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The Romans adopted the Greek styles of columns early in their history probably due to contact with Greek colonists in Italy.
There are three orders of Greek columns:
1. The Doric Order – often plain in appearance, slightly fat and lacking a base
2. The Ionic Order – elegant, narrow, tall and crowned by the distinctive
capital decorated simply with ram-horn volutes
3. The Corinthian Order – like Ionic columns but crowned by a seeming floral
display. Roman Corinthian capitals sometimes contain
ram-horns too but it is the acanthus leaves that
appear to grow organically that define Corinthian columns.
Columns are often fluted – ridges running down the shaft of the column – but may also sometimes be plain.

A brief note of the influences on Roman Temples
Reconstruction of a typical Etruscan (aka Tuscan) temple
Reconstruction of a typical Greek temple
Vitruvian Architecture is not necessarily a type of architecture
Vitruvius was a Roman architect who wrote a treatise on Architecture. According to Vitruvius a building must conform to 3 basic principals: firmitas (it must be built using strong and durable materials), utilitas
(its design must be functional and usable) & venustas (it must be beautiful to behold). According to
Vitruvius, Roman architecture was the culmination of a long history that began when the Greeks first began to play with proportionality, durability and beauty. Simply put, Vitruvian architecture refers to a building that conforms to these 3 Vitruvian principals.

Roman temples combine elements of Graeco-Etruscan temples.
The Etruscans influenced early Roman temples considerably. Etruscan temples were more modest in character than Greek ones and were frontal – the back was of no consequence. They were also raised above the ground on a podium and consisted of a portico (porch) and a cella (the inner sanctum). They were also almost if not completely square and so normally featured just four columns in the portico.
Greek temples by contrast were monumental and austere edifices. They were also rectangular and many, including the Parthenon in Athens, were influenced by the
Pythagorean Golden Ratio of proportion known today as

(phi). Though they had a front, every side was decorated in equal measure and they were usually peripteral , which means that, they were surrounded by a sheltered colonnade or peristyle.
They also were normally set upon just three steps and featured two porticos: one front (pronaos) and one back (opisthodomus), each of which, had access to the naos (cella) where the cult image was housed.
The Roman hybrid above combines Graeco-Etruscan elements in a tasteful new style.
The temple is frontal and composed of just a cella and a deep portico. It is set upon a high podium and accessed by a grand staircase at the front. The temple is pseudo-peripteral – a common feature of Roman temple architecture – meaning that the illusion of being peripteral is created by the engaged columns of the cella’s back and side walls. They were also rectangular, being influenced by Greek notions of architectural beauty or aesthetics.

Styles
Symmetry dictates that the number of columns of a rectangular temple portico is even. We count in Greek. When the number of columns in a given portico are
4
6
8
10
–
–
–
– we say tetrastyle we say hexastyle we say octostyle we say decastyle
ROMAN RECTANGULAR TEMPLES
Wheeler only cites 5 rectangular temples
1.
Wheeler mentions The Temple of Rome and Augustus at Lepcis Magna simply in passing because unlike most other temples it featured a flight of
2. secret or lateral stairs in front of the portico. That is all he says about that temple. - See Wheeler, p.90, fig.65.
He mentions The Temple of Capitoline Jupiter in Rome because as an old Roman temple
(dedicated in 509BC) that was destroyed and rebuilt many times in the history of the city it was very large, measuring 185x200 feet and it counts as the earliest example in early Rome of “the thick pillared entrance facade which was to become a characteristic feature of Roman temples.” He also says that it broke slightly with the Vitruvian scheme of the Tuscan temple in the sense that it was almost peripteral like a Greek temple; flanked by two colonnades that ended at the back wall. Like a Greek temple it also featured a deep hexastyle portico of 18 columns, consisting 3 rows of 6. The temple was dedicated to the Capitoline triad of
Jupiter Optimus Maximus (who sees everything), his queen Juno and their daughter
Minerva: goddess of wisdom.
These illustrations are NOT IN WHEELER
Central building =Temple of Capitoline Jupiter in Rome Plan of Temple
3.
The Capitolium at Thuburbo Majus, near Tunis with its impressive flight of steps up to the towering
podium is pictured on p.66 along with part of the wall of The Temple of Capitoline Jupiter in Rome but he says little about them.
Wheeler only focuses on two rectangular temples, the others are mentioned purely to highlight the elements of a typically Roman temple.

4.
The Maison Carrée at Nimes, France – p.92, fig.68
Description

Probably built in 16BC, so it represents temples of the Augustan Age.

Originally the podium stood on a platform raised in the forum of the colony and was surrounded by porticoes. The modern square is built over the Roman forum and the porticoes have since disappeared; replaced by the buildings of the town.

Hexastyle

Pseudo-peripteral

Deep portico

Corinthian order - carved in local limestone

A frieze on the entablature boasting tendril patterns

The abaci feature flute-like leaf motifs typical of the early empire.
Additional information NOT IN WHEELER
The Temple was built by Marcus Agrippa, a close personal friend of Caesar Augustus who also bu ilt the original Pantheon. It was originally dedicated to Augustus’ two adopted heirs, who died young: Lucius and Gaius Caesar ( not the famous Gaius Julius Caesar, Augustus’ father by posthumous adoption ).
5.
Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon as a fine example of Roman temple interiors
Wheeler, pp.93-
Exterior Description:

The site was built by Emperor Caracalla 211-217AD but the temple itself was completed much later – probably in the mid-to late second century.

Temple appears Greek from the ouside and is aligned on an east-west axis with entrance Facing east like Greek temples.

Peripteral colonnade of unfluted Corinthian columns

Deep portico framed by six fluted Corinthian columns

Colonnade is roofed by convex monolithic blocks richly carved with busts of Mars (god of War),
Ganymede (A Trojan prince who was beloved to Jupiter and brought to Heaven to be his cupbearer) , Ceres (goddess of Corn), Vulcan (god of Fire and Craft) and a local city deity.
 Entrance to the cella is gained through a “riotously ornate” frame that is flanked by two towers concealing spiral stairs to the roof – common in some Near Eastern, Sicilian and Southern Italian
temples. Wheeler does not say why the architect included access to the roof but we can guess that it was for public cult rituals viewed by a devoted audience outside.
Interior Description

Lavishly decorated and wholly different to the bare austere and very Greek seeming exterior.

Floor was marble, whilst the flat roof was coffered between the beams

Walls feature pilasters, enlarged by half Corinthian columns set on pedastals which are in turn set upon a three stepped dado – suggestive of Greek temples.

Two tiers of niches are set between the pilasters. The lower tier boast arched niches, whilst the upper tier boasts triangular ones. They suggest miniature temples and cult images may have been set into them.

At the top of the wall right the way around between the Cornthian engaged capitals and the rood is a decorated entablature boasting elaborate relief carvings.
 There is a flight of 9 steps streching from wall to wall about ¾ way into the cella. This leads to an upper level before a lavish baldachin – a fake structure housing the cult image – set into a recess at the back of the cella and flanked by two large pilasters. It is accessed by a flight of 6 steps to the centre.

2004 Higher Paper
Topic 10. Roman Art and Architecture
(iv) Photograph H on Paper X of Bacchus at Baalbek.
shows the Maison Carrée at Nimes. Photograph I shows the temple
(a) Give a full description of the Maison Carrée. (35)
(b) Study Photograph I and identify one Greek feature and one Roman feature of this temple. (15)
Photograph H was Wheeler, p. 92, picture 68 & Photograph I was picture 71 on p.95
Marking scheme for 2004 Higher paper, Topic 10
(iv)
(a) 35 marks (12,12,11)
Three well developed points are required. The description could include the steps, porch, Corinthian columns, material, orientation, engaged columns.
(b) 15 marks (8,7)
Greek feature – peristyle
Roman features – high platform, Corinthian columns, deep porch, steps, size
As you can see the simple answer answered the simple question. Just 3 clearly explained Roman features of the Maison Carrée earned full marks and just two sentences without explanations, one for the Greek feature and one for the Roman feature of the Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek earned 15 marks.
Attempt this question only in this case give a full description of all the architectural features in the Maison
Carrée for (a) and identify as many Greek and as many Roman features as you can for the Temple of
Bacchus at Baalbek.
Pay attention to the Marking Scheme however. I want clear and concise answers without any waffle.
Length is not important but content is and Wheeler doesn’t devote much time to these temples himself so the answers should not be any longer than a page at the most. Realistically speaking you have only got 25 minutes to do each question in the exam. Time yourself when doing this homework and note how long it takes you. Be truthful because if you lie to me, then you are only fooling yourself! I’m not the one that has to sit the exam.

Round Temples
Wheeler cites 3 round temples in support for his main focus: The Pantheon in Rome
1.
The so-called Temple of Venus at Baalbek, Lebanon p.97
Date: late 2 nd – Early 3 rd century AD
A tetrastyle Corinthian portico and peripteral round temple aligned on a north-west to south-east axis. The entrance is on the north-western side. The broken pediment of the portico is a hybrid, containing a central arch that breaks through the tympanum. The unfluted Corinthian columns encircling the rotunda cella feature five sided capitals and the rotunda itself was covered by a masonry dome. The architrave is concave between each column as is the high 9.5ft podium.
Additional information not in Wheeler
Scholars have identified this temple as that of Venus because of its relatively small size and its location in the temple complex at Baalbek. It is to the side, almost hidden from view of the main temples of Jupiter and
Bacchus. It is likely that the Near Eastern goddess Astarte (goddess of War and Love) was worshipped here and that the Romans at Baalbek matched her to Venus. Her cult would have appeared barbaric to the
Romans as it called for ritual prostitution and perhaps it is for this reason that it is so small and tucked away to the side, out of view.
2. Wheeler p.100 & 102
The Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, near Rome
He mentions this for the frieze decorated in Hellenistic fashion with ox-heads linked by garlands and probably dates to the early 1 st century BC. It was made of tufa (a hard volcanic rock), Travertine marble and concrete and was in the Crorinthian order.
3. Wheeler, p.101 and 102
He also mentions the Temple of Vesta in Rome on the banks of the River Tiber now the church of Santa
Maria del Sole. It is built primarily of Pentalic marble and raised on a low tufa podium of three steps after the Greek fashion and probably dates to the mid 1 st century BC. He coinsiders it an archaism (a throw back to olden times) for its seemingly Greek character. These circular or polygonal temples occur throughout
Europe and Britain where they count as a Romano-Celtic style
4. Wheeler pp.103, 104 & 105
The Pantheon in Rome
He gives a very brief description of the Pantheon but he does include a picture of the interior three poor pictures of the exterior, from which you must work in describing the interior to the best of your ability.
His main reason for citing the temple in his book is to show the disharmony between the portico as representative of the rectangular temple scheme and the domed rotunda cella as representative of the circular temple scheme.
Despite this however, the examiner will expect you to be able to describe the temple and to know something about its history.
The present day building was built in the time of Emperor Hadrian AD126
Dedicated to the 7 planetary deties: The Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Saturn & Jupiter
It was intended to be a simulacrum (to simulate) the all-containing Cosmos.
But
The disharmony of the portico and the rotunda (round cella) is thoroughly uncomfortable and acceptable only at best as an apology to tradition- Wheeler, p.105
As an interior however Wheeler feels that the Pantheon is unsurpassed

NB: You should not confuse PANTHEON with the Greek word PARTHENON. The Parthenon is the famous temple on the acropolis of Athens. It was Athena’s temple and in Athens she was known to be a parthenos or virgin. Therefore the Parthenon is a Greek temple to the Virgin Athena, whilst the Pantheon is a Roman temple to all the gods.
These illustrations are NOT FROM WHEELER
In describing the Pantheon you should break it into 3 sections: the dome plus the rotunda, the interior & the portico.

Recent archaeological examination of brick factory stamps on the bricks of the rotunda indicate that building of the current structure began during the reign of Emperor Trajan (not Hadrian as Wheeler states) and was only completed by the time of Hadrian, which is why Hadrian never claimed it as one of his own works. Archaeologists have suggested that the design may have been the work of Trajan’s architect
Apollodorus of Demascus.
The present day building is also incomplete, as there was a small rectangular building to the rear of the rotunda; suggestive of a Greek temple’s rear porch or opisthodomus . Only foundations remain today.
The present day building has also undergone extensive work down through the centuries up to and including the present day, which is why Wheeler omits the chronology of the temple.
1. The Dome
The dome is still the largest freestanding dome in the world. It is made of concrete and weighs 4,500 metric tons
This weight is supported primarily by 8 barrel vaults in the supporting walls underneath. Only 2 of these however are plain to see: the entrance and the rear recess. The others are hidden by an architrave that runs around the two halves of the rotunda walls between these two points. The remaining 6 are rendered as pseudo-tetrastyle portico recesses formed by pairs of Corinthian columns and flanked by Corinthian pilasters in the walls. These recesses are separated by round headed niches but triangular headed ones flank the two axial points in the rotunda: the entrance and the rear recess. These 7 barrel vaults excluding the entrance tunnel were said to have been dedicated to the seven planetary deities: the sun, moon, Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Saturn & Jupiter though this is a later conjecture. In fact there is little Roman evidence that shed lights on the exact function of the pantheon, though it was known as the Pantheon, which means every god . The rear recess and the object of focus on entering may therefore have been reserved for Jupiter, the greatest god and the largest planet.
There also stress-relieving arches built into the walls that can be seen from the outside of the building but are hidden by the marble facing inside.
At its base (above the walls) the concrete is 6.4m/21ft thick. Whilst at the oculus they are 1.2m/3.9ft thick and were molded out of concrete mixed at varying ratios of aggregate to cement; getting progressively finer as the dome rose toward the oculus.
The coffers in the interior dome are functional as well as decorative – they reduce the weight of the dome.
The oculus also eliminates the stress that would be caused by an apex. It measures 27ft in diameter and is composed of voussoirs. The height from the floor to the centre of the occulus is equal to the wall to wall diameter of the rotunda’s floor: 142ft/43.3m
2. The Interior
The interior is lavish in appearance and features a beautiful array of different coloured marbles. However, since antiquity the Pantheon has been continuously stripped and redecorated without record so it would be unwise to claim the present day interior for the original. Consequently, all you can do is comment on the structural elements and the atmosphere this architectural scheme gives to the interior. You should note also that the visible interior offers nothing in the way of structural support for the dome. It is simply aesthetic – for the sake of beauty.
Squares and circles form a unifying geometric theme. The square coffers of the dome are juxtaposed with the square and circle checkerboard marble floor. The architectural elements cut the interior into zones.

3. The Portico
The inscription on the entablature was the original inscription: M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT, standing for Latin: Marcus Agrippa, Lucii filius, consul tertium fecit translated to " Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, Consul for the third time, built this"
The Corinthian columns made of Egyptian granite in the portico are arranged in three ranks. The portico is octostyle at the front and there are two rows of four columns behind these but these columns are set behind the first, third, sixth and eighth front columns, which leaves a gap 2 columns wide in the centre. This leads into second engaged portico that features a higher engaged pediment. Wheeler noted the lack of uniformity and apparent disagreement between the portico and rotunda but does not mention that the current temple was the result of many successive building phases. Agrippa’s original pantheon was destroyed by a great fire in 80AD. It was rebuilt during the reign of Domitian but was burnt down again in 110AD. So the apology for tradition as Wheeler puts it may in fact be an attempt to balance in as harmonious a way as possible the pre-existing structures with the final pantheon built between the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian.
NB
Generally examiners will not look for the specifications and measurements. But you should note that the interior height from floor to oculus is equal to the floor diameter of the rotunda. Yyou should also know that the diameter of the occulus is 27ft and that the thickness of the concrete dome tapers (gets narrower) as it reaches the oculus.
In any question you must point out that Wheeler cites the pantheon in order to show how, in his view, the rectangular and circular temple schemes aesthetically incompatible. And you must be able to demonstrate your own knowledge and understanding of these two schemes in reference to the Pantheon.
You should know something about the date of the temple – to the reign of Hadrian in the 2 nd century AD
2001 Higher paper – available on www.examinations.ie
Topic 10. Roman Art and Architecture
(ii.) Study Photograph G on Paper X [ picture 83, Wheeler, p.105
]
“Externally … it is a building of no special account. The disharmony of portico and rotunda is indeed thoroughly uncomfortable” (Wheeler).
(a) Comment on Wheeler’s views above. (20)
(b) “But as an interior the Pantheon is unsurpassed.” (Wheeler). (30)
Give a full description of the interior of the Pantheon.
Marking Scheme for Topic 10, Higher paper, 2001
(ii.)
(a) 10,10
Two apposite comments will suffice. Canditates do not have to agree with Wheeler but they must show an appreciation of the two different styles of Roman architecture which have been put together in this building.
(b) 10,10,10
The question calls for a full description and candidates must include all the relevant features particularly the dome with its great eye and is coffering. Statistics are very useful in such a description but are not absolutely necessary for full marks if the candidate gives an otherwise good description.