Hydrokinetic Energy:
By Observing modern implementation of hydrokinetic electric wave farms in the United
States, does wave power technology have the potential to become an option of a stable
sustainable energy provider?
A research project submitted to the Urban Studies and Planning Program
University of California, San Diego
Karina C. Sandique
USP 187
ksandiqu@ucsd.edu
January 26, 2012
Abstract
This research project examines the science, efficiency, and public response to the use of
wave energy as a long term sustainable energy source. I studied the United States’ first
wave electric farm in Reedsport, Oregon and whether observations from its
implementation process into the environment can be applied to the proposal for a wave
electric farm in San Onofre, California. By examining these two cases in this comparative
analysis, I have concluded there are three main factors that contribute to a successful
implementation of a hydrodynamic energy generator: amount of public approval and
support for a project, environmental impact of electric wave farm installations, and the
evidence that exhibits the potential stability of the technology. This research includes
qualitative data in a flexible research design scheme that ultimately provides reasoning
why hydrokinetic energy will not be considered as a priority option as a means to harvest
renewable energy for the United States.
Keyterms: hydrokinetic energy, wave power, environment, sustainability
Introduction:
With modern achievements in technology and science, scientists, politicians, and
corporations have discovered the important investment opportunity to solving the concept of
long term sustainable energy (Cruz 2008). As our global population continues to outgrow any
previous generations’ populace, it is important to consider alternative resources of energy to
relieve the demand for earth’s natural finite resources. The Obama Administration has taken an
active approach to this cause and has created national policies and programs to aid in the
country’s mission to become more conscious of its contribution to the world’s global warming
Sandique 2
crisis ("Energy, Climate Change, and Our Environment" 2012). As one of the many resources of
renewable energy the United States could utilize, hydropower continues to struggle to become a
major used energy generating source. Therefore, I intend for my research to assist those
researching to understand why hydrokinetic energy will not be considered as a priority option as
a means to harvest renewable energy for the United States.
This research looks further into the exploration of hydrokinetic energy, specifically wave
energy, and compares a government approved wave electric farm with an electric farm in the
preliminary stages of approval, and the repercussions on society of each project. Through a
comparative case study analysis of the Reedsport Wave Energy Project and San Onofre’s Wave
Farm Proposal, I determined three distinguishing factors support a project’s successful
implementation. The three main factors are: amount of public approval and support for a project,
environmental impact of electric wave farm installations, and the scientific evidence that exhibits
the potential stability of the technology. These three factors are used as the standard to which all
information I reviewed is categorized.
After carefully comparing fairly the two wave electric farm projects to the three
categories, it became evident that there are many obstacles that must be overcome before getting
the San Onofre site approved for implementation. This research defines those obstacles and
critically analyzes the challenges the San Onofre wave farm project faces and its implications on
the renewable energy source’s stability within the United States.
Literature Review:
Within the United States, 17% of the entire population has access to coastal areas (not
including Alaska) and over half of the American population lives within 50 miles of a coastline
Sandique 3
(National Ocean Service 2011). In theory this provides the potential opportunity to provide a
clean source of energy for millions of homes and businesses along the coastline. However, there
are many more aspects to the situation to consider. Though there are many hydrokinetic energy
generators currently in use across the globe, the United States has yet to fully invest in large
scale implementation of a hydropower generator (“Ecological Effects of Wave Energy
Development in the Pacific Northwest” 2010). In 2010, Ocean Power Technologies became the
first company to receive approval by the United States to begin the installation of the nation’s
first wave electric farm (“Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report”
2011). Creating the foundation for hydrokinetic technology in the United States history, how the
government, Ocean Power Technologies LLC, and the Reedsport community chooses to handle
this process will set the precedent for future hydropower projects in the U.S. including the San
Onofre, California proposal.
By learning the basics of hydrokinetic technology through understanding wave
converters, one can see the strengths and weaknesses of this power resource. Though the concept
may seem easy to comprehend as the conversion of wave movement to power, wave energy
requires strict calculations and testing before an investment can even be processed. The amount
of energy transferred through a wave is labeled as its energy flux (“Ecological Effects of Wave
Energy Development in the Pacific Northwest” 2010). Flux energy is calculated by combing
shoaling and refraction theory to an individual field site (Eshleman 2006:1491). When
determining the amount of wave energy it is necessary to recognize energy loss as a possible
consequence depending on a site. Though research from accredited universities and field
scientists see to further precise the technology to capture energy from wave power, it can never
Sandique 4
be certain how much energy a wave energy converter can create as the ocean is an uncontrollable
source (Eshleman 2006:1490-1494).
The Effect of Public Opinion
Through my analysis of the two cases of wave farm projects within the United States, I
have deduced that government and public outlook regarding a hydropower project greatly
impacts the success of the proposed project. After thorough examination of media editorials on
each project and reviewing how developers are choosing to interact with the community, there
appears to be clear parallels between a good relationship between society and developers and
how it creates a higher probability of the site’s longevity. The idea that a conversion to wave
energy is a possibility, provides the strong foundation that with public support and exposed
commercialism wave energy can be a long term sustainable power source for the world’s future
generations (Cruz 2008:397). Cruz’s essay provides a valid foundation that hydrokinetic power
has the stability and capability to provide a sustainable source of power. However his research
does not apply other external factors that could impact a project’s success.
In the case of Reedsport, Oregon’s Wave Energy Project the community has been
thoroughly involved in the proposal process as Ocean Power Technologies LLC continues to
work with the community of Reedsport and acknowledge their opinions. By participating as
members of the Oregon’s Land Conservation and Development Commission and Territorial Sea
Plan Advisory Committee (“Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report”
2011:3-4) Ocean Power Technologies LLC has created a positive relationship with Oregon
residents. This is an important factor as it dictates responsibility and accountability from the
corporation to the citizens of Oregon. Through my analysis of a local media reporting on the
Sandique 5
wave farm proposal, residents reveal limited amounts of objection to the project and wait in
anticipation to the new source of power that is proposed to lower energy costs per household and
create more jobs in the current struggling economy ("Reedsport Wave Energy Farm" 2011)
(Loew 2010) (Sickinger 2009). Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski remains supportive to the
“green movement” and has been working with local corporations to collaborate on the Reedsport
Wave Energy Project, Ocean Power Technologies LLC, and state and federal agencies to see this
project through and to increase Oregon’s conversion to more sustainable practices ("Reedsport
Wave Energy Farm" 2011).
In comparison the San Onofre, California Wave Farm Proposal, the public has clearly
expressed discontent with project. A major difference between the two farms to recognize
includes that the Reedsport location will directly benefit its communities while the San Onofre
will assist in providing energy to the San Onofre nuclear power plant (Barboza 2011:1). Though
the nuclear plant provides power to all of San Diego County and the surrounding communities, I
believe because the community does not feel it is gaining anything directly from the
implementation, as the community of Reedsport is, the San Onofre community does not have the
same level of anticipation and support for the project as Oregon residents are expressing. Unlike
Ocean Power Technologies who worked with the governor and other Oregon-based
organizations, JD Products, the developer proposing the project, does not appear to be
collaborating with any social organization or political identity to gain public approval. Ocean
Power Technologies LLC continuously makes the effort into reassuring a transparent process by
distributing a newsletter, having online access to their company profile and projects, and getting
involved within local level politics (“Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress
Sandique 6
Report” 2011:4). JD Products has not made the same effort and therefore, local residents and
concerned environmental organizations are taking notice and rallying to express their fear for
their community (Denuccio 2011:1).
Environmental Impact Matters
As a permanent fixture on top of the ocean’s floor, it is important to take note of the
environmental consequences of implementing a hydrokinetic wave farm on the California Coast.
A crucial perspective, when government agencies approve large projects even with good
intentions, negative externalities will always arise (Nelson 2008). Examining a Pier Final Project
Report for the California Energy Commission, the report recognizes that within environmentally
reporting what areas are generally mislead and not reported in its entirety (Nelson 2008:205).
The report is directly correlated with the San Onofre project proposal and offers insight into the
environmental, economic, and social considerations for wave development in California. For
government officials, these considerations are important to reconsider as the effects onto the
environment cannot be reversed (Nelson 2008). Nelson’s observation became apparent during a
city public hearing when JD Products initially proposed its project and local organization, the
Surfrider Foundation came to the defense of San Onofre State Beach (Denuccio 2011:1). The
Surfrider Foundation was able to prove using their own scientific knowledge of the area the
potential negative repercussions on the environment if the project were to be implemented;
proving the limited knowledge JD Products had on their proposed site and the level of
preparedness to respond to such inquires about the environmental impact of a wave electric farm
("Campaign: San Onofre Ocean Energy Project." 2011). San Onofre State Beach is currently
being environmentally assessed to produce a complete report.
Sandique 7
Though both projects are within two different stages of completion, an environmental
assessment is a required document submitted to The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission for
a hydrologic license in the United States (Bose 2010). The environmental assessment examines
every possible environmental impact a hydrologic project could inflict onto its environment.
Overall, Reedsport Wave Park Project was assessed and study results concluded minor affects to
geologic soils, water, threatened and endangered species, aesthetics and terrestrial resources
(Bose 2010:235-240). The environmental impact report findings ultimately determine a
hydrokinetic project proposal’s approval and without a positive report, hydrokinetic wave farms
in the United States could not hold long term stability of existence.
Foundation in Hydrokinetic Energy Stability
By learning the basics of hydrokinetic technology through understanding converters, one
can see the strengths and weaknesses of this power source. Scientist Joan Cruz recognized three
main weaknesses of hydrokinetic energy---limited locations, where generators can be
successfully implemented into, high cost of manufacture and maintenance, and not enough loyal
government and public support, ‘the journey to successful exploitation of this energy source will
only run smoothly if commercial developments take full account of environmental and
sustainable considerations from the outset; (Cruz 2008:398). These are important observations
that I took into account when analyzing the two wave farms. Cruz’s essay provides a valid
foundation that hydrokinetic power has the stability and capability to provide a sustainable
source of power.
To consider wave energy as a long term sustainable energy source, it is important to
understand the technology, science, and process for a hydropower project approval in the United
Sandique 8
States. When proposing a new hydropower project within the United States, many different
requirements, licenses, permits, and approvals must be met before actual implementation
(“Hydropower” October 13, 2011). As one of the many governmental agencies a new project
must meet requirements from, The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is
responsible for issuing licenses for the construction of a new project, issuance of licenses for the
continuance of an existing project, and oversight of all ongoing project operations (“Hydropower
October 13, 2011). On the FERC website, public access to records show Reedsport Wave Park
Project and San Onofre OWEG Electricity Farm Project’s official orders issuing the preliminary
permit. The combination of economic gain by creating the demand for a new labor market and its
environmentally conscious practices suggests there is a foundation for this energy source to have
long term stability within the United States. Nevertheless, large financial backing and patience is
still a major factor, especially within today’s economy as making such a large investment
without reassurance of success is considered a large gamble.
In recent years, the urgent focus on the world’s climate change has brought countries
across the globe to invest in more research to discover in-depth scientific information on the
health of our environment and its ecosystems. As public awareness increases regarding climate
change, political and social actions are soon to follow. As our atmosphere’s ozone layer weakens
with the release of harmful greenhouse gases, ecosystems are greatly affected and dramatic
climate change pursues (Ebi et al. 2008). As ozone decomposition increases harmful emissions
to circulate change in our tropospheric atmosphere, correlation between climate changes and
why investment in alternative energy sources becomes clear (Ebi et al. 2008). Thus when further
investigating how the United States has been distributing federal grants and approving certain
Sandique 9
projects it is not surprising to discover the Obama Administration “has taken unprecedented
action to build the foundation for a clean energy economy, tackle the issue of climate change,
and protect our environment” (“Energy, Climate Change, and Our Environment” 2012). Dr.
Steven Chu, United States Secretary of Energy has consistently been at the forefront of this cause
and has regulated the distribution of $90 billion dollars in clean energy investments under the
Recovery Act. Though it is uncertain how much of $90 billion dollars is invested in hydrokinetic
energy projects, it can be concluded that there is a high competitive market for renewable source
development within the United States.
Research Strategy:
The main purpose of this study was to find supporting or disapproving evidence that as
an alternative fuel source, hydrokinetic energy can aid the United States to decrease its
dependency on using the Earth’s natural resources. To properly determine wave energy as a
stable sustainable energy provider, it is important to assess three main factors that decide the
United States’ adaptation to hydrokinetic energy use. The three main factors are: amount of
public approval and support for a project, environmental impact of electric wave farm
installations, and evidence that exhibits the potential stability of the technology. I chose these
three factors because they represent a general commonality within any proposed hydropower
project, but at the same time each factor can be critically analyzed to produce scientific reasoning
for a cause and effect reaction. Each factor will produce a different set of data as no two sites
will ever be alike in stability, acceptance among the community, and efficiency.
To analyze these three factors I chose to gather qualitative data including preliminary
permit applications, commission reports, an environmental report of the Reedsport Wave Energy
Sandique 10
Project, media content from each project, and other scholarly journals which I then compared
and contrasted to each wave farm project: Reedsport and San Onofre. I found using content
analysis was the optimum research strategy as I am limited as a student from gathering first hand
research myself. Reviewing multiple sources from various outlets within the proposal and permit
process assisted my comparative analysis skills. The various outlets I reviewed sources from
include: federal archives, environmental organizations’ research, scholarly research on the
subject/technology, local media editorials from each community and public information from the
corporations developing the projects. To formulate a well rounded academic response to my
question, each of my sources demonstrates supporting evidence to either the three factors I chose
to analyze the two cases with or to establish my foundational knowledge on the technology and
science of capturing hydrokinetic energy. Further research is needed to follow through
examining the San Onofre Wave Farm Proposal process and to apply the same three factors of
analysis to other hydrokinetic project proposals across the United States.
I chose to assess Reedsport, Oregon because it is the nation’s first energy wave farm and
shares the Pacific Coast with San Diego. Within the last few years Oregon has made the
initiative to adapt to more sustainable practices across the state, and its multimillion dollar
investment in a wave farm project is no exception. Oregon State University has even chosen to
devote resources and encourage their marine biology and oceanography departments connected
to the Hartford Marine Science Center to further research into hydrokinetic technology
(“Ecological Effects of Wave Energy Development in the Pacific Northwest” 2010). Though I
acknowledge no two locations are never alike on the globe; San Diego’s own San Onofre’s wave
farm project intrigued my attention as I have always been fascinated with alternative energies.
Sandique 11
Discovering a staff report to the California Energy Commission aided my solidity in my
selection as San Onofre’s Wave Farm Project as the second case within my research. Established
in 2002, California’s Renewable Portfolio Standard was passed by Senate Bill 1078. This bill
requires electricity producers to procure at least one percent of their electricity supplies from
renewable resources so as to achieve a twenty percent renewable mix by 2017 (Kane 2005:5).
Thus since 2002, California has been making progress into securing and implementing more
sustainable practices in their policies (Kane 2005:9). By Informing more government officials on
the available hydropower resources in the state, a stronger possibility of an expansion to the use
of electric wave farms will be more likely to be considered as an option to meet SB1078 (Kane
2008). Many cities in California already receive energy from hydropower resources; therefore
expansion to larger hydropower resources is attainable.
As the other site to comparatively analyze against the San Onofre Wave Farm Project,
Reedsport, Oregon’s Wave Farm Electric Farm offers a contrast in projects as the project is
farther along in completion than the San Onofre proposal. An important observation from this
project include, on August 24, 2011 the Department of Energy issued a Notice of Adoption and
Finding of No significant Impact (FONSI) for the Reedsport single buoy project. This is the first
ever issued FONSI for a wave energy project within the United States. This marks the incredible
achievement that there is a high potential success rate of implementing wave energy converters
onto the U.S. coast without damaging the natural environment (“Reedsport Wave Energy
Project, Newsletter and Progress Report” 2011). Oregon, the Reedsport community, and Ocean
Power Technologies demonstrate a successful implementation of a hydrokinetic energy project--accepted by the community, approved by federal, state, and non governmental agencies, and is
Sandique 12
an established as a non threatening environmental project. Comparing Reedsport case’s
successes and obstacles to San Onofre’s approval process provided me a deeper understanding of
the trials and tribulations that arise when implementing a hydropower project within the United
States. Using the three factors comparatively between the two cases allows me to determine the
likelihood of success and stability within implementation for future projects.
Findings and Analysis:
After carefully assessing each wave farm project, I determined there is only a small
probability hydrokinetic energy has the potential to become a stable sustainable energy provider.
Though it may appear the nation is ready to adopt another form of renewable energy source,
ultimately there are five challenges that will prevent the United States’ from completely
investing in hydropower energy generators along its western and eastern sea boards. These five
challenges were generated through the comparative case study by evaluating common challenges
each project faces.
Sandique 13
Figure 1:Top Five Challenges to a Hydrokinetic Project’s Implementation within the U.S.
Source: See
Though the Reedsport Wave Energy Project was able to surpass many of the challenges listed, it
is still unclear the long term stability of the project. As the first buoy is to be deployed this year
with high expectations for success and efficiency by the community and corporate investors,
only time and consistent testing at the launch site will determine its future stability. Without
overcoming the five challenges listed within Figure 1, the Reedsport Wave Energy Project would
not have achieved as much progress as it has achieved. Oregon Governor Ted Kulongoski has
been diligently working with Ocean Power Technologies LLC, various Oregon based companies,
and the federal government to receive the public and financial support to see this project through
(Sickinger 2009). The Reedsport Wave Energy Project, if completed will consistent of 10 PB150
PowerBuoy stretched along 2.5 miles off the coast of Oregon. Anchored to the sea floor, the
multiple buoy system will be the first commercial wave power station within the United States
Sandique 14
(“Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report” 2011). Initial testing on a
PB150 PowerBuoy has registered peaks of over 400 kilowatts of electrical power; however how
much Oregon’s coast will generate is greatly anticipated by all investors within the project.
With almost opposite fairings to the five challenges in Figure 1, the San Onofre Wave
Farm Proposal has been a rough process for JD Products. Announced by JD Products’s
representative Chong Hun Kim, the proposed plan consists of installing approximately 2,000
generators a year to the sea floor a mile off the coast of San Onofre State Beach. JD Product’s
final project will include a total of 11,000 to 16,000 generators which will be connected into the
transmission lines of the San Onofre Nuclear Power Plant (Denuccio 2011). Although with good
intentions to subsidize power to the nuclear power plant, many are skeptical that the corporation
has thoroughly mapped out a long term plan for proposing such an invasive and bold project onto
the ocean floor with connection to the nuclear power plant (Barboza 2011). Choosing a
completely different approach with the surrounding communities then Ocean Power
Technologies LLC, one of the major problems I recognize that will create more obstacles for JD
Products proposal is their unwillingness to share their energy harvesting mechanism with the
public. Creating distrust in the community, JD Products will face more scrutiny and concern
from community members and environmental activist as a major component within the proposal
is kept private. Still within the preliminary process of approval, further research by the
government and by JD Products will reveal whether the project will be feasible.
Given already limited coastal space in the United States to establish wave energy farms,
it appears that hydrokinetic electric wave farms face too many challenges to gain nation wide
momentum. Taking into account the current economic condition of the country and the mass use
Sandique 15
of solar and wind energy generators across the state, state and federal officials appear hesitant to
take such a large leap of faith when other sustainable resources are providing sufficient energy to
the nation. Though scientific research and advancements in hydrokinetic technology continue
today, I conclude the Untied States at this moment has little potential in investing in hydrokinetic
electric wave farms to become a stable sustainable energy provider.
The Effect of Public Opinion
A multimillion dollar investment in time, labor, and funding, there is an extreme amount
of pressure for those involved to succeed. Within any multimillion dollar development project,
there is a power struggle for authority and legitimacy when working on a sustainable project
between the community, government agencies, non-government agencies, and the developers. A
key factor between both wave farm projects is the project developers’ relationships and
partnerships with the community; the relationship between the communities and how they feel
towards the project are important in gaining acceptance into the area (Davies, 2002). Without it,
a political power struggle will ensue (Davies 2002:195). Figure 2 demonstrates the comparison
between both projects and depicts Davies’ knowledge is applicable to both situation. From my
analysis, I concur there is a correlation between community support and sustainable projects
success in implementation and approval process with the federal government.
Sandique 16
Figure 2: Comparative Analysis of San Onofre vs. Reedsport Wave Farms: Public Opinion
Sources: See “Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report” 2011, Barboza
2011, Denuccio 2011)
As calculated by the pictured above figure, the Reedsport Wave Energy Project exhibits a
healthy open communication relationship with the community of Reedsport and sate of Oregon.
It is reported the first PowerBuoy alone has created approximately 100 jobs and has funded more
than $6 million dollars to Oregon based businesses (“Reedsport Wave Energy Project,
Newsletter and Progress Report” 2011). Working to promote Oregon’s economy and potential
residents of Reedsport and surrounding communities was a well planned strategic creation of
public relations. When analyzed in context to the United States, even if future companies
adopted a similar public relations model, only the selective population living on the coast will
benefit from its implementation. Unlike solar and wind power energy generators, location will
limit the amount of benefit the country’s population will attain from hydrokinetic technology and
therefore will never win favor with those who do not reap the benefits as coastal cities will.
Sandique 17
As depicted within the Figure 2, JD Products has not chosen to become interactive with
the community. Taking under consideration the place in the proposal process for this project, it is
unclear whether their choice in public relation demeanor will evolve throughout time.
Repercussions from the company’s choice to disclose limited amount of information as needed
has not created a welcoming response by the community. Most importantly Figure 2 proves there
are multiple levels of public opinion to attend to when establishing such a new and risky
investment, without proper observation and planning by the developers, the public can make a
proposal process very challenging.
Environmental Impact Matters
When examining how wave energy converters have transformed and improved
throughout time, it is encouraging support to hydrokinetic energy enthusiasts to document how
innovative and environmentally conscious new designs are being produced. As the main reason
for its existence, to prove a renewable energy generator has limited or no effect on the
environment is extremely important to its long term stability.
Figure 3: Comparative Analysis of San Onofre vs. Reedsport Wave Farms: Environmental
Impact
Sandique 18
Sources: Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report” 2011, Mahony
2010, Denuccio 2011
Though each region fosters separate ecosystems, to emplace an unnatural machine onto the
ocean floor will inevitable evoke repercussions onto the environment in some way or form. To
prepare and prevent the least amount to negative externalities within our environment the United
States has implemented rigorous procedures through different agencies to ensure protection of
our natural resources and animals.
Certified by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission for Finding No Significant
Impact status on site, environmental activist still remain concern for the potential well being of
Oregon’s ocean ecosystems caused by the Reedsport Wave Energy Project. An important
concern that has arisen from this site’s proposal is for gray whales’ safety as their migration
pattern always occurs within 3 miles of the Oregon coast. Researchers from Oregon State
University’s Marine Mammal Institute have proposed a non threatening sonar detection to warn
surrounding whales of the buoys locations (Mahoney 2010). This proposition raises the question;
can such an invasive project into the environment ever be deemed to have no significant impact
on site? The ocean and the environment are properties of Mother Nature and therefore, can never
be replied upon to stay consistent and for humans to have full control over the processes that
occur. Without proper reassurance the environment will not be negatively effected in the future
by a hydropower installation into the ocean, I find it unlikely the government will rely on the
resource in fear of creating more potential damage to the environment.
Analyzing the San Onofre’s environmental impact was a unique process. Currently
within the official government stages of assessing the environmental impact to the site, the San
Onofre proposal still however managed to effect the social environment of the area. The
Sandique 19
proposal, if to be approve, will affect more community members than at first originally
perceived. As a major surfing location and destination for aquatic training for the Marine Corps
stationed at nearby Camp Pendleton, the San Onofre Wave Farm will effect the socio-dynamics
of the community if implemented (Mahony 2010). Building upon the challenges the proposal
already faces, this situation exemplifies the realistic problems future developers will most likely
occur. With a limited supply of coast and even diminished feasible locations where enough flux
energy can create an efficient amount of wave energy, research institutions, government
facilities/organizations, and private land owners will already be established within the vicinity.
Therefore another concern to overcome will be not only pass the environmental ecosystems
assessment, but in conjunction, gain favor with the sociological environment of the pre-existing
community.
Foundation in Hydrokinetic Energy Stability
Without the government’s approval for a proposal, a new hydropower project cannot
begin building within the United States. Observed from my content analysis of the United States
spending trends toward renewable energy, millions of dollars is being invested within the social
movement to adjust to sustainable means of energy, however hydropower is not a large recipient.
This is evident when even looking within San Diego’s renewable mixes.
Sandique 20
Figure 4: Depicting San Diego Gas & Electric Company’s 2010 Sources from renewable energy
options
Source: Equinox Center 2011, SDG&E 2011
By examining San Diego’s decision in 2010 to obtain only 1.2% of renewable energy from a
water source is a significant indication of the nation’s attitude toward adopting hydrokinetic
energy. As a city whose county line converges with the Pacific Ocean, San Diego’s decision to
not take advantage of the available wave power potential signifies a clear message. Though the
energy potential is within reach, other forms of stable renewable energy sources are seen as less
risky and worth investing. This information is very discouraging that hydrokinetic energy will
become a likely source of a sustainable energy source and has the potential to affect San Diego’s
judgment on the San Onofre proposal. The government’s decision to not encourage the
technology onto coastal cities prevents large corporations and state and city officials from taking
on the large financial risk. This is evident when reviewing Oregon’s political agenda in
Sandique 21
increasing sustainable lifestyle practices and how the attitude from the government assisted in
the overcoming many of the challenges the project faced.
Conclusion:
The United States’ focus on adapting more sustainable practices will not be a trend that
will fade into history. Climate change and mitigation is an important topic that will continuously
be a priority for political candidates to address and drive for corporations to innovate and
improve relevant technology. Although not one of the more popularly used renewable energy
sources within the United States, my research into hydrokinetic wave farm energy will hopefully
assist those in the nation inquiring information on what new clean renewable energy technique
will be adopted next in the United States. Distributing its benefits only to communities adjacent
to the coast, I believe thus far in my research hydrokinetic wave farm technology faces to many
challenges to become adopted by the United States as a long term sustainable energy source.
To reach my conclusion I used a comparative analysis between two cases of current wave
energy farms within the United States: San Onofre, California and Reedsport, Oregon. During
this comparative case study, I measured all sources during my content analysis to three factors.
The three factors I chose are: amount of public approval and support for a project, environmental
impact of electric wave farm installations, and the evidence that exhibits the potential stability of
the technology. Though current United States legislation and popular culture signal great
potential of success for the technology, I ultimately discovered five major challenges that will
hinder hydrokinetic wave farm projects implementations unless all the challenges can be
overcome. These five challenges are: high financial risk, ocean’s unpredictable nature, high
Sandique 22
competition from other sustainable energy providers, obstacles with gaining public support and
approval for a project, and considerations of long term irreversible environmental impact.
With further research to see through the installation of Reedsport Wave Energy Project’s
10 PowerBuoy systems and to track the final results from the San Onofre’s Wave Farm proposal
a revaluation of the three factors is necessary for reanalysis. Only with time and final results
from each project will test my theory. Though there is a demand for clean renewable energy
within the United States, hydrokinetic wave energy will not be a main source the nation will
invest in for a long term sustainable provider.
Biliography
Barboza, Tony. "San Onofre Wave Farm Idea Churns Up Concerns." Los Angeles Times, 03 30,
2011. http://articles.latimes.com/2011/mar/30/local/la-me-wave-farm-20110330 (accessed
January 12, 2012).
Bose, Kimberley, and Jim Hastreiter. "Environmental Assessment For Hydropower License."
(2010): 31-215. http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/nepapub/nepa_documents/RedDont/EA-1890DEA-2011.pdf
Cruz, Joao. "Ocean Wave Energy: Current Status and Future Prespectives." Green Energy and
Technology. (2008): 41-93, 397-423. http://roger.ucsd.edu:80/record=b6605391~S7 (accessed
October 16, 2011).
Davies, Anna. "Power, Politics and Networks: Shaping Partnerships for Sustainable
Communities." Area. 34. no. 2 (2002): 190-203. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20004223 (accessed
October 12, 2011).
Denuccio, Kyle. "Save San Onofre..Again." Surfer Magazine, 04 05, 2011.
http://www.surfermag.com/features/save-san-onofre…again/ (accessed January 12, 2012).
Ebi, Kristie, and Glenn McGregor. "Climate Change, Tropospheric Ozone and Particulate
Matter, and Health Impacts." Environmental Health Perspectives. 116. no. 11 (2008): 14491455. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25148444 (accessed October 16, 2011).
Environmental Law Institute, "Dr. Steven Chu, United States Secretary of Energy, to Receive
Environmental Law Institute's Annual Award." Last modified 2011. Accessed January 18, 2012.
http://www.eli.org/Dinner/about.cfm.
Eshleman, Jodi, Robert Dean, and Kent Hathaway. "Wave Friction Factors from Energy Flux
Comparisons outside of the Surf Zone." Journal of Coastal Research. 22. no. 6 (2006): 14901498. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30138412 (accessed October 15, 2011).
Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, "Ecological Effects of Wave Energy
Development in the Pacific Northwest." Last modified October 11, 2010. Accessed January 7,
2012. http://hmsc.oregonstate.edu/waveenergy/.
Kane, Mike. "California small hydropower and ocean wave energy." Integrated energy and
Policy Report. (2005): 1-29. http://roger.ucsd.edu:80/record=b6343984~S7 (accessed October
14, 2011).
Kerr, David. "Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences."
Energy for the Future. 365. no. 1853 (2007): 985-989.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25190483?&Search=yes&searchText=renewable&searchText=energ
y&list=hide&searchUri=/action/doBasicSearch?Query=renewable+energy&gw=jtx&acc=on&pr
q=AB+32&Search=Search&hp=25&wc=on&prevSearch=&item=4&ttl=13176&returnArticleSe
rvice=showFullText (accessed January 7, 2012).
Loew, Tracy. "Oregon is First U.S. site for a wave-power farm." USA Today, 02 17, 2010.
http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/environment/2010-02-16-waveenergy_N.htm (accessed January 7, 2012).
Mahony, Melissa. Smartplanet, "Whales and wave power: bringing the noise to avoid collisions."
Last modified June 14, 2010. Accessed January 9, 2012.
http://www.smartplanet.com/blog/intelligent-energy/whales-and-wave-power-bringing-thenoise-to-avoid-collisions/1532.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, "National Ocean Service." Last modified
November 17, 2011. Accessed January 7, 2012.
http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/population.html.
Nelson, Peter. "Developing wave energy in coastal California: potential socio-economic and
environmental effects." Water Resources Center Archives General collection. (2008).
http://cdm15025.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/p267501ccp2&CISO
PTR=145 (accessed October 14, 2011).
"Environmental Assessment for Hydropower License—Reedsport OPT Wave Park Project." The
Federal Regulatory Commission. : 205-240.
Ocean Power Technologies, "Reedsport Wave Energy Project, Newsletter and Progress Report."
Last modified September 1, 2011. Accessed October 14, 2011.
http://www.oceanpowertechnologies.com/PDF/Reedsport OPT_Newsletter_Sep_2011.pdf.
Oregon Solutions, "Reedsport Wave Energy Farm." Last modified October 2011. Accessed
January 12, 2012. http://orsolutions.org/osproject/reedsport-wave-energy.
Oregon Wave Energy Trust, "Ocean Power Technologies: Wave Energy Park in Reedsport."
Last modified 2010. Accessed January 18, 2012. http://www.oregonwave.org/tag/ocean-powertechnologies/.
O'Riordan, Tim. "Environmental Science, Sustainability and Politics." Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers. 29. no. 2 (2004): 234-247. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3804556
(accessed October 15, 2011).
Sickinger, Ted. "Oregon Iron Works will build first buoy for wave farm off Reedsport." The
Oregonian, 12 04, 2009. http://www.oregonlive.com/business/index.ssf/2009/12.
Surfrider Foundation, "Campaign: San Onofre Ocean Energy Project." Last modified January 17,
2011. Accessed February 1, 2012. http://www.surfrider.org/campaigns/entry/san-onofre-oceanenergy-project.
Thapar, Neil. Ocean Power Technologies LLC., "News Release." Last modified September 13,
2011. Accessed January 7, 2012. http://orsolutions.org/osproject/reedsport-wave-energy.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, "Hydropower." Last modified October 13, 2011.
Accessed October 16, 2011. http://ferc.gov/for-citizens/projectsearch/SearchProjects.aspx.
The White House, "Energy, Climate Change, and Our Environment." Last modified 2012.
Accessed January 18, 2012. http://www.whitehouse.gov/energy/securing-american-energy