Reading List for Day One Comprehensive Examination December 2013 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL DEMOGRAPHY Overview 1. Caldwell, J. C. 1996. “Demography and Social Science” Population Studies 50: 309-316. 2. Greenhalgh, S. 1996. “The Social Construction of Population Science: An Intellectual, Institutional, and Political History of Twentieth Century Demography.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 38(1): 26-66. 3. Hauser, Philip M., and Otis Dudley Duncan. 1959. “The Nature of Demography.” Pp. 29-44 in The Study of Population, edited by P.M. Hauser and O.D. Duncan. Chicago:University of Chicago Press. 4. Keyfitz, N. 1993. "Thirty Years of Demography and Demography." Demography 30: 533-549. 5. Crimmins, Eileen M. 1993. “Demography: The Past 30 Years, the Present, and the Future.” Demography 30: 579-591. 6. Micklin, Michael, and Dudley L. Poston. 2006. “Prologue; The Demographer’s Ken: 50 Years of Growth and Change.” Pp. 1-15 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 7. Yu Xie. 2000. “Demography: past, present, and future,” Journal of the American Statistical Association 95 (450): 670-673. 8. J. McFalls, Jr, 2007. A Population: A Lively Introduction. Population Bulletin, Vol. 53, No.3 (Washington D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Inc, March 2007) http://www.prb.org/pdf07/62.1LivelyIntroduction.pdf 9. Micklin, Michael, and Dudley L. Poston. 2006. “Prologue; The Demographer’s Ken: 50 Years of Growth and Change.” Pp. 1-15 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. (Google Books) 10. Duncan, G.J. 2008. “When to Promote, and When to Avoid, a Population Perspective.” Demography, 45 (4): 763-784. Theoretical Perspectives 11. Weeks, John R. 2008. “Demographic Perspectives.” Pp. 66-106 in Population: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues, 10th Edition. Wadsworth. 1 12. Johnson-Hanks, J. 2006. “What Kind of Theory for Anthropological Demography?” Demographic Research 16(1): 1-26. 13. Kirk, D. 1996. “The Demographic Transition.” Population Studies 50: 361388. 14. Link, Bruce G. 2008. “Epidemiological Sociology and the Shaping of Population Health.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49(4): 367-384. 15. Riley, Nancy E. 2006. “Demography of Gender.” Pp. 109-141 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 16. Carey, James R., and James W. Vaupel. 2006. “Biodemography.” Pp. 625-658 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. Basic Data Sources and Techniques 18. Bryan, Thomas. 2004. “Basic Sources of Statistics.” Pp. 9-39 in The Methods and Materials of Demography, 2nd Edition, edited by J.S. Siegel and D.A. Swanson. Elsevier. 19. Preston, Samuel H. 1993 "The Contours of Demography: Estimates and Projections." Demography 30:593-606. 20. Weeks, John R. 2002. “Demographic Data.” Pp. 41-77 in Population: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues, 8th edition. Wadsworth. 21. Palmore, James A. and Robert W. Gardner. 1996. Measuring Fertility, Mortality, and Natural Increase. Honolulu: East-West Center, pp. 1-34. (Through standardization). 22. Moffitt, R. 2005. “Remarks on the Analysis of Causal Relationships in Population Research.” Demography 42(1): 91-108. 23. McDade, Thomas W., Sharon Williams, and J. Josh Snodgrass. 2007. “Integrating Biomarkers Into Population-Based Research.” Demography 44(4): 899-926. 24. Bhrolcháin, Máire Ní and Tim Dyson. 2007. "On Causation in Demography: Issues and Illustrations." Population and Development Review 33:1-36. FERTILITY Overview 1. Morgan, S. Philip, and Kellie J. Hagewen. 2006. “Fertility.” Pp. 229-249 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 2. Davis, Kingsley, and Judith Blake. 1956. “Social Structure and Fertility: An Analytic Framework.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 4: 211235. 2 3. Newell, C. 1988. Methods and Models in Demography. New York: Guilford Press. Chapter 4, Period Fertility; and Chapter 5, Cohort Fertility. pp. 35-61, and pp. 167-174. 4. Schmertmann, Carl. 2003. "A system of model fertility schedules with graphically intuitive parameters," Demographic Research 9:81-110. 5. Pollak, Robert A. and Watkins, Susan Cotts. 1993. “Cultural and economic approaches to fertility: Proper marriage or mesalliance?” Population and Development review. 19: 467-496. 6. Bongaarts, John. 1982. "The Fertility-inhibiting Effects of the Intermediate Fertility Variables," Studies in Family Planning 13: 179-189. 7. Marteleto, Letícia J. and Molly Dondero*. 2013. “Maternal Age at First Birth and Adolescent Education in Brazil.” Demographic Research 28:793-820. The Fertility Transition 8. Mason, K. O. 1997. “Explaining fertility transitions.” Demography 34(4): 443-54. 9. Axinn, William G. and Jennifer S. Barber 2001. “Mass education and fertility transition.” American Sociological Review, 66(4): 481-505. 10. Cleland, John and Christopher Wilson. 1987. “Demand theories of the fertility transition: An iconoclastic view.” Population Studies 41:5-30. 11. Lesthaeghe, Ron. 1995. “ The Second Demographic Transition in Western Countries: An Interpretation,” In: Gender and Family Change in Industrialized Countries, edited by Karen O. Mason and An-Magritt Jensen. 17-62 pp. Clarendon Press: Oxford, England. 12. McLanahan, Sara. 2004. “Children and the Second Demographic Transition.” Demography 41(4): 607-627. 13. Bongaarts, John and Watkins, Susan C. 1996. Social interactions and contemporary fertility transitions. Population and Development Review, Vol. 22, No. 4, Dec. pp. 639-82 14. Potter, Joseph E. Carl P. Schmertmann, and Suzana M. Cavenaghi. (2002). “Fertility and Development in Brazil.” Demography 39(4): 739-762. 15. Cai, Y. (2010). “China's Below-Replacement Fertility: Government Policy or Socioeconomic Development?“ Population and Development Review. 36:41916. Tsui, A. O. 2001. “Population Policies, Family Planning Programs and Fertility: The Record,” Population and Development Review 27 (Suppl): 184204. 17. Caldwell JC, Schindlmayr T. 2003. “Explanations of the fertility crisis in modern societies: A search for commonalities.” Population Studies 57 (3): 241-263. 18. Potter, J. E., Schmertmann, C. P., Assunção, R. M., and Cavenaghi, S. M. 2010. Mapping the timing, pace, and scale of the fertility transition in 3 Brazil, Population and Development Review 36(2):283-307. PMCID in process. 19. Pollak, Robert A. and Watkins, Susan Cotts. 1993. “Cultural and economic approaches to fertility: Proper marriage or mesalliance?” Population and Development review. 19: 467-496. Fertility Transitions in Developing Countries and Low Fertility 20. Bledsoe, Caroline, Fatoumatta Banja, and Allan G. Hill. 1998. Reproductive mishaps and western contraception: An African challenge to fertility theory.” Population and Development Review. 24: 15-57. 21. Axinn, William G. and Jennifer S. Barber 2001. “Mass education and fertility transition.” American Sociological Review, 66(4): 481-505. 22. Bongaarts, J., O. Frank, et al. (1984). "The Proximate Determinants of Fertility in Sub-Saharan Africa." Population and Development Review 10(3): 511-537. 23. Morgan, S. Philip. 2003. “Is Low Fertility a Twenty-First-Century Demographic Crisis?” Demography 40:589-603 24. Bongaarts, John. 2002. “The End of the Fertility Transition in the Developed World.” Population and Development Review 28(3): 419-444. 25. McDonald, Peter. 2006. Low fertility and the state: The efficacy of policy. Population and Development Review, 32(3). 26. Bongaarts, J. 2001. “Fertility and Reproductive Preferences in PostTransitional Societies.” In Bulatao and Casterline (eds) Global Fertility Transition. 27. Schmertmann, C. P., Assunção, R. M., and Potter, J. E. 2010. Knox meets Cox: Adapting epidemiological space-time statistics to demographic studies. Demography 47(3): 629-650 Family and Fertility 28. Bumpass, Larry L. (1990). “What’s Happening to the Family?” Demography, 27: 483-498. 29. Raley, R. Kelly. 2001. Increasing Fertility in Cohabiting Unions: Evidence for the Second Demographic Transition in the United States?” Demography 38(1): 59-66. 30. Cooke, L. P. and J. Baxter. 2010. "Families" in International Context: Comparing Institutional Effects Across Western Societies. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 516-536. 31. Waite, Linda J. 2006. “Marriage and Family.” Pp. 87-108 in The Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 32. Musick, K. et al. (2009). “Education Differences in Intended and Unintended Fertility” Social Forces, 88: 543-572. 4 33. Cherlin, Andrew J. "The deinstitutionalization of American marriage." Journal of Marriage and Family 66.4 (2004): 848-861. 34. Bumpass, Larry L. (1990). “What’s Happening to the Family?” Demography, 27: 483-498. 35. Lesthaeghe, R and Neidert. (2006). “The Second Demographic Transition in the United States: Exception or Textbook Example? Population and Development Review 32(4): 485-510. 36. Marteleto, Letícia J. and Laetícia R. de Souza. 2012. “The Impact of Family Size on Children’s Educational Attainment over Time: Assessing the Exogenous Variation in Fertility using Twins in Brazil.” Demography 49(4): 1453-1477. 37. Marteleto, Letícia J. and Laetícia R. de Souza. “Family Size, Gender and Adolescents’ Education and Work in Brazil.” Social Forces. Forthcoming. Contraception and unwanted pregnancies 38. Johnson-Hanks, J. 2002. On the modernity of traditional contraception: Time and the social context of fertility. Population and Development Review 28 (2): 229ff. 39. Potter, J. E. 1999. “The Persistence of Outmoded Contraceptive Regimes: The Cases of Mexico and Brazil”. Population and Development Review 25(4): 703-739. 40. Musick, K. et al. (2009). “Education Differences in Intended and Unintended Fertility” Social Forces, 88: 543-572. Casterline, J.B.and S.W. Sinding. 2000. "Unmet need for family planning in develo 41. Trussell, J. (2004). "Contraceptive failure in the United States." Contraception 70(2): 89-96. 42. Casterline, J. B., and L. O. El-Zeini. 2007. The Estimation of Unwanted Fertility. Demography 44(4):729-745. 43. Santelli, J.S., L.D. Lindberg, L.B. Finer, and S. Singh. 2007. "Explaining recent declines in adolescent pregnancy in the United States: The contribution of abstinence and improved contraceptive use." American Journal of Public Health 97(1):150-156. 44. Smith, Herbert, Morgan, S. Philip and Tanya Koropeckyj-Cox. 1996. “A Decomposition of Trends in the Nonmarital Fertility Ratios of Blacks and Whites in the United States, 1960-92. Demography, 33: 141-51. 45. Marteleto, Letícia J., David Lam and Vimal Ranchhod. 2008. “Sexual Behavior, Childbearing and Schooling in Urban South Africa.” Studies in Family Planning 39(4): 351-368. MORTALITY Overview 5 1. Preston, S. H. (1996). "Population Studies of Mortality." Population Studies 50(3): 525-536. 2. Arias, E. 2012. “United States Life Tables, 2008.” National Vital Statistics Reports 61(3): 1-64. 3. Lochner, K., R.A. Hummer, S. Bartee, G. Wheatcroft, and C. Cox. 2008. “The Public-Use National Health Interview Survey Linked Mortality Files: Methods of Re-identification Risk Avoidance and Comparative Analysis.” American Journal of Epidemiology 168(3): 336-344. 4. Weeks, John R. 2002. “Demographic Data.” Pp. 41-77 in Population: An Introduction to Concepts and Issues, 8th edition. Wadsworth. 5. Moffitt R 2005. Remarks on the analysis of causal relationships in population research Demography 42 (1): 91-108. 6. Martin, Molly A. 2006. “Family Structure and Income Inequality in Families with Children, 1976 to 2000. Demography, 43: 421-445 Epidemiological Transition 7. Bongaarts, J. 2006. “How Long will We Live?” Population and Development Review 32: 605-628. 8. Omran, Abdel R. 1982. “Epidemiologic Transition.” Pp. 172-183 in International Encyclopedia of Population, edited by John Ross. The Free Press, Volume 1. 9. Olshansky, J., and Brian Ault. 1986. “The Fourth Stage of the Epidemiologic Transition: the Age of Degenerative Diseases.” The Milbank Quarterly 64(3): 355-391. 10. Olshansky et al. (1997): "Infectious Diseases -- New and Ancient Threats to World Health." Population Bulletin 52(2). 11. Colgrove J. (2002). The McKeown thesis: A historical controversy and its enduring influence. American Journal of Public Health 92 (5): 725-729 12. Kuhn, Randall. 2010. Routes to Low Mortality in Poor Countries Revisited. Population and Development Review, 36(4): 655-692. 13. Link, B.G., and J.C. Phelan. 2002. “McKeown and the Idea That Social Conditions Are Fundamental Causes of Disease.” American Journal of Public Health 92(5): 730-734. 14. Szreter, S. 2002. “Rethinking McKeown: The Relationship Between Public Health and Social Change.” American Journal of Public Health 92(5): 722725. 15. Cutler D, and G. Miller . (2005). The role of public health improvements in health advances: The twentieth-century United States Demography 42 (1): 122. 16. Barker, David JP. 2007. "The origins of the developmental origins theory." Journal of Internal Medicine 261:412-417. 6 17. Crimmins, Eileen M and Caleb E Finch. 2006. "Infection, inflammation, height, and longevity." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103:498. 18. Heuveline, P. et al. (2002). “The uneven tides of the health transition” pp. 313-322. Social Science and Medicine. 19. Martin, L. G. et al (2010). “Trends in Health of Older Adults in the United States: Past, Present, Future.” Demography 47: S17-S40. Infant Mortality 20. Geronimus, Arline T. 1992. “The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations.” Ethnicity and Disease 2: 210-224. 21. Frisbie, W. Parker. 2006. “Infant Mortality.” Pp. 251-282 in Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 22. Gortmaker, Stephen L. and Paul H. Wise. (1997). “The First Injustice: Socioeconomic Disparities, Health Services Technology, and Infant Mortality.” Annual Review of Sociology 23: 147-170. 23. Powers, D.A. 2013. “Paradox Revisited: A Further Investigation of Racial/Ethnic Differences in Infant Mortality by Maternal Age.” Demography 50: 495-520. 1. Eberstein, I. W., C. B. Nam, et al. (1990). "Infant Mortality by Cause of Death: Main and Interaction Effects." Demography 27(3): 413-430. 2. Finch, B. K. (2003). "Early Origins of the Gradient: The Relationship between Socioeconomic Status and Infant Mortality in the United States." Demography 40(4): 675-699. 3. Hamilton, E. R., Villareal, A. and R. A. Hummer. 2009. “Mother's, Household, and Community US Migration Experience and Infant Mortality in Rural and Urban Mexico” Population research and policy review 28:123 -142 4. Landale, Nancy S., R.S. Oropesa, and Bridget K. Gorman. 2000. “Migration and Infant Death: Assimilation or Selective Migration among Puerto Ricans?” American Sociological Review 65(6): 888-909. 5. Hummer, Robert A., Daniel A. Powers, Starling G. Pullum, Ginger L. Gossman, and W. Parker Frisbie. 2007. "Paradox Found (Again): Infant Mortality Among the Mexican-Origin Population in the United States." Demography 44:44-457. 6. Hummer, Robert A, Monique Biegler, Peter B. de Turk, Douglas Forbes, W. Parker Frisbie, Ying Hong, and Starling Pullum. 1999. "Race/Ethnicity, Nativity, and Infant Mortality in the Unites States." Social Forces. 77 (3): 1083-1118. Adult Mortality and Differentials 7 7. Case, A., and C. Paxson. 2005. “Sex Differences in Morbidity and Mortality.” Demography 42(2): 189-214. 8. Rogers, Richard, Robert Hummer, and Patrick Krueger. 2006. “Adult Mortality.” Pp. 283-310 in Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 9. Yang, Y. 2008. “Trends in U.S. Adult Chronic Disease Mortality, 1960-1999: Age, Period, and Cohort Variations.” Demography 45(2): 387-416. 10. Masters, R.K., R.A. Hummer, and D.A. Powers. 2012. “Educational Differences in U.S. AdultMortality: A Cohort Perspective.” American Sociological Review 77(4): 548-572. 11. Brown, Dustin C., Mark D. Hayward, Jennifer Karas Montez, Robert A. Hummer, Chi-Tsun Chiu, and Mira M. Hidajat. 2012. “The Significance of Education for Mortality Compression in the United States.” Demography 49 (3) (August 1): 819–840. 12. Palloni A and Arias E. 2005. Paradox lost: Explaining the Hispanic adult mortality advantage. Demography 41 (3): 385-415. Race, Gender and Marital Status Differences in Mortality and Life Expectancy 1. Rogers, R. G. (1992). "Living and Dying in the U.S.A.: Sociodemographic Determinants of Death Among Blacks and Whites." Demography 29(2): 287303 2. Hayward, M. D., T. P. Miles, et al. (2000). "The Significance of Socioeconomic Status in Explaining the Racial Gap in Chronic Health Conditions." American Sociological Review 65(6): 910-930. 3. Geruso, M. 2012. “Black-White Disparities in Life Expectancy: How Much Can the Standard SES Variables Explain?” Demography 49(2): 553-574. 4. Geronimus, A. T., J. Bound, et al. (2001). "Inequality in Life Expectancy, Functional Status, and Active Life Expectancy across Selected Black and White Populations in the United States." Demography 38(2): 227-251. 5. Geronimus, A., et al. 2006. “Weathering and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores among Blacks and Whites in the United States.” American Journal of Public Health 96(5): 826-833. 6. Harper, Sam, John Lynch, Scott Burris, and George Davey Smith. 2007. “Trends in the Black-White Life Expectancy Gap in the United States, 19832003.” JAMA 297(11): 1224-1232. 7. Akresh, Ilana Redstone, and Reanne Frank. 2008. "Health selection among new immigrants." American Journal of Public Health 98:2058. 8. Antecol, Heather and Bedard, Kelly. 2006 Unhealthy Assimilation: Why Do Immigrants Converge to American Health Status Levels? Demography. 43 (2): 337-360. 8 9. Cho, Youngtae, W. Parker Frisbie, Robert A. Hummer, and Richard G. Rogers. 2004. "Nativity, Duration of Residence, and the Health of Hispanic Adults in the United States." International Migration Review 38:184-211 10. Lopez-Gonzalez, Lorena, Veronica C. Aravena, and Robert A. Hummer. 2005. "Immigrant Acculturation, Gender and Health Behavior: A Research Note." Social Forces 84:581-593. 11. House, James S., Karl R. Landis, and Debra Umberson. 1988. "Social relationships and health." Science 241:540. 12. Umberson, D. et al. (2006). You make me sick: Marital quality and health over the life course. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 47: 1-16 MIGRATION Overview 1. Brown, S.K., and F.D. Bean. 2006. “International Migration.” Chapter 12 (Pp. 347-382) in Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 2. Massey, Douglas, et al. 1993. “Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal.” Population and Development Review 19: 431-466. 3. Zlotnik, Hania. 2004. "Population Growth and International Migration." Pp. 15-34 in International Migration: Prospects and Policies in a Global Market, edited by D. S. Massey and J. E. Taylor. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4. Hagan, J.M. 1998. “Social Networks, Gender, and Immigrant Incorporation: Resources and Constraints.” American Sociological Review 63: 55-67. 5. Massey, D.S., et a. 1994. “An Evaluation of International Migration Theory: The North American Case.” Population and Development Review 20(4): 699751. 6. Massey, D.S. and K.E. Espinosa. 1997. “What’s Driving Mexico-U.S. Migration? A Theoretical, Empirical, and Policy Analysis.” American Journal of Sociology 102(4): 939-999. 7. Portes, A. 2007. “Migration, Development, and Segmented Assimilation: A Conceptual Review of the Evidence.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 610: 73-97. 8. Feliciano, C. 2005. Educational selectivity in US immigration: How do immigrants compare to those left behind? Demography, 42 (1): 131-152. Causes/ Theories of International Migration 9. Lee, Everett S. 1966. "A Theory of Migration." Demography 3:47-57. 9 10. Feliciano, Cynthia. 2005. "Educational Selectivity in U.S. Immigration: How Do Immigrants Compare to Those Left Behind?" Demography 42:131-152. 11. Kandel, William and Douglas S. Massey. 2002. "The Culture of Mexican Migration: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis." Social Forces 80:9811004. 12. Curran, Sara R., Steven Shafer, Katharine M. Donato, and Filiz Garip. 2006. "Mapping Gender and Migration in Sociological Scholarship: Is It Segregation or Integration?" International Migration Review 40:199-223. 13. Lindstrom, D.P., Lauster, N., 2001. Local economic opportunity and the competing risks of internal and U.S. migration in Zacatecas, Mexico. International Migration Review 35, 1232–1256 Spatial Demography and Residential Segregation 14. Alba, Richard, and Victor Nee. 1997. "Rethinking Assimilation Theory for a New Era of Immigration." International Migration Review 31:826-874 15. Logan JR, Stults BJ, Farley R. 2004. Segregation of minorities in the metropolis: Two decades of change. Demography 41 (1): 1-22 16. South, S. J., K. Crowder and E. Chavez. 2005. “Migration and spatial assimilation among US Latinos: Classical versus segmented trajectories” Demography 45 (1): 1-29 17. Brown, D.L., and W.A. Kandel. 2006. “Rural America Through a Demographic Lens.” Chapter 1 (Pp. 3-23) in Population Change and Rural Society, edited by W.A. Kandel and D.L. Brown. Springer. 18. Fossett, M. 2006. “Urban and Spatial Demography.” Chapter 16 (Pp. 479524) in Handbook of Population, edited by D.L. Poston and M. Micklin. Springer. 19. Iceland, J. and M. Scopilliti. 2008. “Immigrant residential segregation in US metropolitan areas, 1990-2000.” Demography 45(1):79-94. 20. Massey, D.S. 1990. “American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass.” American Journal of Sociology 96(2): 329-357. 21. Jargowsky PA. 1996. “Take the money and run: Economic segregation in US metropolitan areas.” American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 984-998. Labor Market/ Migration and Development 22. Akresh, Ilana Redstone. 2008. "Occupational Trajectories of Legal US Immigrants: Downgrading and Recovery." Population and Development Review 34:435-456. 23. Luthra, Renee Reichl, and Roger Waldinger. 2010. "Into the Mainstream? Labor Market Outcomes of Mexican-Origin Workers." International Migration Review 44:830-868. 24. Eichenlaub, S. et al (2010). “Moving Out but Not Up: Economic Outcomes in the Great Migration. American Sociological Review 75: 101-125 10 25. Glick, Jennifer E., and Bryndl Hohmann-Marriott. 2007. "Academic Performance of Young Children in Immigrant Families: The Significance of Race, Ethnicity, and National Origins." International Migration Review 41:371-402. 26. Massey, D.S., Parrado, E., 1994. Migradollars: the remittances and savings of Mexican migrants to the USA. Population Research and Policy Review 13, 3– 30. 27. Massey, D.S., Parrado, E.A., 1998. International migration and business formation in Mexico. Social Science Quarterly 79, 1–20. 28. Xie, Yi and Emily Greenman. 2011. “The Social Context of Assimilation” Testing Implications of Segmented Assimilation Theory.” Social Science Research, 40(3): 965-984. 29. Eichenlaub, S. et al (2010). “Moving Out but Not Up: Economic Outcomes in the Great Migration. American Sociological Review 75: 101-125 11 1. 12