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Metaphysics
I.
Conceptualization of Metaphysics
Original meaning: From the Greek meta to physika (After the things of nature).
The phrase ta meta ta physika bibli (The book after the books on nature) was not used by
Aristotle himself.
A. Developed definition
For Aristotle:
The first philosophy or theology
Superscience
The nature of being as being
For later classical and medieval philosophers:
Moving from perception.
For modern philosophers:
The study of transcending nature.
For Kant:
A priori speculation.
A science of transcendence with self-contradiction.
For Hume:
Anything abstruse and highly theoretical.
For Wolf:
A science by analysis from the logical principle of identity or contradiction.
A complete definition:
The study of the nature of ultimate reality and the dynamic principle (natural,
supernatural, or other) by which reality exists.
B. Roles of metaphysics
(1) To interpret, harmonize and rationalize experience.
(2) To correct and relate different sciences.
C. Division of metaphysics
General part: Ontology - general corporeal or spiritual being.
Special parts: Rational cosmology - the world; rational psychology soul; rational
theology - God
D. General question
What is the fundamental nature of man and surrounding universe?
Metaphysics of the microcosm-the nature of the human person
Metaphysics of the macrocosm-the nature of the human person's total environment
E. Six Schools
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
The teleologists
The materialists
The dualists
The idealists
The organicists
The skeptics
II. History of Metaphysics
A. The Ancient Metaphysics
1.
Pre-Socratics
(1) The Milesian School
Thales: Nature as water
Anaximander: Nature as endless combinations and contrasts of color taste
Anaximenes: Nature as air
Common notions of this school:
Natural monism
Everlasting cosmic substance
Boundless expanse
Nature as the source of the present and other world systems
The transformation
(2) Pythagoras: All things as numbers
(3) Heraclitus: Nature as fire
(4) Ionian Cosmologists: Origin of physical universe
(5) Parmenides (the beginning of metaphysics):
Three characteristics
Distinction with sciences
A philosophical account of universe
The logical consequences of saying "it is";
Logical monism
2.
Later Pre-Socratics
(1) Zeno: Paradoxes of motion
(2) Anaxagoras: (logical pluralism): Reality is many and changing
(3) Atomism: Nature is formed by atoms
Empedocles
Lencippus
Democritus
3. Plato
(1) Theory of ideas or forms:
a. Idea existing independently of things
b. Mind or soul as a kind of entity
c. Mind or soul as the ultimate source of observed motions
(2) General criterion of reality
a. Materialism and idealism
(3) Four concepts of equal generality
a. Sameness, difference, rest, and motion
4. Aristotle
(1) The most fundamental questions
a. Concerned the concepts of being and unity
(2) The center of metaphysics
a. An explicit analysis of sense of being
(3) The source of all motions and changes
a. The ultimate prime mover
(4) The basic subjects of discourse
a. The common-sense things
(5) The first substance
a. Objective individual things
(6) Four causes--Cause is reality; cause can explain reality
a. Material cause
b. Formal cause
c. Efficient cause
d. Final cause
(7) Two qualities:
a. Potentiality, and
b. Actuality
(8) Four basic terminologies
a. Necessity
b. Nature
c. Chance (Spontaneity or Fortune);
d. Man
(9) Teleological explanation of the world
a. All things must be determined towards and end
(10) Four propositions on reality
(11) Ten categories
a. Corresponding to existence or reality
b. Such as quality and quantity
5.
Neo-Platonism (As a link between ancient and medieval philosophies)
B. The Medieval Metaphysics
1. Augustinian tradition - realism
(1) St. Anselm
a. Ontological proof of God's existence
b. Four key points
2. Revival of Aristotle's philosophy
(1) St. Thomas Aquinas
a. The distinctions between essence and existence,
b. Necessary and contingent existence, and
c. Particular and universals
(2) Scotus - a realist
(3) William of Ockham - a nominalist
C. The Modern Metaphysics
1. The humanistic period
(1) The renaissance broke with scholasticism (no longer as a slave of theology)
(2) From theologized philosophy to humanized philosophy
2. The natural science period
(1) To establish metaphysics in a scientific foundation
(2) New systems and new methods for philosophical investigation
(3) Empiricism
Bacon and Hobbes
(4) Rationalism
Descartes (As the originator of modern philosophy)
a. A firm superstructure - To establish a firm superstructure in the science
b. Conception of philosophical method and truth-By mathematical proposition and
the postulate of geometry
c. Two criteria
d. Cogito ergo sum (I think; therefore I am)
e. Three Substances
The first - God
The second - mind
The third - matter
Spinoza (For clarity and distinctness of metaphysics)
a. Metaphysics as a deductive account of universe
b. Four arguments for the existence of God
Leibniz (For scientific metaphysics)
a. Metaphysical truths being logically necessary
b. Four proofs for metaphysical assertions
c. Pluralistic metaphysical idealism
d. Monads as absolutely simple substances
2. The enlightenment period
(1) Into the problem of extent and limits of human knowledge and power of
understanding
(2) Locke (Opening a empirical way for the science)
a. Critical discussion of substance and essence
b. Only knowing qualities of things not things in themselves
c. Rejection of innate ideas
d. Objective origin of ideas - all knowledge comes from experience
e. Two qualities in the external world
f. Three complex ideas
(3) Berkeley (Idealistic empiricism)
a. Phenomenalism
b. Mentalism - "to be is to be perceived"
(4) Hume
a. Rejection of all substance
b. "habitual association of ideas"
c. "No evidence"
d. "No the existence of any self and spirit"
e. Antimetaphysical challenge
4. The idealistic period
(1) Kant
a. Critical idealism
b. Skepticism
c. "Things in themselves"
(2) Hegel
a. Absolute idealism
b. Dialectic Metaphysics
5.
The contemporary period
(1) Pragmatism
(2) Logical positivism
(3) Ordinary-language philosophy
(4) Phenomenology
(5) Existentialism
(6) Philosophy of science