Irwin Chapter 1 Introduction
Parapsychology Defined - The scientific study of experiences which are outside the realm of human
capabilities as presently conceived.
Paranormal Factors - Factors unknown or unrecognized by orthodox science.
Parapsychological experiences vs. Paranormal processes - Parapsychological experiences DO
occur (all reported ESP experiences are parapsychological). In contrast, proof is required for
something to be deemed "paranormal."
Field studies - Early "psychical" research into processes involving the "mind" or "soul" that were the
norm before laboratory parapsychology became popular.
Why Parapsychologists Reject the Study of Many So-Called "Paranormal" Phenomena - They
fear that to be associated with phenomena such as astrology, UFOs, etc. would have a negative
impact on parapsycholgy's already "tenuous" status as a science.
Three Basic Domains of Parapsychological Research:
1. extrasensory perception (ESP) - Knowledge is acquired without use of the recognized human
senses.
2. psychokinesis (PK) - Literally "movement by the mind," the person's thoughts appear to have a
direct influence on the "physical environment.
3. the survival hypothesis - There is some element of human exixtence that survives death.
Psi Phenomena - A commonly used term coined by Brittish parapsychologist B. P. Wiesner to
inclucde both ESP and PK.
Psi Gamma and Psi Kappa - Terms coined by Thouless to refer to ESP and PK respectively (they
never caught on).
Three Central Issues in the Study of Parapsychology:
1. Authenticity - Does the phenomena exists or not?
2. Underlying Processes - What mechanism underlies the phenomenon?
3. Phenomenology - What is the meaning of the experience to the person.
"Process Oriented Research" - addresses issue number 2.
"Phenomenological Research" - addresses issue number 3
Irwin Chapter 3 The Phenomenology of ESP
Louisa Rhine - Undertook a large scale study of "spontaneous" cases of ESP for purposes other
than authentication (e.g., to understand processes and phenomenology).
Case Reports - The events recounted to Rhine by those who experienced them.
Four Types of Spontaneous ESP Case Reports:
1. Intuitive Impressions - just a feeling or a hunch, no imagery or logical thought.
2. Hallucinations - the subject may see or hear a loved one in trouble
3. Realistic Dreams - clear realistic dreams that are later confirmed. By far, the "most common" of
the four types, also having the highest level of completeness of content.
4. Unrealistic Dreams - contain fanciful imagery which would, of course, be very open to
interpretation.
Call Cases - Telepathic experiences in which the subject hears a loved one calling and later finds out
that he/she was in distress.
Limitations of Case Reports - According to Irwin, no matter how impressive or how thoroughly
investigated, no case report can serve as evidence for the "authenticity" of parapsychological
phenomena.
Irwin Chapter 4 Experimental Research on ESP
Guthrie - In late 1800s, made first efforts at "controlled" observation. Subject tried to identify
sensations (e.g., sights, sounds) experienced by "agents" (senders).
Free Response Experiments - In Guthrie's research there were no specified "targets" or other
restriction.
Charles Richet - Argued that (1) a large number of trials were needed in ESP studies and (2) that the
data needed to be quantified (at the same time, others were beginning to use rudimentary statistics to
evaluate data).
Restricted Choice Experiments - Targets and number of trials were specified in advance and data
quantified.
Richet's Contributions to Experimentation (2):
1. With his restricted choice experiments and quantification of data, the findings were less open to
criticism.
2. Quantification allowed the detection of "very small or weak effects" in average randomly selected
subjects.
Troland's Experiment - Working at Harvard, he invented a machine that randomly selected targets
and receorded the responses of both "agent" and subject (receiver). This automation was a
methodological step forward.
J. B. Rhine at Duke - The "father of modern experimental parapsychology." Husband to Louisa
Rhine and a botanist. Two factrors help guide his career:
1. botanists were at the forefront of the new science of statistics and 2. William McDougal (head of
psychology at Duke) was impressed with his interest in parapsychology.
Zener Cards - Rhine saw that the regular playing cards used at that time contained "multiple pieces
of information (suit, face value, color) which led to "hypothesis saving." It was Carl Zener (another
Duke psychologist) who suggested the five geometric figures. The deck was standardized at 25
cards (five of each symbol).
Hypothesis Saving - Reexamining the data several ways (e.g., suit, face value, color, or even
combinations) dramatically increased the probability of a "significant" result.
Experimental Terminology:
Trial - each separate event / guess
Call - the subject's guess
Hit - correct guess
Miss - wrong guess
Run - once through the deck (25 trials)
Rhine's Clairvoyance Methods (2 methods):
1. Down Through Technique - The subject guessed the order of the symbols down through a shuffled
deck without the cards being touched till all were guessed.
2. One at a time method - The experimenter takes one card at a time (without looking at it), places it
face down, and then checks the guess of the subject.
Clairvoyance - Same a precognition, seeing into the future.
Telepathy - Mind to mind communication.
General Estrasensory Perception (GESP) - Includes both clairvoyance and telepathy.
Rhine's GESP Method - The experimenter draws a card, looks at it while the subject guesses, and
then records the result. Thus, the subject could have gotten his knowledge from the card
(clairvoyance) or from the experimenter (telepathy).
Statistical Analysis - Rhine began using a statistical (Z score) test which compared actual
performance to that expected by chance.
Mean Chance Expectation (MCE) - The number of hits expected in a run based on chance alone
(1/5 or 5 hits in a run of 25).
"Critical Ratio" - The name for Rhine's test. An obtained CR (Z) value greater than 1.64 (one
tailed) or 1.96 (two tailed) was "statistically significant. The probability that the result was due to
chance was "p < .05".
Open vs. Closed Deck Experiments - In the open deck model, probabilities don't change (so, large
multiple decks are required, like with a blackjack "shoe"). In the closed deck experiment (just one
deck of 25), probabilities change as each card is drawn so a small modification to the formula is made
which "LOWERS" THE OBTAINED CRITICAL RATIO VALUE. Rhine's early studies used a "closed
deck."
Extra-Sensory Perception - Rhine's book published in 1934, the purpose of which was to show that
parapsychological research could be conducted in a rigorously scientific fashion.
Hubert Pearce - Rhine's most talented subject.
Criticisms of Rhines Work:
1. Invalid Statistical Analysis - Critics objected to comparing results to a "theoretical model (vs. a
control group) even though it was done in other sciences. However, eminent statisticians including R.
A. Fisher eventually approved of Rhine's method.
2. "Sensory Leakage" - Refers to the subject picking up sensory cues such as differences in the
backs of the cards, experimenter facial expression, tone of voice, and movement of the pen as he
recorded the calls.
3. Recording errors - were addressed in later studies by having two experimenters independently
record, and later compare, responses.
4. Inadequate Shuffling - To respond to this, Rhine 1. invented "mechanical shufflers," or 2. used a
"random number table" to determine card sequences.
5. Optional Stopping - Just as in gambling, over the course of a study there are times when the
subject is "ahead." Even though Rhine specified the number of trials or runs in advance, critics said
he stopped at these "ahead" points.
6. Suppression of Null Results - Critics charged that only the positive results were reported. Rhine
did, in fact discontinue testing with subjects deemed "non-sensitive. However, this is probably more a
problem in modern applied psychology than it was for Rhine!
7. Fraud - will be discussed later in relation to the "Pearce-Pratt" series.
Meta Analysis - Combines the results from many studies into one large analysis. At present, they
have NOT yielded any conclusive results.
Irwin's Three Criteria for the "Definitive Experiment":
1. It be conducted by a comeptent experimenter.
2. It be published in a reputable peer reviewed journal.
3. The findings be so highly significant (large effect) that minor procedural flaws can be dismissed as
alternative explanations.
Strengths of the Pearce-Pratt Series at Duke (37 sessions!):
1. Large distance between the experimenter and the Subject (Pratt in office, Pearce in library).
2. Presence of Rhine as a careful observer.
3. Dual independent scoring (by both Pratt AND Rhine).
4. Extraordinarily significant results (p < 10 -22)!
Hansel's Criticisms of the Pearce-Pratt Series:
1. Pearce left the library and spied on Pratt. If there was no observer of Pearce in the library, it was
an incredibly silly lack of control and Hansel is right.
2. Two or all three of the men could have been involved in cheating.
Process Oriented Research - Addresses the "how" of PSI phenomena as opposed to "Authenticity"
research which addresses whether or not the phenomena exists.
The Parapsychological Experimenter Effect - The experimenter having an impact on the outcome,
possibly due to (1) PSI ability or (2) competence and professionalism.
PSI-Conducive Experimenters - Tend to get positive results.
PSI-Inhibitory Experimenters - Tend to get negative results.
Replicating Each Other's Research - Is the ONLY defense against the parapsychological
experimenter effect. Irwin suggests that emphasis be placed upon findings that have been replicated
in several different labs.
ESP Performance: Patterns and Improvement - There are a variety of effects, we'll just look at a
few.
PSI Missing - Refers to performance "significantly below" MCE (opposite to conscious intent. PSI
supporters view this as supportive of PSI, perhaps due to negative aspects of mood, attitude or
personality. Critics say these findings would be expected if PSI is non existent and help confirm that
the positive PSI findings are "statistical freaks."
Displacement - Calls consistently matching the previously called or next to be called target instead of
the current one. The most studied of the PSI missing phenomena.
"Transtemporal Inhibition" - Charles Tart's very complex interpretation of psi missing and
displacement. Crandall has also posited some very complex interpretations. While Irwin appears to
comprehend these ideas, your professor does not.
Position Effects (2):
1. Decline Effects - For many subjects, performance is better at the beginning of a run and then
declines, possibly due to fatigue or boredom (seems reasonable).
2. Clustering - For some subjects, hits come in groups, perhaps as they slip in and out of PSI
conducive states.
Post Hoc Analysis - Is the term for re-analyzing of data which is sometimes OK. If taken too far,
however, it increases the probability of "finding something." and, in the extreme, constitutes "fishing,"
data bashing," and "hypothesis saving." If 100 analyses are done, about 5 will come up "signficant"
due to nothing more than chance.
Improvement and the Role of Feedback - Charles Tart suggests that feedback (telling the subject
when he is right or wrong) might improve performance. His "Ten Choice Trainer" was designed for
just this purpose.
Target (stimuli) Variables in ESP Performance:
1. Simple stimuli (Zener symbols) are better than complex stimuli (words).
2. "Dynamic" (moving) stimuli may be superior to "static" (motionless) stimuli.
3. Psychologically meaningful stimuli are superior to stimuli without meaning.
4. Psychological aspects of targets are probably more important than physical aspects in enhancing
PSI performance.
Situational Variables in ESP Performance:
1. Monetary Rewards - have NOT been helpful and may even hinder performance.
2. Electric Shock Punishments - for wrong answers improved performance in one study.
3. Relaxed States of Consciousness (hypnosis, meditation, progressive relaxation) seem to enhance
PSI performance.
4. "Sensory Deprivation" or "GANZFELD" procedures have the most impressive track record of all the
situation variables in enhancing PSI performance with a collective effect size of .62!
Subject Variables in ESP Performance (in general, very mixed results):
Attidude Variables:
1. The "Sheep-Goat" Effect - Gertrude Schmeidler refers to ESP believers as "sheep" and nonbelievers as "goats." She says goats don't just do poorly at PSI. They actually (unconsciously)
perform significantly below MCE to support their position. While this finding has been replicated, the
overall effect size of ".03" is so tiny that it can't really be considered a finding at all.
2. Fear of PSI - It seems intuitive that those fearful of PSI would do poorly on PSI tasks, so the
absence of research on this is surprising. Highly "defensive" people do perform more poorly than
people who are less "defensive."
Personality Variables:
1. Neuroticism - Subjects high on neuroticism do poorly in lab studies of PSI.
2. Extraversion - Subjects high on extraversion do well in lab studies of PSI.
3. However, these patterns are NOT observed among experients of "spontaneous" PSI events. So,
????
Physiological Variables:
1. Temporal lobe abnormalities - have been associated with a variety of "spontaneous" PSI
phenomena, esp. the sense of a "presence."
2. Brain Waves - "Alpha" waves are associated with deep relaxation and the pleasant "twilight state"
between waking and sleep, so they should be consistent with PSI performance. However, research
findings are "extremely mixed."
3. Hemispheriec Specialization - Another intuitive idea is that PSI would be a "right brain" ability.
Again, the research findings are "inconclusive."
Cognitive Variables:
1. Intelligence - There is a positive correlation between IQ and PSI performance in lab studies. But,
the pattern is reversed for those who report "spontaneous" ESP experiences, with poor educational
background being the norm. Who are most often the lab subjects? Probably "college students" like
Pearce!
2. Michael Winkelman - claims that formal education reduces PSI ability. I think this is kind of a PSI
"folklore" belief, even being the topic of a "Twilight Zone" episode.
3. Childhood Abuse and Dissociation - (a) those who report spontaneous PSI tend to have
dissociative tendencies, (b) childhood trauma increases dissociative tendencies, (c) histories of abuse
are common among those reporting spontaneous PSI. So, does childhood trauma increase PSI
ability? Unclear, seems to be some sort of "logical syllogism" (incorrect logical reasoning) going on
here!
4. Psychological Absorbtion - The cognitive variable most consistently associated with PSI ability. It
involves both a "capacity" (ability) and a "need" to become completely, and effortlessly, focused on
the task at hand.
Gender Differences:
1. Women report spontaneous PSI more than men. However, Irwin believes this reflects NOT a real
gender difference in frequency BUT a greater willingness to report on the part of women (a similar
pattern exists among those seeking psychological treatment).
2. In lab studies, no gender difference has been found.
Irwin Chapter 5 ESP and Time
Louisa Rhine, Precognition in Dreams - Of the four types of case reports studied by Louisa Rhine,
precognitive experiences were most frequent in "realistic dreams."
A Freudian Explanation? - Louisa Rhine felt that the reason for this might be that future information
too distressing to be experienced consciously could only manifest itself through realistic dreams.
Tragic Nature of Precognition - While most ESP experiences have an emotional component,
precognitive experiences often tend to be "tragic" in nature. Favorites were the sinking of the Titanic
and the assassination of John F. Kennedy.
Louisa Rhine and Directionality of Precognition - Louisa Rhine felt that future information is
obtained by the "percipient" (one who perceives) reaching into the future, not by information traveling
backward into the past.
J. B. Rhine and the "Psychic Shuffle" - J. B. Rhine realized that in precognition studies involving
decks of shuffled cards, the experimenter might unconsciously / unintentionally use his own ESP to
access the predictions that had been made and bias the shuffle (order) of the deck.
The Precognition Paradox - Precognition implies one has access to information that does not yet
exist.
The Prevention Paradox - Worse still, if one could see into the future and take action to stop an
event, then the event would never have occurred so how could one have gained precognitive access
to it!
Four Theories of Precognition:
1. Quantum physics - suggest the possibility of subatomic particles that could move backward in time.
2. Nonlinearity of Time - Time is NOT linear as we tend to think of it. It is a plane within which one
can move about.
3. The "Intuitive Data Sorting Hypothesis” - Precognitions are really just unconscious inferences
(good guesses) based on factors that exist in the present (e.g., a loved one's poor health), formally
known as the "Intuitive Data Sorting Hypothesis." This seems the simplest explanation.
4. Precognition as Causality - The precognition is actually what causes the event to occur in the
future.
Scientists Reactions - Of all types of ESP, scientists are most uncomfortable with phenomena that
involve movement through time (i.e., pre and retro cognition).
The Data Don't Lie - The above may owe in part to the fact that of all types of ESP, experiments on
precognition have the poorest track record.
Retrocognition - Literally "backward knowing." The most often cited example if the "Dieppe Raid"
case.
Cryptomnesia - Provides a simple explanation which tends to discredit retrocognitive claims.
Retrocognition Cannot be Experimentally tested - To test retrocognition, a record of an event
must exist. However, if the percipient identifies the event, did they experience it retrocognitively OR
did they simply access the existing record on the event using simple ESP?
Irwin Chapter 6 Psychokinesis
Psychokinesis (PK) Defined - Literally means "movement by the mind or psyche." The experient's
"mind" has a direct impact on the environment.
Expressive PSI - PK is always "expressive" in that the experient "reaches out" into the environment
in one way or another. ESP, in contrast, can be expressive OR receptive. PK and ESP comprise the
"two fundamental forms of PSI."
Spontaneous PK - In Rhine's case reports, the stopping of a clock or watch at the time of a loved
one's death is common (this has a special meaning and history in folklore and legend). As with
precognition, content of spontaneous PK events tends to be "tragic." Over half of Rhine's case
reports were "death related."
Prevalence of PK - PK is comparatively rare. In Louisa Rhine's case reports, ESP outnumbered PK
experiences 50 to 1.
Is PK "Dangerous"? - One possible reason for this difference is that people might not want to
acknowledge or report PK experiences because of the "potentially unlimited destructive forces" PK
implies (just look at what "Carrie" did!).
PK as "Displacement" - (a la Freud) Accd. to J. B. Rhine, newly obtained knowledge of an event
may be too painful to enter into consciousness so the psychic "tension" it generates gets displaced
onto a physical object.
Common Spontnaeous PK Phenomena - Most common in Rhine's case reports was "falling
objects"(37%). Clock or watch stopping/starting was second at 27%.
J. B. Rhine and Dice Rolling - The laboratory task was eventually standardized to 24 throws of a
single die (using complex rolling devices). Probability of the "target" face is 1/6 so MCE would be 4
hits per run.
Random Event Generators (REGs) - In the 1970s, Helmut Schmidt designed devices in which
emitted radioactive particles determine the outcome of events. The methodology is superior to dice
rolling. A "criticism" of REG research is that the devices were tested for randomness over long series
of trials which did not rule out the possibility of "non-randomness" during the shorter experimental
runs.
PK Performance and Patterns:
1. PSI missing - subjects scoring "signficantly" below MCE (wrong more than would be expected by
chance) (fishing?)
2. The "focusing" effect - doing better when the target face is "6," perhaps a preference developed
playing board games in childhood.
3. Displacement - analyzing data to see if the subject's efforts are systematically influencing trials
before or after the actual target trial (more fishing?).
4. Clustering - does not seem to occur. Hits seem to be spaced throughout the runs.
Parapsychologist Charles Tart - Felt that PK ability could be improved by practice and feedback.
He designed "learning" devices for that purpose.
Subject Variables - Prior PK experiences predicted better performance in the lab. Also a relaxed
state seems to be conducive to PK in lab (counterintuitive).
Irwin Chapter 7 Special Topics in PK Research
PK and the Psychological Experimenter Effect (2 unconscious effects):
1. May use own ESP ability to identify subjects, targets, sequences favorable the hypothesis being
tested.
2. May use own ESP to influence equipment so as to produce positive data.
ANSPI - The existence of parapsychological abilities in animals. REGs connected to "half electrified
grids" have been used to test for precognition in a variety of small animals with some success.
Cockroaches - Appear to be "masochistic" because they moved to the half of the grid "to be
electrified" at greater than MCE in Helmut Schmidt's device. Was the "parapsychological
experimenter effect at work?"
Micro PK - Refers to PK effects that are discernable solely upon statistical analysis and are NOT
visible to an observer (e.g., dice rolling).
Macro PK - Refers to PK effects that can be observed (e.g., stopping a watch, making a pencil roll).
Nina Kulagina - Female Russian psychic whose macro PK abilities attracted attention during the
1960s. Though films of her were impressive (e.g., making a small glass inside a larger glass move
across a tabletop), the demonstrations were usually in her home or in hotel rooms and the conditions
were usually not well controlled.
Uri Geller - Israeli psychic who rose to prominence in the 1970s, doing ESP, mind reading, and PK
demonstrations. The originator of "spoon bending." He has been shown to cheat (cited in Irwin).
Mini Gellers - Are children who purportedly have "the power."
Nitonol - Is a special metal with a "memory." It can be bent, and when later heated will return to its
original shape. Removal of a nitonal object's "memory" has been taken as evidence of PK.
Importance of Metal Bending Research (2 points accd. to Irwin):
1. It is more "emotionally" compelling than micro PK findings (e.g., dice rolling)
2. Research into the "temporal course" of metal bending could give insights into the underlying
processes of PK.
Beloff's Challenge - Beloff (1985) has called for a demonstration that would definitively demonstrate
PK (e.g., the interlinking of two seamless rings of different materials). Hasn't happened yet.
Is Psychic Healing PK - Human research is problematic because of the placebo and other
psychological effects. Bernard Grad of McGill University claims to have reduced the growth of goiters
in mice placed on an iodine deficient diet. Physical contact from Hungarian psychic, Oskar Estebany
was the "treatment."
Psychic Photography - General term for the production of an image on unexposed film by
psychokinesis. Parapsychologists are not too comfortable with this method as fakery and sleight of
hand are so problematic.
Ted Serios - His "thought photographs" became a sensation during the 1970s. A "Polaroid" instant
camera would be aimed at his head and varous images would appear in the photos.
The "Gismo" - A gadget (small tube) that Serious was permitted to hold between the camera and his
head in some sessions.
Jule Eisenbud - The parapsychologist who found and promoted Serios.
Electronic Voice Phenomena (EVP) - First noted during the 1950s by parapsychologist Raymond
Bayless. Upon playback of magnetic recording tape, voice-like sounds are present that were not
noted at the time of the recording. Graveyards are a popular test site. Plausible explanations are
static, wind, leaves rustling, electromagnetica interference, etc.
Irwin on Psychic Photography and EVP - It seems unlikely that there exists a mechanical force
with "the dexterity to transform individual molecules of film or magnetic tape" to produce these
phenomena.
Irwin Chapter 8 Theories of PSI
Theories of PSI (4 Areas):
1. Mediational Theories - Deal with how inforamation moves through the environment.
2. Experiential Theories - Deal with how information is perceived.
3. Noncybernetic Theories - Abandon the idea of information exchange
4. Skeptical Theories - Look for more simple explanations.
I. Mediational Theories:
1. Electromagnetic Radiation - ELF (extremely low frequency) waves are not impeded by walls etc.
and affect some as yet unknown primitive brain system, perhaps involving the glial cells. Two
objections (problems), (a) PSI does not obey the "inverse square law" as other electromagnetic
radiations do, and (b) use of a "Faraday Cage" to screen out this radiation fails to affect hit rates in
PSI studies.
2. Energy Field Theory - (popular in the "East" and called "Psychotronics") the information carrying
particles are so small that they can pass through walls, etc. Of course, this means they would also
pass through the brain so their effect must occur as they are "passing through."
3. Elementary Particle Theory - electrons, tachyons, or hypothetical "psitrons" carry information (yes,
sounds just like #2 above). "Tachyons," are a favorite because they travel faster than the speed of
light. Thus, they COULD account for precognitive phenomena.
II. Experiential Theories (2):
1. Pseudosensory Models - suggest a "sixth sense" which handles PSI information the way our other
senses handle sights, sounds, etc.
2. Memory Models - information is obtained not from the environment but from "traces" within the
person's memory. E.g., In Irwin's model, the Zener "star" would activate similar looking "radial type
images or "traces" (flower, bicycle wheel, etc.) in long term memory. Irwin says there is a positive
corr. between ESP scores and long term memory skills.
III. Non-cybernetic theories - Specifically, Jung's "Synchronicity" theory of "meaningful coincidence."
Two events being connected by coincidence is a function of the natural world (e.g, dreaming
something and then it comes true). Neither event caused the other ("acausal") but they are
connected. British philosopher Antony Flew says this is "tautological" (circular) reasonsing. The
events are only meaningful because the coincidence exists. It is coincidence only because it is
meaningful.
IV. Skeptical Theories - Specifically "Goodfellow's" common sense idea that when people participate
in PSI studies, it is their efforts at guessing that make the sequence of guesses non-ramdom (and
sometimes significant). Gets a Fonzie two thumbs up!
Irwin Chapter 15 Belief in the Paranormal
Prevalence of Belief - Gallup poll data (1991) indicatete that a "majority" of the American population
believes in some paranormal processes.
Consequences of Investigation by Non-Parapsychologists (3):
1. A tendency to accociate belief with negative psychological characteristics (e.g., gullibility).
2. People's responses to questionnaires often show situation-related "response biases" due to
"demand characteristics" of the testing situation. If the researcher is a skeptic, the subject may
respond in a more skeptical way.
3. There is great variation in what "paranormal belief" includes, ranging from PSI phenomena only to
conceptualizations that include everything from witches to UFOs (sounds like Hines).
Irwin Has Put Forth a Four Category Model of Belief (based on statistical "cluster" analysis):
1. Traditional Religious Believers.
2. New Agers.
3. Tentative Believers.
4. Skeptics.
Four Theories of Belief:
I. Social marginality hypothesis - Marginalized groups such as the poorly educated, poverty
stricken, elderly believe because it brings various compensations (e.g., acceptance by other
believers).
1. Age Findings - are at odds with this theory, with belief being lower in the elderly. However,
because the reserach has been "cross-sectional," this could be a "cohort" (time) effect and not an age
effect.
2. Gender Research - indicates that women believe more in "non-technical" paranormal phenomena
such as superstition and astrology whereas men have stronger belief in UFOs and extraordinary life
forms such as bigfoot.
Support for the social marginality hypothesis is WEAK.
II. World view hypothesis - Zusne and Jones (1982) suggest that belief is part of a broader
"subjective" and "esoteric" world view (kind of a "new age" thing).
1. Belief has been found to correlate with a "dualist" philosophy regarding the "mind-body" distinction.
2. Belief has been associatied with an "external locus of control" (a sense of vulnerability to external
forces).
3. Believers score higher in "subjectivism" on Zusne and Jones' "Worldview Scale."
There does seem to be SOME SUPPORT for the world view hypothesis
III. Cognitive Deficits Hypothesis - Believers are assumed to be illogical, irrational, and lacking in
critical thinking skills.
1. Education - Though findings are mixed, there is a trend for believers to be lower in educational
achievement. Students in the "sciences" report lower belief than students of the "humanities."
2. Intelligence - No reliable patterns have been reported.
3. "Poor Critical Thinking Ability" - Has been demonstrated in believers in a number of studies, the
most well researched and consistent of the findings.
4. Fantasy Proneness - has been associated with belief.
Irwin makes NO CONCLUSION regarding the cognitive defecits hypothesis.
IV. Psychodynamic Functions (personality) Hypothesis - Beliefs are held because they meet
underlying needs of the person.
1. Social Alienation and Low Social Interest - are common among believers.
2. Narcissism and Dogmatism - correlate with belief, suggesting poor adjustment.
3. Irwin found that belief correlated negatively with psycholgical adjustment.
4. Schizotypy, Psychotic Tendency, and Magical Thinking - correlate with belief.
The evidence offers GENERAL SUPPORT for this hypothesis.
Functions and Origins of Belief - If believers and more poorly adjusted, what are the origins of their
problems?
1. Irwin believes there is a causal pattern going from childhood abuse to "fantasy proneness" to
paranormal belief.
2. Belief may create an "illusion of control" over things that don't make sense or are not within the
control of the individual.
3. French and Kerman (1996) found support for Irwins's ideas by using a sample in which abuse had
been documented (ruling out that the trauma itself could have been a fantasy).
So, If I Believe Do I have Problems?
No. The great majority of what was covered in this chapter represents "trends" with small effect
sizes, not absolutes or rules. Everybody believes in something that's not scientific. Maybe we
need to.
Irwin Chapter 17 Evaluation of Parapsychology as a Science
Accomplishments that Put it on Par with Other "Sciences"
1. J. B. Rhine - has done more than anyone else (a) applying accepted methods of scientific study,
(b) establishing research within a university setting, (c) establishing a professional journal.
2. Computers and REGS - provide examples of "tighter" experimental control.
3. A professional association - (The Parapsychological Association) was established in 1957 and a
committee on Standards and Ethics added in 1977 (membership is quite small however at under
150).
4. In 1969, the Association gained membership in the prestigious American Association for the
Advancement of Science (AAAS), a general organization for all sciences.
5. Self Monitoring - Takes place as evidenced by (a) the exposure of S. G. Soal's cheating and (b)
The 1974 "Levy affair (Levy was a researcher in Rhine's lab who presented fraudulent results.
The Position of Critics and Skeptics that hold back Parapsychological Research.
1. A priori assumptions - That the findings of parapsychologists "just can't be true." Irwin cites the
remarks of the famous physicist "Helmholz" as example.
2. The "Philosophy of Science" and "Ockham's Razor" - Perhaps the "most parsimonious"
explanation is not always the right one (it cuts off further inquiry). Do you agree?
3. Regarding Fraud - It may be more common than in other sciences. However, Irwin states that
"psychologists" are MORE likely to turn a "blind eye" to fraud in their field because "the experiment
probably would have turned out right anyway so the reader really isn't being misled."
4. Randi and Project Alpha - Irwin makes three points: (a) It did point out the usefulness of the
magician's expertise, (b) skeptics have seized upon it to discredit parpasychology, and (c) the ethics
of it were questionable.
5. Skeptic's use of ridicule Is exemplified by CSICOP's own journal, the "Skeptical Inquirer." - By
placing parapsychology on par with astrology, vampires, the Bermuda Triange, etc., it creates a "Guilt
By Association" situation.
6. Highly regarded journals such as "Nature" and "Science"- are reluctant to publish articles with
positive findings.
7. One's chances of promotion or tenure (in university settings) could be harmed by undertaking such
research.
Two Contemporary Movements that Provide Optimism:
1. Postmodernism (which Hines appears to not take too seriously) - Is a movement that rejects
the mechanism, reductionism, and determinism which characterizes 20th century science.
2. An approach rooted in Feminism? - Irwin sees current science as dominated by male traits such
as in the desire to subdue, control, and dominate nature. He points to the Rhines work together (J.
B.'s dedication to the scientific method and Louisa's sensitivity to the personal aspects of her case
studies) as a model for a better combined approach.
Irwin's Final Words - Self deception, delusion and fraud do exist. However, there is some positive
evidence for parapsychological phenomena. Thus, "behavioral scientists ethically are obligated to
encourage the investigation of these phenomena rather than dismissing them out of hand."