Tanya Kotze
Dina Ludji-Pau
The Mind, Consciousness, and Perception:
The Neuroscience of Belief
Religion and belief are some of the oldest concepts in the history of mankind. Ever since
we began to live together in families, small communities and cultures, we welcomed religion into
our lives. Religion helped us function in a society by uniting us and also helped us understand
the world around us. “Religion has the hallmarks of an evolved behavior, meaning that it exists
because it was favored by natural selection. It is universal because it was wired into our neural
circuitry before the ancestral human population dispersed from its African homeland.” As to
why we believed, and still do, in gods, spirits, the Devil, ghosts and so on, is simple. Man has
always questioned everything.
Today we are asking why do we believe in irrational concepts
like religion or the supernatural, just as ancient civilizations centuries ago asked questions like
why do we have a sun? Why do people die, and even why do we have fire? Religious beliefs
stemmed from our natural curiosity about the world. People relied on myths and stories about
supernatural entities and immortal gods to create order in our all too chaotic world. People, even
today, like reason because it is comforting. Nobody wants to believe that a devastating tornado is
entirely random and without purpose, especially since that presents the inevitable possibility that
it can and will, without warning, happen again. They like to hear instead that the tornado was the
result of a dissatisfied god and it is easily preventable through the simple medium or offerings
and prayer. Therefore in ancient times the unexplained was simply explained through religion
and the supernatural. As our civilizations made more and more scientific breakthroughs and
learned more about the natural world, some religions and gods became obsolete. Questions still
remain and religious reassurance still plays a large part in our societies today. Rather than
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Dina Ludji-Pau
answering why there is day and night, beliefs these days tend to try to answer harder questions
like what is the meaning of life, why are here and what happens after we die (Wade).
Roger Darlington argues that “beliefs that lack reason and rationality and are supported
by very little or no evidence” are categorized as “weird things.” His philosophy is that in regards
to concepts like heaven, hell, prayer, alien abduction, clairvoyance and the like, “there is no
evidence of any of these things, so I do not believe in them.” While this is perfectly rational to
say, belief is not that simple. Despite lacking conclusive evidence, people do still believe in these
‘weird things.’ Our religions and beliefs, or lack thereof, are based on thousands of years of
history and culture. Belief is not simply a question of evidence or logic; it is a question of one’s
upbringing, social conditioning, ancestry and countless other factors. There are numerous
psychological and societal reasons behind why someone would be more inclined to trust in a god
for salvation, or in a psychic for their fortune, but even further beyond that is another field of
science, called neurotheology, which has begun to search even deeper as to why we believe at
all. Neurotheology looks directly at the correlation between religion, belief and our brains. In
other words, why our brain allows us to believe in ‘weird things’ (Darlington).
Evolutionary biologist Lionel Tiger believes that
“Religion is really made by the brain. It is a secretion
of the brain.” Tiger believes that our brains create
religious belief in order to experience that ‘secretion’or serotonin- which creates a feeling of well-being in
the believer’s brain. Tiger has connected the social
aspects of religion with the generation of serotonin. “Attending a religious service, for example,
can be a flurry of social activity and controlled procedure, which releases a cocktail of
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Dina Ludji-Pau
serotonin-led neurotransmitters in the brain” (Cookson). The social aspects of religion have also
been linked to activity in the frontal lobes. Neurotheologists and other scientists have been trying
to pinpoint the exact neural area in which religious belief is controlled- referred to as the “God
spot.” Research has found that there is not however, just one single area that pertains to religious
belief, but several areas spread out around a neural network comprised of the frontal, parietal and
temporal lobes. “Religious belief and behavior are a hallmark of human life, with no accepted
animal equivalence, and found in all cultures,” says Jordan Grafman, a professor from the U.S.
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, in Bethesda, Maryland. “Our results are
unique in demonstrating that specific components of religious belief are mediated by well-known
brain networks, and they support contemporary psychological theories that ground religious
belief within evolutionary-adaptive cognitive functions” (“Belief and the Brain’s God Spot”).
These neural ‘god spots’ would have been developed during our evolution, suggest some
evolutionary theorists, as natural selection may have favored those with religious convictions as
they could have been able to overcome hardships better, over those without who maybe have
been overwhelmed without a guiding power to trust in. In other words, those who were religious
were more likely to survive and pass on our brain’s knack for belief (Cookson, “Belief and the
Brain’s God Spot”).
Some argue that there is no ‘god spot,’ however, and that there
are instead certain areas that deal with belief in general,
religious or not. A study found in the journal ‘Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences’ analyzed the brains of
subjects using a ‘magnetic-resonance imaging machine’ to
find the most energetic areas of the brain. Participants were
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Dina Ludji-Pau
asked to think about various moral and religious questions and problems. The study found that
people with varying religious background and atheists alike, all tended to engage the same neural
circuits to answer an ethical dilemma, and the same pathways were also used when religious
people were asked to consider issues concerning God. From this study scientists were able to
find that there are numerous areas in the brain which are connected to religious belief. One of
these is found exclusively in humans and is located in the cortex’s frontal lobes, and another was
found in the more ancient areas developed during evolution, further inside the brain, which is
also found in apes and other primates. Grafman says “There is nothing unique about religious
belief in these brain structures. Religion doesn’t have a ‘God spot’ as such; instead it’s
embedded in a whole range of other belief systems that we use every day.” Neuroimaging has
also shown that the same regions of our brains that are more active when a Christian rejects an
idea contrary to their beliefs (like God is a myth) are the same regions that become more active
when an atheist affirms his belief in a similar statement. In other words, whether or not you
argue that God is real or God is not real, your brain is using the same region to generate those
beliefs (“Belief and the Brain’s God Spot”).
Nevertheless, many experiments have been done to try to locate a neural religious center.
Early studies lead some scientists to the brain’s temporal lobe because patients suffering from
seizures and epilepsy in this region often reported having intense religious experiences.
Vilayanur Ramachandran of the University of
California, San Diego, asked several volunteers
with temporal-lobe epilepsy to listen to various
words; sexual, neutral, and religious. He measured
their levels of arousal and emotional reaction and
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Dina Ludji-Pau
found that sexual words and neutral words registered low and normal levels, respectively, while
religious words resulted in an unusually high response in the patients. Another experiment
involved a helmet, named the “God-Helmet,” which neuroscientist Michael Persinger would
place on the head of a subject which the helmet generates weak complex magnetic fields to
stimulate the temporal lobes. Persinger reported that many subjects reported experiencing
mystical and altered states and sensing a strange presence nearby. He reported that at least 80%
of his subjects experienced a presence with them in the room and about one percent identified
this presence as God. From their experiences one can hypothesize that spiritual feelings and God
are the subjective experience of a strange kind of brain function. "One could try to conclude one
way or the other that maybe it’s the biology or maybe God's really in the room, but the scan
itself doesn't really show that," neurotheologist Andrew Newberg says. "For neurotheology to
really work as a field it needs to be very respectful and open to both perspectives." Other studies
done on Buddhist meditators suggested that another region involved with religious belief, in
particular prayer giving the impression that one is in a higher plane of existence, were the
parietal lobes located in the upper back region of the brain. Andrew Newberg, of the University
of Pennsylvania studied how the brain reacted during intense meditation by injecting his subjects
like a radioactive isotope as they reached a state of nirvana through their meditation. With a
special camera he could observe the dispersal of the substance which led him to identify the
parietal lobes as a key part of experiencing a transcendental state- or nirvana. Decreased activity
in the parietal lobes has also been linked to some religious experiences as well. Another study
published in February observed the levels of spiritual beliefs and behavior in patients before and
after brain surgery. Researchers found that some specific sites in the brain affected religiosity in
patients when damaged. In particular, damage to the parietal lobe altered what are usually
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Dina Ludji-Pau
relatively stable levels of spirituality and behavior. This suggested that the brain and changes
within due to neurological or mental disorders may be a cause of altered levels of spiritual and
religious behavior (“This Is Your Brain On Religion”).
Some scientists have even researched if there is a genetic reason for whether or not
people are inclined to believe in religion or the supernatural. Geneticist Dean Hamer claims to
have found a single gene VMAT2 (the Vesicular Monoamine transporter 2) – a God gene –
which he identifies as “a leading gene among many others written into our genetic code that
predisposes people to religiosity” (Cookson). Hamer sought to identify the specific genes
connected with self-transcendence – essentially a measure of how spiritual one is – by analyzing
DNA and personality scores from more than 1000 subjects and eventually narrowed his search
down to one gene, VMAT2. VMAT2 works to regulate the levels of serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine in our brains, and in turn can create some of the feelings some associate with
spiritual experiences, like feeling the presence of God or experiencing a mystic state of mind.
Hamer also hypothesized that the reason this gene was passed down through evolution is because
self-transcendence increases optimism in humans which makes us more healthy and inclined to
reproduce more. Again this supports the idea that evolution and the survival of the fittest resulted
in our brain’s inclination to be religious, whether it stems from the idea that those who were
religious were more likely to survive, or if it stems from a neurological drive in us for inclusion
and social living. For this gene to be passed down it is suggested that spiritual humans were
favored by natural selection, perhaps because they displayed a higher sense of optimism than
others, an optimism which encouraged survival and the urge to live (Cookson).
According to Sharon Begley, neurotheologists, neurobiologists, and evolutionary
psychologists have arrived at a general consensus that both religious faith and also fringe beliefs
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Dina Ludji-Pau
such as the belief in psychics, ghosts, aliens and astrology etc. “arise from the same mental
processes that underlie everyday reasoning and perception.” Some minds are more susceptible
to believing in the supernatural, as somebody whose mind is open and more likely to rely on
emotions like hope and despair rather than on evidence would be quicker to trust an assumption
rather than evidence of an actual occurrence. For example in 1854 Sir Roger Tichborne, son of
Lady Tichborne, went missing on the coast of Brazil. Twelve years later an imposter from
Australia claimed to be her son and Lady Tichborne happily believed him, granting him £1000
each year despite the fact the fact that the imposter bore no resemblance to her missing son.
While Sir Roger had been thin, tattooed with blue eyes the imposter was the opposite.
Additionally the imposter had a birthmark on his chest which Sir Roger did not. Lawsuits later
claimed that the man was indeed an imposter as the evidence clearly showed. However the
reason that Lady Tichborne wholeheartedly accepted this man was her son is for similar reasons
as to why we believe in the supernatural. Contrary to popular belief the brain does not construct
reality starting with perception. The brain’s sensory regions like vision are overridden by other
systems like processes that deal with our emotions and attention. When our attention is not
engaged instead of paying close attention to what we see, images that reach our retina and
continue through to the visual cortex don’t continue on to be processed and examined by our
brain. So in Lady Tichborne’s, and many other cases, our brain doesn’t focus on important
details and we effectively blind ourselves, just like people who are described as being ‘blinded
by faith.’ Neuroimaging shows that additionally our senses can be overridden by our cognitive
and emotional brain regions constantly being in communication. In some situations this will
heighten our perception such as when we are scared, our hearing is sharpened. However this
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Dina Ludji-Pau
effect can override our senses as well, making it easier to believe something which is usually
unbelievable (“Why We Believe”).
Historically people tend to become more superstitious and more likely to believe in the
paranormal such as ESP and astrology in times of anxiety and distress. Bruce Hood, psychology
researcher at University of Bristol, says, “In the absence of perceived control people become
susceptible to detecting patterns in an effort to regain some sense of organization.” Studies show
that recently, people who were asked to remember a time when they lacked control in a situation
picked up on more patterns in random sounds and saw more conspiracies in stories that they
were showed than other subjects (“Why We Believe”).
Our brains don’t just allow us to believe in religion or the supernatural, they encourage
us. Blurring our perceptions is but one part of how our brain ‘tricks’ us into thinking without
evidence. Our brain also aids in out of body experiences and religious epiphanies. In our superior
parietal lobe, a region close to the top and back of the brain, there is a bundle of neurons that
essentially helps us distinguish where our body ends and the physical world starts. Usually this
features as a way for us to navigate our bodies through a building or street without walking into
things. When it’s not needed though, the frontal lobes will send out a signal which turns this
structure off. This usually occurs when we are falling asleep or when somebody is having sexual
intercourse. This explains the disorientation or strange things that some may feel when they are
sleeping. Brain imaging has also shown that people who partake in heavy meditation and prayer
this structure is oddly quiet. The feeling of holiness and connectedness is caused by the fact that
your mind cannot find the division between the self and the world. The wholeness people
experience when this state is linked with religious practices or even alien abductions will
encourage and strengthen their belief. Other brain functions can be ‘tricked’ into making you
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Dina Ludji-Pau
feel something strange. The eyes and ears alone cannot interpret everything they see or hear
respectively. In such cases the brain will fill in the missing blanks, just like in optical illusions.
The brain’s urge to see what is not objectively there can lead to other ‘visions’ and paranormal
interpretations. Just like the brain completes an optical illusion, the brain will also complete the
image of Satan in some smoke, or the image of Jesus on a piece of toast, or more recently the
image of a face in an ultrasound. “Perceptually, the world is chronically ambiguous and requires
an interpretation,” says anthropology professor Stewart Guthrie at Fordham University.
According to Mark Reinecke, professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Northwestern
University, when we see strange, paranormal images in a normal situation we are just “using our
existing cognitive structures to make sense of an ambiguous or amorphous stimuli” (“Why We
Believe”).
While it may seem bizarre how convinced people are of these supernatural occurrences
and visions, when you ‘see’ something weird, your brain treats it just as it would treat literally
seeing something. Brain imaging illustrates how the neural areas activated when people imagine
something seen or heard are the exact same regions that are activated when you actually do see
or hear something in reality. This occurs in people suffering from schizophrenia when they
hallucinate as well, and in normal people who think of mental imagery. Even if what you see is
not there, your brain treats whatever you are imagining as real as seeing a tree or hearing a song.
Your brain even creates patterns of strange experiences and coincidences to convince you that
something ‘otherworldly’ is going on. Your brain remembers more clearly all the times that for
instance, you thought about somebody who then suddenly calls you, yet it ignores all the times
that doesn’t happen. When this happens it is called confirmatory bias which is when your brain
remembers events and experiences better that confirm our beliefs, rather than what contradict our
Tanya Kotze
Dina Ludji-Pau
beliefs. Confirmatory bias occurs now thanks to evolution and survival. When the mind evolved
if we failed to make a connection, like that rattlesnakes are dangerous, or touching fire hurts, we
could get killed. Rather than remember all the times that a rattlesnake didn’t hurt us, our brain
reminded us of events like that to help us survive. This evolutionary trait helps explain why our
brain so voluntarily lets us believe that a bump in the night is an axe-wielding serial killer, or a
shadowy figure in the darkness is a blood-thirsty ghost. Our brain is wired to associate even
inanimate objects with danger because when we were evolving it was safer to assume that a big
rock was a bear, because if you instead decided the rock was a rock, yet it turned out to be a bear,
you would be dead. The brain was developed to avoid danger therefore we developed a
‘hypersensitive agency-detection device.’ HADD (for short) is an acute sensitivity to other living
‘agents’ around us, in other words we are so aware of living ‘agents’ around us that often we
perceive something inanimate as being alive. According to Dr. Steve Novella, “Psychologists
and neuroscientists in recent years have demonstrated that our brains are hardwired to
distinguish things in our environment that are alive from those that are not alive… We can
perceive agency in non-living things if they are acting as if they are agents.” Therefore viewing
something as a possible ghost or spirit is just a branch off of our hypersensitivity (“Why do we
believe in the supernatural? A neurological explanation”).
Research from various fields of science has shown that our brain is simply hard-wired to
encourage us to believe in religion or the supernatural. Evolution has developed our brains with a
predisposition for belief in order to protect us. While neurotheology does continue to find more
answers as to why our brains believe what they do, it is not a field out to prove or disprove the
existence of the supernatural or of a god. "For those individuals who want to go down the path of
arguing that all of our religious and spiritual experiences are nothing more than biological
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Dina Ludji-Pau
phenomena, some of this data does support that kind of a conclusion," Andrew Newberg says.
"But the data also does not specifically eliminate the notion that there is a religious or spiritual
or divine presence in the world." More and more technology and research is becoming possible
so that we can one day completely understand how our brains work and exactly where and why
our brains make the distinction of what is real and what is not – evidence or none (“This is Your
Brain on Religion”).
To find what percentage of the project's text is directly quoted, and what percentage is
paraphrased, take the number of words directly quoted and divide that by the total number of
words (the full text of your whole project including both paraphrased and quoted text), then
multiply the result by one hundred to find the percentage of the project which is quoted. Then
subtract that percentage from 100 to find what percentage is paraphrased.
Word count (of everything except the students’ names and the project’s title and the Works Cited
page): 3,369
Total number of words directly quoted: 418
418 divided by 3,369 is .12407 (round up to .1241)
So only 12.41% of the project is direct quotations (that means just ~ one-eighth of the project is
directly quoted)
So 87.59% of the project’s text is paraphrased
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Dina Ludji-Pau
Works Cited
"Belief and the Brain's God Spot." The Independent. 8 Nov. 2011. Web. 9 Nov. 2011. <http://
www.independent.co.uk/news/science/belief-and-the-brains-god-spot-1641022.
html#disqus_thread>.
Cookson, John. "The Neurological Origins of Religious Belief." Big Think. 14 Sept. 2010. Web.
9 Nov. 2011. <http://bigthink.com/ideas/23960?page=all>.
Darlington, Roger. "Why people believe weird things." Roger Darlington's World. N.d. Web. 10
Nov. 2011. <http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/weirdthings.html>.
"This is Your Brain on Religion." Sikh Philosophy Network. N.d. Web. 8 Nov. 2011. <http://
sikhphilosophy.net/interfaith-dialogues/33632-this-is-your-brain-on-religion.html>.
Wade, Nicholas. "The Evolution of the God Gene - NYTimes.com." The New York Times. 14
Nov. 2009. Web. 9 Nov. 2011. <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/15/weekinreview/
12wade.html>.
"Why do we believe in the supernatural? A neurological explanation." Questionable Motives. 22
Mar. 2010. Web. 9 Nov. 2011. <http://questionablemotives.wordpress.com/2010/03/22/
why-do-we-believe-in-the-supernatural-a-neurological-explanation/>.
"Why We Believe." The Daily Beast. N.d. Web. 10 Nov. 2011. <http://thedailybeast.com/
newsweek/2008/10/24/why-we-believe.html>.