seawater desalination to an extent that the per capita use of water is higher than
in water rich parts of the world. Enormous green areas are maintained at the cost of continuous
irrigation, golf courses – originally a pastime in rain drenched England – are placed in the middle of
deserts. Monumental fountains invariably impress by volume and power. Even if most of the water is
recycled in such cases, the very attitude is shortsighted and wrong.
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Traditional society produced a negligible amount of waste as compared with our affluent times.
Furthermore, most waste was biodegradable and natural scavengers picked up the small amount of it.
The hot, dry climate gave microbes little chance to develop. This changed drastically with the advent
of packaging and plastics. Traditionally, the public realm is not much of a concern for people who
close themselves in. While inside each house everything is spick-and-span, garbage maybe simply
thrown over the wall. Also the useless desert was seen as a natural refuse dump, but it swallows little
and wind will scatter rubbish over large areas. Very belatedly this problem of pollution was
recognized.
Human Sanitation
Washing and Bathing
Scarcity of water being a common denominator of the Arab Region has dictated the manner of
cleaning and of the disposal of liquid and solid waste. Islam has embodied well-established hygienic
principles with the prescription of regular cleaning before prayers and meals, and after meals or
defecation, taking into account economical use of water, even proposing the use of sand in the absence
of any liquid.
We must recall that food is taken up with the right hand, while the left hand is reserved for sanitary
cleaning. For washing at meals, water is poured from a jug (ibrik) over the diner’s hands into a basin
(tisht).
Only fresh, flowing water is considered fit for cleaning therefore washing basins or bathtubs were
rejected. Thermal baths, which were accepted for their medical value, were not stagnant pools but had
a continuous flow.
Given the very limited cleaning possibilities in the normal dwelling, the Arabs emphasized
communal baths (hammam, from hamin = hot water). They adopted the Roman-Byzantine tradition of
public baths, but turned them into much more economical and private small-scale establishments.
They maximized the cleaning effect of steam and the use of running water by placing furnace, steam
bath and hot-water splash pools at the far end, cold-water taps and reclining spaces towards the
entrance. Modesty was preserved by the replacement of windows with glass inserts in the domical
roofs and separate bathing schedules for men and women. For centuries sanitary conditions in the
Arab Region were superior to western standards – the famous palace of Versailles did not have a
single bath. Indeed, for the Muslim washing has a spiritual significance beyond mere physical
cleaning.
Laundry is generally handled at public washing places, near the water source, be it a well or a falaj.
Again, this provides welcome social contacts for women.
Toilets
In general terms a toilet is a fixture for human defecation and urination. In architecture the term also
denotes the related space. In general, this aspect of human existence is considered an unpleasant
interference with the ideal of cleanliness and excluded from discussion. However, the Muslim code of
conduct (fatwa) lists twelve rules, which clearly address themselves to life in a non-built environment
and contain pre-Islamic elements:
1. Do not squat in the view of people
2. Do not squat over a container
3. Do not face the quibla
4. Do not turn your back towards Mecca
5. Do not squat against the sun or the moon
6. Do not turn the back against the sun or the moon
7. Remain silent
8. Do not spit
9. Do not blow your nose
10. Use a stone only three times (in place of water or sand)
11. Clean yourself with the left hand
12. Do not observe your excrement
In line with traditional living habits and clothing, men and women relieve themselves in a squatting
position, hence the prevalence of squatting toilets also called oriental or asiatic fixtures. They are more
hygienic than primitive western latrines, which are used in a sitting position. However, the principal
problems are the control of odors and general contamination, and eventual waste removal.
The less liquid is involved, the more sanitary the procedure. In urban situations the excrement collect
in a pit, which is emptied from outside by lowly laborers. Sometimes ashes, lime and soil are added to
produce fertilizer for the fields. In multi-floor construction as found in Yemen, there are stacks of
toilets discharging into one pit at the bottom. Often liquid and solid waste are separated, in a way that
liquids flow to the outside and dry up in a draining channel on the building walls.
The facility is always placed at the far end of living quarters, reached via indirect corridors, or
isolated in the courtyard or garden. Public toilets as part of mosques or baths usually have privileged
access to water, first as supply and then for waste disposal, in which case the toilets are placed directly
over the effluent.
Before the introduction of the water closet and a modern sewer system in 19th century England, the
presence of unpleasant smells was a fact of life in any town of the world. However, the concept of
using water for the discharge of waste could only originate in wet northern Europe.
Sanitary problems were created when piped water was introduced in communities with dry-type
latrine systems before the much more costly construction of sewers. Waste was diluted and started
seeping into the ground, contaminating ground water sources. Eventually, cess pits and holding tanks
had to be built, and fleets of sanitary tankers are regularly removing their content. Only belatedly, the
introduction of proper sewers, the operation of sewage treatment plants and the use of recycled water
for irrigation are correcting an untenable situation.
The combination of a dependable supply of water with sewers and modern plumbing brought about
a gradual acceptance of toilets close to living quarters. Even then, Europe was slow to include WCs in
bathrooms, preferring separate toilets. The resistance to integrated toilets was still greater in the Arab
Region.