WORD STRESS IN ENGLISH POLYSYLLABLES and Pronunciation of Vowels –
A Quick Guide (RP/GA)
In order to find the primary accent in a word of more than one syllable, there are some
basic considerations to take into account: these can be learnt and put into practice
fairly quickly, with a little effort. Monosyllabic words are assumed always to carry a
primary accent, save those grammatical items that are of relative importance in
connected speech.
You will have to determine 1) the morphological structure of the item; 2) the place of
primary stress (and possibly secondary and tertiary stress in longer words); 3) the
pronunciation of the vowels under stress, as well as those receiving no stress.
A. Morphological Structure
1. Are there identifiable multiple semantic units? If so, are they may be separable or
inseparable in form, like 'post %office or 'black%bird. Consider too the semantic
function of the word in question: a kind of office or bird, as opposed to %head 'office
or %black 'bird, formed by adjective + noun. (See separate sheet on compound
nouns).
2. Are there identifiable prefixes? If so, are they separable or inseparable in nature?
Consider the functional category of the word in question: verb as opposed to noun or
adjective. A prefixed verb has a predictable stress pattern, often different to that of
nouns and adjectives. Separable prefixes modify the sense of an identifiable root, and
receive stress independently as a phonological entity.
3. Are there identifiable suffixes or word endings? If so, are they neutral or nonneutral in nature (do they impose stress or affect its placement)? Calculate the place
of primary stress, counting from the end of the word and moving left according to
separate rules given below.
4. Derivation: is the word derived from an identifiable (attested) deriving form?
Secondary stress /-2-/ often occurs in words of three syllables or longer, preceding
primary stress when it falls on the last syllable, or falling on the last syllable when it
contains a free vowel and is preceded by two syllables. In addition, no word can begin
with two unstressed syllables (see §. D below).
5. Reduced vowels: only unstressed vowels can reduce, though the absence of stress
does not always indicate a reduced vowel. (See Lilly & Viel 1998, p.68-70 for a
detailed analysis of vowel reduction, and the table on Vowel Transformations).
B. Prefixes
1. Separable Prefix (transparent relation between the meaning of the radical as
modified by the prefix) ex. to %re'seal, or “to seal again” = two phonological stresses,
one on the radical and one on the prefix; the latter is typically demoted to a secondary
accent in connected speech. The vowel, being stressed, is [i:].
2. Inseparable Prefix (opaque relation, or no apparent relation between the
meaning of the radical and the prefix) ex. to re'ply, with no relation to “ply” = one on
the radical and none on the prefix; the latter having no accent (0 accent) typically has
a reduced vowel. The vowel, being unstressed, is [I]. See the page on stress
opposition in disyllabic nouns and verbs for more detail on this form.
3. Complex (Separable and Inseparable Prefixes) : the first of these is always
separable, the weaker inseparable prefix being attached to the radical; primary stress
falls both on the sep. prefix and on the radical – though the stress on the sep. prefix is
again demoted to secondary stress. ex. to %rede'fine, or “to define again” = two
phonological stresses, one on the radical and one on the separable prefix; the latter
re- [ri:] is demoted to a secondary accent and the vowel in the prefix de-, having no
accent (0 accent), has a reduced vowel [I].
C. Suffixes and endings that can impose the placing of primary stress /1/
Neutral derivation
1. Neutral suffixes do not modify the placement of stress in their
corresponding deriving form: a) in all suffixes beginning with a consonant such as -ly,
-ment, -ful. (ex: friendly, government, wonderful); b) in verbal inflections such as -es,
-ed, -ing (ex: tries, covered, flowing); c) in all derivational suffixes (-er, -ess, -or, -ist,
-age, ure) which form nouns; d) in suffixes having a syllabic consonant (-ism, -able, ible); e) in certain “bound suffixes”, depending on context (see following)
2. Certain “bound” adjectival suffixes alter the phonological structure of the
deriving form, and are inherently neither neutral nor non-neutral. For example,
suffixes like -ish, -y, -al, -an, -ive, -ous, -ite, -ile, -ine have different effects on stress
placement depending on the word they are affixed to; in "person->"personal, the
suffix seems neutral, though in "origin->o"riginal, it clearly is not. In both cases, the
suffix –al itself cannot bear stress, and the (underlined) penultimate syllable, being
composed of a lax vowel and a single consonant cannot bear stress either… this
principle of (insufficient) syllabic quantity causes stress to shift to the left one more
syllable, to the antepenultimate (which may or may not be the first syllable of the
word, as this is inconsequential – stress placement is always determined in relation to
the end of the word).
3. Non-neutral suffixes and endings are of three main types, depending on the
position of final stress: final /-1/; penultimate /-10/ and antepenultimate /-100/.
a) Stressed endings (final /-1/) in words of French or foreign origin:
i) a double vowel in the final syllable, possibly followed by a single
consonant: –VV(C)# as in ba'zaar, dis'creet, sa'loon, chimpan'zee
ii) a double consonant closing the final syllable, followed by a silent
<e> : -VCC<e># as in no'blesse, cas'sette, baga'telle
iii) various foreign endings having the structure -VC<e># like –ade, ese, -aire, -esce/isce, -V(C)que, or –eur/euse/eux as in pa'rade,
Chi'nese, millio'naire, acqui'esce, u'nique, ba'roque, connois'seur
iv) French endings having the structure -<i>C<e>#, and where the
vowel <i> has its foreign value (Vf) = [i:] as in fatigue, machine,
police
b) Penultimate stress /-10/. Several contexts produce this pattern:
i) Prefinal Consonant cluster rule, where the penultimate syllable has
the structure –VCC- with a lax vowel which attracts stress as in
a'genda, au'tumnal, re'luctance, di'saster, to'bacco, u'tensil
ii) “Italian” Prefinal Alveolar Consonant stress rule where the final
syllable of a foreign borrowing contains a simple vowel <a, e, i, o, u>
preceded by an alveolar consonant <t,d,n,s,z>, and where the stressed
vowel has its foreign value (Vf), as in mar'tini, ba'nana, ka'rate,
mos'quito, pi'ano, to'mato… this rule conforms once again to the
principle of syllabic quantity, and the tense vowel in the penultimate
syllable attracts primary stress.
iii) –ic(s) suffixation rule, which imposes stress on the preceding
syllable, as in electric, alcoholic, emphatic, etc; only ten exceptions
exist: 'Arabic, a'rithmetic, 'arsenic, ca'daveric, 'Catholic, 'heretic,
'lunatic, 'politic(s), 'rhetoric, 'turmeric – though these exceptions
become ‘regular’ (stressed on the syllable preceding –ic) when a
neutral suffix is added…. arith'metical, A'rabicize, Ca'tholicism.
c) Antepenultimate stress /-100/. Several contextual rules produce this
pattern:
i) Disyllabic suffix rule, (-ity/-ety, -ical/-acal, -ify/efy, -inal, -ular, inous, -ulous) which imposes stress on the preceding syllable as in
ver'bosity, longi'tudinal, me'thodical, 'stultify, ver'nacular, 'vilify
ii) Prefinal Consonant stress rule (also “Normal” or main stress rule),
where the final syllable has the structure –V(C) with a lax vowel or
one of the weak endings –ent, –ence, –ant, –ance, art, -ard, -ort, -ern,
-ist, -ism etc. (see LPA) and the penultimate syllable also has the
structure –VC with a lax vowel as in 'camera, 'continent, 'deficit,
'general, 'origin, 'violence
iii) Zero Prefinal Consonant stress rule, or more commonly known as
the “(L)-ion stress rule”, which assigns primary stress to the
antepenultimate syllable followed by C, and where one of the vowels
<e, i, u> directly precedes the final vowel (followed optionally by C
+<e>), and where both these unstressed vowels have a syllabic nature
phonologically, ex. 'zodiac, exhi'bition, 'nauseous, 'idiot
S -> 'S / _ C (<e, i, u>) V (C) (+<e>)
– in certain contexts the first vowel is palatalized and the second
reduced to schwa, giving the stress pattern /-1(0)0/ (as in 'nation; see
page on palatalization).
d) Words ending in –ate. Two categorical functions (verb / non–verb) come
into play for disyllabic words on the one hand, and for polysyllabic words on
the other. Penultimate stress /-10/. Several contexts produce this pattern:
i) For disyllabic verbs, the stress is on the ending in RP – which is
logical, since the “V + silent e” tensing rule applies: dic'tate, vi'brate,
cre'ate, nar'rate; for nouns and adjectives, stress is on the penultimate:
'climate, 'senate, 'prostrate.
ii) In longer words, the stress on the final (tensed) <–ate> undergoes
stress retraction to move stress to the antepenultimate syllable.
Subsequently, a functional distinction separates verbs, like
in'vesti%gate, 'gradu%ate, 'dele%gate /-102/ which retain a tense final
vowel, and other categories whose final syllable loses stress, allowing
the diphthong [eI] to be reduced to schwa, like 'magistrate, 'graduate,
'delegate, 'profligate.
D. Secondary Stress and Derivations: When two or more syllables precede the
syllable bearing primary stress, there must be secondary stress – since no English
word can begin with two (or more) unstressed syllables. When only two syllables
precede the primary stress, the principle of stress alternation applies and secondary
stress falls on the first of the two (thereby alternating strong and weak stresses, which
constitutes the basis for speech rhythm in English). When more than two syllables
precede the primary stress, secondary stress typically falls on the syllable that bore
primary stress in the nearest deriving form of the word under consideration:
ex. 'democrat -> %demo'cratic; 'justify -> %justifi'cation; 'character ->
%characteri'zation
E. Normal or “Main” Stress Rule (see Viel 2003: 79)
1. /10/ pattern in two-syllable words: the final syllable is unstressed, and can
contain either a simple (reduced) vowel followed by no more than one
consonant, or a neutral suffix beginning with a vowel -ant, -ance, -ent, art, -ard, -ort, -ern, -ist, -ism (See Lilly &Viel 1998:50)
'answer, 'borrow, 'presence, 'utter, 'legend, 'lambent
or contain a tense vowel 'mobile, 'jumbo, 'volume, 'increase, 'insect (in which
case an argument can be made for secondary or tertiary stress on the final
syllable /12/ or /13/)
2. /100/ pattern in longer words: the final syllable is unstressed, and can
contain either a simple (reduced) vowel followed by no more than one
consonant, or a neutral suffix beginning with a vowel –ant, -ance, -ent, art, -ard -ort, -ern, -ist, -ism and the penultimate syllable contains a
simple (reduced) vowel followed by no more than one consonant
(See Lilly &Viel 1998:53 règle 3a):
'family, 'difficult, 'energy, 'evident, 'regular, 'sympathy, 'genuine
Words containing a tense vowel (or lax vowel preceding a consonant
cluster VCC) in the penultimate syllable follow the Main Stress Rule
variant and result in a /-010/ pattern: a'genda, por'tentous, al'falfa, pro'viso
Words containing a tense vowel (or lax vowel preceding a consonant
cluster VCC) in the final syllable follow the Alternating Stress Rule and
result in a /102/ pattern: 'educate, 'justify, 'orthodox, 'cataract, 'serpentine
3. Exceptions to (1) - the /01/ pattern (instead of /10/) in two-syllable words:
sin'cere, ca'nal, ho'tel, Ja'pan, Ju'ly, hel'lo,
4. Exceptions to (2) - the /010/ pattern (instead of /100/) in three-syllable
words:
a'sylum, e'leven, mu'seum, ho'rizon, tri'bunal
F. Graphophonemics: the Pronunciation of Stressed Vowels (cf. Guierre 1987)
1. In the final syllable of a word, a stressed monograph (simple) vowel
followed by one and only one consonant is lax: [&, E, I, Q/A*, V,
(U) ]
canal, clarinet, equip, forgot, annul, put
2. A stressed monograph (simple) vowel in any syllable followed by two or
more (phonetic) consonants is lax: [&, E, I, Q/A*, V, (U) ]
plastic, cement, winter, colossal, multitude, push
3. In non-rhotic dialects like R. P., words ending in –V<r>#, stressed /-1/
realize the vowel as tense and the <r> is not pronounced: [a:, 3:, 3:,
O:, 3: ]
cigar, prefer, stir, abhor, occur
4. A stressed monograph (simple) vowel followed by <r> and at least one
consonant (other than r) in any syllable - V<r>C - also realizes the vowel
as tense (and again the <r> is not pronounced in R.P.) : [a:, 3:, 3:,
O:, 3: ]
barbecue, modernity, first, fortune, curse
5. A word-final, stressed simple vowel, optionally followed by a “silent <e>”
is always realized as tense (See Lilly &Viel 1998:59):
brae, me, my/die, so/toe, flu/due = (English correlation) Ve
= [EI, i:, aI, @U/oU*, (j)u: ]
bra/spa/ta, re, mi, so, gnu = (foreign correlation) Vf
= [a:, EI, i:, @U/oU*, (j)u: ]
6. If the stressed vowel is followed by a second (syllabic) vowel, it is realized
as tense/with its free value (as above in 5. - See Lilly &Viel 1998:60)
chaos, neon, pious, heroic, continuity
'V -> Tense / _V
7. In the final syllable of a word, a stressed monograph (simple) vowel
followed by one consonant and optionally <l> or <r> and ending in a
“mute” <e> is tense (See Lilly &Viel 1998:58):
pa'rade, scene, type, trom'bone, in'duce = Ve = [eI, i:, aI,
@U/oU*, u: ]
mo'rale, ma'nege, 'litre, 'ogre, 'lucre = Vf = [a:, EI, i:, @U/oU*,
u: ]
8. Final sonorants. A stressed vowel in the penultimate is free (tense) before
one and only one consonant, an unstressed vowel and a final sonorant
(liquid or nasal : [ l, r, m, n]) . Derived forms in <–er > are excluded, since
the neutral suffix does not modify the stressed vowel of the base (See
Deschamps et al 2000:136).
'oval, 'local, 'radar, 'waver, 'velum, 'pagan, 'bacon, 'demon
If the medial consonant is <r> the stressed vowel is modified:
'oral, 'harem, 'serum, 'siren, 'moron
N.B. : pairs of vowels [Q/A*, @U/oU*, ] correspond to RP and GA respectively
9. Derived forms having a suffix beginning with a vowel (-age) affixed to a
base (existing or not) with a free vowel. (See Deschamps et al 2000:137).
'vacant, 'moment, 'recent, 'decent, 'famous, 'native, 'viking
If the medial consonant is <r> the stressed vowel is modified:
'spirant, 'tyrant, 'porous
G. Other Transformational Tensing and Laxing Rules
1. The (L)-ion rule can induce tensing: 'facial, 'legion, 'notion, 'junior
'V -> Tense / _ C (<e, i >) V (C)
Note: CC following the stressed vowel blocks tensing (fraction); <i> as the
stressed vowel is excluded from the rule (linear); <u> is excluded from the initial
position in unstressed vowel sequence (fatuous).
2. The <u> rule induces tensing in an open syllable:
'funeral, 'prudent, 'music, il'lumine, 'lunatic, 'punitive, 'future
3. The <-ic> rule, like the endings -it, -id and -ish (for vowels) induces
laxing in the stressed vowel – except <u> as noted in 2. above :
syn'thetic, 'habit, 'stolid, 'vanquish
4. The “Luick” rule, or trisyllabic laxing rule, induces detensing of the
stressed vowel in the /100/ pattern in three- or more- syllable words:
'V -> lax / _ S2S1
di'vinity, 'family, 'difficult, 'energy, 'evident, ri'diculous, 'sanity, 'quizzical
Note: Certain derivations maintain a free vowel, and therefore an isomorphic
tendency e.g. psychical, isolate, notify, rarity, procedural; others maintain a free
vowel when a neutral suffix (beginning with a vowel) is added to an attested base
vocalize, primary, brokerage, deodorant, phonetist (see Deschamps et al 2000:132)
H. Specific Transformational Sub-Rules
1. The lax (phonetic) value [&] of the monograph vowel <a> takes on
specific values in:
'& -> A: / _ l (m/f) calf (RP only), calm
'& -> O: / _ l (C/l#) all, almost, stalk, false
(The so-called “Ask” sub-rule for RP English)
'& -> A: / _ (sp/st/sk/ft/T/D) + <-er, -or, -et># gasp, fast, ask, daft,
basket, after, father
chance, dance, lance, glance, trance
exc: romance, finance
'& -> EI / _ ndZ
change, mange, strange
'& -> EI / _ st<e> chaste, waste, haste
'& -> Q/A / w_
what, was, (both V in GA) swan, want, quality
(except before k/g/N) - not wax, wag, wang
'& -> A: / _ ns
(RP only)
2. The lax or checked value [I] of the monograph vowel <i> takes on a
specific tense value in:
'I -> 'aI / _ nd
kind, mind, to wind, sign, benign (exc: the wind)
3. The lax or checked value [Q] of the monograph vowel <o> takes on a
specific tense value in:
'Q -> '@U/oU* / _ l C
'roll, 'stroll, 'colt, 'fold
4. The tense value [u:] of the digraph vowel <oo> takes on a specific lax
value in:
'u: -> 'U / _ k look, cook, rook
I. Specific Transformational Rules for R-Colouring (see Vowel Graphophonemics
for RP on separate table in documents).
1. The basic lax (phonemic) values [&][Q][e][I][V] of the monograph
vowels: <a> <e> <i> <o> <u> take on specific (coloured) values before
<r> in:
'& -> A: / _ r (C/ #)
car, card
'Q -> O: / _ r (C/ #)
for, fork
'E -> 3: / _ r (C/ #)
her, herd
'I -> 3: / _ r (C/ #)
fir, girl
'V -> 3: / _ r (C/ #)
fur, hurt
(and again the <r> is not pronounced in R.P.)
2. In non-rhotic dialects like R. P., the tense (phonetic) values of the complex
vowels take on specific (coloured) values before <r> in:
free
'@U -> O: / _ r
boar, more, adore, story
centring diphthongs
'EI -> E@ / _ r chair, there, area, parent
'i: -> I@ / _ r cheer, pierce, beer, era
'u: -> U@ / _ r moor, pure, during, curious
triphthongs
'aI -> aI@ / _ r hire, pirate, choir, liar
'OI -> OI@ / _ r Moira, lawyer
'aU -> aU@ / _ r sour, hour, dowry, power
In GA the complex vowels take on simple specific values before <r>:
free 'oU -> O:r / _ r
checked 'EI -> Er / _ r
'i: -> Ir / _ r
'u: -> Ur / _ r
free 'aI -> aIr / _ r
'OI -> OIr / _ r
'aU -> aUr / _ r
boar, more, adore, story
chair, there, area, parent
cheer, pierce, beer, era
moor, pure, during, curious
hire, pirate, choir, liar
Moira, lawyer
sour, hour, dowry, power