CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
This chapter discusses background to recent development in learning energy on Science
Education and the Researcher’s motivation and objective for the study. The discussions are
outlined under background, statement of the problem, rationale and significance of the
study, purpose of the study, research questions and hypotheses, delimitation and limitations
of the study and summary.
1.2 Background to the study
The senior high school (SHS) level in Ghana coincides with the period of indispensable life
decision for the individual and society. It is at the SHS level that scientific bases of
development are introduced to refine students’ perceptions through the operation of Science
core curriculum. After SHS level the students appear to have formed their perceptions about
science concepts both from the school science and their local environment.
Students’ perceptions of what is considered as science concepts such as “energy” and the
value resulting from it may control their decisions about science and its applicability in
daily life. However, most Ghanaian students do not appear to apply what is taught in the
science classroom into their everyday lives. This is so because the students’ perceptions of
most science concepts are not consistent with scientific perspectives. According to
Nordine’s (2007), recent study on supporting middle school students’ development of an
accurate and applicable energy concept, students’ perceptions contribute significantly to
students’ understanding of scientific concepts such as energy.
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Energy is one scientific concept which is central in school science and from experience, in
the classroom, it is often perceived alternatively and scientifically by students. As a core
concept, energy covers about 20% of Integrated Science syllabus in SHS in Ghana
(Ministry of Education, Science and Sports, 2007). Anecdotal evidence shows that the topic
energy is not taught in an integrated manner as suggested by the SHS Integrated Science
Syllabus. Teachers often tend to present the topic in physics perspectives.
As a result students learn energy as mathematical formulations, and memorize the
definitions for classroom and examination purposes. Hence, it becomes difficult for students
to learn and apply energy in their daily living and also explain scientific concepts involving
energy.
The study therefore was designed to survey students’ perspectives of energy and categorizes
these perspectives in energy frameworks so as to propose a model for teaching energy.
1.3 Statement of the problem
Teachers often make limited references to students’ perceptions about energy when they
teach energy in the science classroom. As a result, students’ perceptions of energy are not
scientifically grounded. Scientific explanations involving energy appear quite difficult for
students. It is presumed that this difficulty may be due to the teaching strategies that the
teachers use.
This study is centered on students’ perceptions of scientific concepts. As the concepts that
students hold or develop determine the way they explain scientific phenomena, it is
important that teaching is done in such a way that students will develop acceptable scientific
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perceptions. The study therefore explores students’ perceptions of energy, which is one of
the major topics in the SHS Integrated Science Syllabus.
1.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine SHS students’ perceptions of energy and
categorize them into frameworks of energy. The study was also used to develop a model for
teaching energy.
1.5 Specific Objectives of the study
The specific objectives of this study were to:
1. Determine SHS students’ perceptions of energy.
2. Determine the influence of gender on the students’ perceptions of energy.
3. Determine the influence of geographical location on students’ perceptions of
energy.
4. Determine the influence of academic programme on students’ perceptions of
energy.
5. Design a suitable model (based on the findings) for teaching energy.
1.6 Research Questions
The following five research questions were addressed in this study:
1. What perceptions do students have about energy?
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2. To what extent does gender influence the students’ perceptions of energy?
3. To what extent does geographical location influence the students’ perceptions of
energy?
4. To what extent does the academic programme offered by students influence their
perceptions of energy?
5. What model may be formulated from the findings for effective teaching of energy in
Ghanaian senior high schools during Integrated Science lessons?
1.7 Null Hypotheses
Three null hypotheses were also formulated in which conclusions were drawn on
differences on frameworks of energy. These are:
1. (H0): There is no statistically significant difference between male and female
students’ perceptions of energy.
2.
(H0): There is no statistically significant difference between urban, semi-urban and
rural students’ perceptions of energy.
3.
(H0): There is no statistically significant difference between science and nonscience students’ perceptions of energy.
1.8 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study are likely to provide insight that would be of great use to teachers
teaching energy at senior high school level. The findings are likely to explain any
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differences that may exist between the perceptions of energy of students within specific
geographical locations, academic programmes and gender. Finally the findings may impact
senior high school teachers’ teaching strategies for the topic ‘energy’.
1.9 Delimitation of the Study
The concept of energy appears generally difficult for students’ who have just began to study
it and so may not be easily articulated by them. In each cultural setting the concept ‘energy’
appears to have varying meanings and definitions or does not have collective terms as found
in English language. Thus often energy appears confusing to the youth. Though Integrated
Science is studied in both junior and senior high school, the study was confined to senior
high schools so as to minimize the perceived difficulties junior high school students may
have about ‘energy’. It is expected the senior high school student would be more matured
than junior high school students and therefore make more positive contributions to the
study. The study also focused on students perceptions of energy only, no attempt was made
to attain their knowledge of energy computation.
1.10
Limitations of the Study
The Researcher was not able to involve all the SHS offering Integrated Science in Brong
Ahafo, Central and Northern Regions as the study was constrained by time for completion.
Other constraints include lack of sufficient finances and logistic which hampered travels of
the Researcher to more remote areas to conduct the study. However, since respondents
know that they are being studied, the information provided may not be valid as far as the
respondents may wish to impress or please the Researcher. Again, the willingness or ability
to reply can also pose a problem. For instance the length of the questionnaire, the type
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and/or motivation of the respondent, the type of questionnaire items, the time of day and
place, and whether respondents were informed to expect the survey (or offered an incentive)
may all influence the response rate. To minimize some of the problems associated with the
design in this study, permission and assistance were sought from the Heads of the Schools,
teachers and students concerned.
1.11
Organisation of the study
This study was organized in five chapters. Chapter One is the introduction which deals with
rationale of the study. It also identifies the importance of the theme ‘energy’ in the
curriculum of the senior high school Integrated Science. Five research questions and three
hypotheses were formulated to guide the study.
In Chapter Two a reviewed of related literature explored types of energy frameworks within
students’ conceptions of energy. Also there was review of various teaching strategies that
enhance the teaching of the concept energy. A conceptual framework for the study was
developed based on the literature review of good practices elsewhere. Chapter Three
discusses the research design, population and sample and the sampling procedures, the
research instrument for collecting the data, the method of data collection and data analysis.
In Chapter Four, the data gathered for the study was analysed using the appropriate
statistical tools and findings were discussed and presented. Chapter five presents the
summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study.
1.12
Definition of terms
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Urban area - According to Ghana Education Service (GES) areas with district code one to
three can be classified as urban area. For example, the following location had been assigned
district codes one, Kumasi metropolis in Ashanti Region, Sunyani in Brong Ahafo Region,
and Ho in Volta Region.
Semi-urban area - From GES, areas with district code four to six can be classified as semiurban. For instance, from the Ashanti Region, Amansie West, Sekyere West and Afigya
Sekyere has been given district code four, five and six respectively.
Rural area - According to GES areas with district code seven and above can be classified
as rural. For example, district code nine is assigned to Wassa West is Western Region.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Overview
This chapter begins by reviewing some empirical findings which are fundamental in
conducting empirical studies. Some developments of the study of energy in the formal
school system were reviewed. A conceptual framework and a diagrammatic representation
of students’ perceptions of energy were developed based the literature reviewed. Further,
literature has been reviewed under the sub-headings: ‘students’ perceptions of energy’,
‘teaching energy’, ‘meaningful learning and science education’, ‘gender and science
learning’, ‘location and students’ energy perceptions’, and finally ‘academic programme
differences and energy’.
2.2 Empirical findings
In this section emphasis is placed on the review of some studies which have addressed areas
of teaching and learning of ‘energy’.
2.2.1
Students’ perceptions of energy
There has been much study in the area of teaching and learning of energy owing to its
occurrence across fields of science. These studies have focused on energy in diverse views
and more so confirmed that students can understand the experiences they encounter in a
different manner rather than conventional scientific perspectives: energy conversion
(Ebenezer & Fraser, 2001; Liu, Ebenezer & Fraser, 2002), heat and temperature (Sözbilir,
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2003), photosynthesis (Özay & Öztaş, 2003; Çepni, Taş & Köse, 2006), as well as energy
and its description (Diakidoy, Kendeou & Ioannides, 2003).
According to Nordine’s (2007) recent study on supporting middle school students’
development of an accurate and applicable energy concept, students’ perceptions contribute
significantly to students’ understanding of scientific concepts such as energy. Students
would in most situations rely on various knowledge fundamentals stored in memory in
order to solve a problem involving physical phenomena. They would also attempt to
retrieve these fundamentals, and apply them without much further reasoning rather than rely
on scientific laws or concepts. A number of researchers such as Diakidoy, Kendeou and
Ioannides (2003), Hirca, Calik and Akdeiniz (2008), and Nordine (2007) have reported
findings on ideas students hold with respect to energy.
Hirca, Calik and Akdeiniz (2008) studied students’ conceptions of energy and related
concepts. They conducted the study with 171 grade 8 students on their conceptions of
energy and related concepts. Among other results, Hirca, Calik and Akdeiniz (2008)
reported that 50% of the grade eight student understood the abstract structure of energy,
26% of them could take into account the relationship between ‘work’ and ‘energy’ concept,
between 65% and70% of the students were able to apply theoretical knowledge to different
situations. Regarding energy conversion, 72% could apply energy conversion to different
cases. About 74% of the student failed to comprehend the relationship between types of
energy and its conversion while 64% failed to comprehend the relationship between types of
energy and its conversion and applying it to novel situations.
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The findings of the study showed that perceptions held by students do certainly weaken
their ability to learn and apply energy concepts formally presented to them in science
lessons. This could account for students’ poor performance in science.
2.2.2
Energy Frameworks
Frameworks could be said to be set of beliefs, or ideas used as the source or foundation for
making decisions (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, 2001).
Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and Watts (1983) talked about alternative views on energy
which they established during their various studies. They stated distinct conceptual
frameworks designed for discussing perceptions about energy. These frameworks are
anthropocentric, depository, ingredient, activity, product, functional, and flow.
Anthropocentric - human centered energy, a situation where energy is seen to be connected
principally with persons, or regarded as objects as if they had human attributes (Trumper &
Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983).
Depository – by this framework energy is perceived as an object that is rechargeable, some
as having need of energy and simply use it up what they get and yet others as neutral.
Energy, then, is a causal agent, a source of activity based or stored within certain objects
(Trumper & Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983).
Ingredient - as an inactive component within objects or situations that needs some set off to
release it (Trumper & Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983). Lijnse (1990) found that energy as an
ingredient was seen as the product of an action such as movement and was released so it
could be used or consumed. This has been supported by Duit, Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers
(1994). This belief about energy can be used to explain a range of other perceptions such as
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energy being created and destroyed when it is used or converted into other unnamed things
(Jennison & Reiss, 1991).
Activity – from this view, energy is not seen as the cause of the action, but as the occurrence
itself (Liu & McKeough, 2005; Trumper & Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983).
Product - here energy is regarded as a relatively short-lived product that is generated, it is
active for some time and then disappears or fades (Trumper, 1997b; Trumper & Gorsky,
1993; Watts, 1983). A commonly used term that conflicts with the scientific meaning of
energy conservation is that of ‘using up energy’. Intuition dictates that energy does run out
since we need to add petrol to a car or gas to a car. In everyday life, this phrase is used
frequently to mean utilizable energy is becoming low while its scientific meaning is that
energy is being converted from one form to another which may not be useful in the
situation.
Functional - firstly energy is more or less restricted to technical appliances. Secondly is not
essential to all processes but is mainly associated with those that make life more
comfortable (Trumper & Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983).
Flow – in this framework, energy is seen as being ‘put in’, ‘given’ ‘transported‘,
’conducted’ and so on (Liu & McKeough, 2005; Trumper & Gorsky, 1993; Watts, 1983).
This perception of energy is also reflected in the way many people, including science
teachers refer to energy during general conversation and in the teachers’ case during lessons
where they frequently refer to the flow or movement of energy. For example, energy flows
through a food chain or moves from one body to another one. This use of language can lead
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to the notion of energy being seen as a fluid and having substance-like properties. The link
between energy and its ‘flowing’ when energy transfer takes place is discussed by Lijnse
(1990). Duit, Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers (1994) suggested the use of ‘energy flow’ was
satisfactory when teaching energy, if the view of energy being an indestructible entity is
taught and held by the students.
Liu and McKeough (2005) studied United States students’ responses to selected items in the
TIMSS database. They classified items in order of the type of conception that the items
represented and came up with the following categories as activity, source ( in a variety of
sources), form (present in diverse forms), transfer (can be moved), degradation (lost during
transformations), and conservation (the total energy in a closed system must be constant).
Based on Liu and McKeough’s (2005) classification, the frequency of correct responses for
students in grades 3, 4, 7, 8, and in their final year of high school was calculated.
Considering 50% as the pass mark, their findings revealed that all grade levels reached the
activity/work competence level, while the students in grade 4 and above reached
source/form competence level. Perceptions of energy transfer were slightly shown by 7th
grade, 8th grade, and high school students (Liu & McKeough, 2005). This is an indication
that the students’ perception of energy is influenced by their grade level.
2.2.3
Materialistic perceptions of energy
A number of researchers have reported findings of students of all ages who viewed energy
as being a material substance (Bliss, 1995; Watts, 1983) or energy as a discrete thing
(Lijnse, 1990). This material nature of energy manifests itself through the perception of
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energy as particulate, being an ingredient of materials (Lijnse, 1990) and in its flow from
one situation to another (Duit, Roth, Komorek, & Wilbers, 1994; Leach, Driver, Scott, &
Wood – Robinson, 1995). Duit, Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers (1994) also in their study
found a number of students who thought energy was a material like ‘thing’ which is
obtained from food during the process of digestion.
The material nature of energy may be a result of people of all ages having difficulty with
abstract phenomena and their desire to give the abstract phenomena concrete properties
(Duit, 1987). Collis, Jones, Sprod, Watson, and Fraser (1998) discussed their perception of
cognitive operation and claim people have a set of modes of cognitive functioning of which
the third is concrete representative. They argue that learners develop the five modes
sequentially and at different stages of their life and that once developed, these modes are all
used at the same time. Both of these explanations help to explain why so many researchers
have revealed the material nature of energy perception.
2.2.4
Energy sources for the human body
Arzi (1988) found that many learners had no idea on how food gave the body energy, just
that there was a link. Baird, Fensham, Gunstone and White (1987) found out that glucose
was seen to be a form of energy while Yip (1998) found protein is not thought to be an
energy source.
These research findings shows that a number of students have conceptions about energy
sources the body uses to supply the energy it needs to function. Many students do have
some notion that food is involved as an energy source for the body, just how the body
13
obtains or gets energy to function is unclear. Many researchers such as Ross (1991), Duit,
Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers (1994), and Lavoie (1997) have reported findings showing a
variety of alternative energy sources which students think the body uses for its energy
requirements.
2.2.5
Activity perception of energy
The perception that energy is activity or is only present when activity occurs is a commonly
reported phenomenon and is found in all age groups (Jennison & Reiss, 1991; Lijnse, 1990;
Nicholls & Ogborn, 1993). This ‘energy’ and ‘activity’ link is not the acceptable perception
that activity requires energy; rather that energy is only present when an activity or change
occurs.
Observations of situations involving energy all have some form of activity or change
present. For a human to be active requires the expenditure of energy and leads to a decrease
or loss of useful energy. So to the young mind, when objects undergo change, energy must
be involved (as a form of activity to cause the change) and so it is as well since energy
needs to be continually supplied to the situation.
2.2.6
Conservation of energy as a dual meaning of terms
An instance of the confusion created by language is the use of the term conservation of
energy. In everyday language, conservation of energy refers to saving or not wasting energy
while the first law of thermodynamics states that energy can only be converted into other
forms of energy but not destroyed or created.
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Studies have found that learners do not see energy conservation within a strict scientific
context even after having the scientific aspects and meaning covered in class (Duit, 1981;
Solomon, 1982; 1983b). The lack of the scientific use of energy conservation by students
has been directly reported by a number of researchers such as Duit, Roth, Komorek, and
Wilbers (1994), Ross (1991), and Trumper (1997b).
Goldring and Osborne (1994), Kesidou and Duit (1993), Trumper (1997a), and Gilbert and
Watts (1983) found that learners perceive energy to be created or destroyed. For example,
Gilbert and Watts (1983) found that students thought energy to be rechargeable through
food and rest. Solomon (1983a) found that students thought that energy builds up with
exercise and in a report on teaching the conservation of energy (Solomon, 1985) she found
that energy was considered to be produced when a fuel is burnt. Finegold and Trumper’s
(1989) students indicated that energy was made by some process such as during activity.
Baird, Fensham, Gunstone and White (1987) found that energy created as mass of food is
destroyed during bodily reaction. On his part Lijnse (1990) found similar conceptions of
energy – that is energy being destroyed as it is used. The lack of energy conservation when
the body is gaining energy for use or when using it, has been directly reported by Ross
(1991). While not directly commenting upon conservation, Duit, Roth, Komorek, and
Wilbers (1994) found that energy from food may be produced through the process of
digestion. These findings are further evidence of lack of understanding of the scientifically
acceptable perceptions of the conservation of energy.
To help students come to terms with this dual meaning of conservation of energy, Duit,
Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers (1994) proposed that the conservation of energy (scientific
15
meaning) be one section of their model of energy which should be taught as part of the
concept of energy. By participating in this process of learning, students will come to
appreciate the scientific meaning of the conservation of energy while still appreciating its
everyday meaning which Trumper (1990b) claims will never be extinguished due to its
value in everyday conservation.
2.2.7
Confusion of terms related to energy
Watts (1983) discussed the fact that students need to be taught ‘force’ and ‘work’ before
being taught ‘energy’. This he claimed would reduce the problem of confusing these three
terms. One possible reason for this confusion arises from the everyday observations
involving these concepts where they all are linked in some way to energy and observations
of their effects are similar to those of energy. A support to this is the everyday use of many
of these terms for example we do not say turn on the energy (so the television will come
on), we say turn on the power, where power and electrical energy are synonymous.
Evaporation is an example; at times it is taught as a separation method in chemistry and in
another instance as a process to describe water molecule movements as a liquid boil. It is
rare for the cooling effect of evaporation to be focused on in formal circumstances and even
less so is the cooling effect associated with body temperature regulation and sweating.
Researchers since then have reported on learner confusion between a variety of terms and
energy (Barak, Gorodetsky, & Chipman, 1997; Harrison, Grayson & Treagust, 1999).
This confusion due to multiple meanings of terminology, is especially relevant in science
classes dealing with energy where energy is often introduced to students with the definition
of “energy” equals “work done”. The use of this definition assumes the learner to have a
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scientific meaning of work, which is highly unlikely due to its common language use and
meaning. At the same time, many science teachers especially in the past have assumed
learners have scientifically acceptable understanding of energy and proceed to teach energy
based on this assumption (Linjse, 1990). In Ghana the case is not quite different since
teachers also assume students have the mathematically acceptable understanding of energy
and proceed to teach energy based on mathematical formulations and definitions.
2.2.8
Energy and everyday language
Energy is a pervasive phenomenon not only in science but also in everyday living. We are
exposed to the term all the time through the electronic and print media as well as everyday
conversation and actions. This frequent contact with the term energy has resulted in a
common language framework within which we are immersed. As a consequence of its
common usage, energy has developed a whole set of meanings in everyday life that are in
conflict with the meanings assigned to these words by scientists (Kruger, 1990).
From everyday situations people develop perceptions of energy. For example, we hear of
‘burning energy’, ‘used up energy’, ‘waste energy’, ‘save energy’ and numerous other
terms. These everyday meanings lead to perceptions which may be in conflict with those
held by scientists (Lijnse, 1990). Warren, Ballenger, Ogonnowki, Rosebury and Hudicourt Barnes (2001) discuss the role that language plays in the formation of perceptions involving
energy when they claimed it is due to the informal use of language. Earlier, Duit and
Haeussler (1994) noted that students do not use scientific language in unfamiliar situations.
They are more familiar with the everyday meanings and find these easier to use than the
newer scientific meanings of energy.
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Kruger (1990) and Boyes and Stanisstreet (1991) also discussed the role of the many social
meanings of energy and how these are at odds with those meanings given by scientists and
how this creates difficulties in the mind of the learners when distinguishing between the
scientific and everyday meaning of terms.
Emphatically, Lynch (2001) sums up the importance of language and culture when she says
of science education language and culture cannot be separated from learning content. While
this comment was intended for science teaching in a classroom, it applies equally to
everyday learning and the role of language and culture in the classroom situation.
2.2.9
Teaching energy
Generally energy is taught in a physics perspective at the SHS level from the senior high
school integrated science syllabus and is not often associated with the human body as for
instance, evaporation in support of cooling the body, the application of food as an energy
source (Ministry of Education, Science and Sports, 2007). Solomon (1983a) argued that
teachers should not attempt to extinguish the everyday meaning in the teaching of energy as
it is essential for the learner’s communication in general society. Solomon (1986) stated
that physics should be taught not in a theoretical manner but be based on practical physical
experiences and exploration of the different meanings available in the language of
instruction. It may be possible that students cannot grasp the theoretical concept and hence
should be taught energy using concrete materials and then later this perceptions be adjusted
to reflect the more accurate concept of energy as mathematical formulation (Duit, 1987).
Duit and Haeussler (1994) and Trumper (1990b) argue that teaching should try to link
18
everyday meanings of concepts with those of science so that students can operate effectively
in both worlds.
Lijnse (1990) proposed initiating a lesson series with ‘life world’ circumstances and then
developing these life-world situations into quantifiable situations. This is followed by the
development of the theoretical concepts of physics. Once the theoretical concepts have been
introduced, students should go back to the ‘descriptive phase’ to retrace these in the light of
the theoretical concepts developed. This procedure for a teaching programme in energy is
sequential and circular.
On the other hand Duit and Haeussler (1994) proposed four basic aspects of energy that
were created from a study of energy from a scientist’s point of view rather than from
student-held conceptions. These aspects are transformation, transport, conservation and
degradation. They proposed these four aspects of energy to develop an approach to the
teaching of energy.
Typically, in the Ghanaian SHS Integrated Science teaching syllabus (which serves as a
guide to the teaching and learning of science), energy is presented in a physics perspective.
This has a great influence on the mode of teaching energy. Emphasis is usually placed on
definitions and mathematical formulations of energy. This does not appear to promote
meaningful learning as the students do not seem to integrate energy, as it is taught in
science, with their everyday thinking - which is evident in their language. Perhaps,
introducing students’ perceptions of energy in the teaching of the concept may enhance
learning of energy. The teaching of energy in Ghanaian SHS schools could consider the
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students perceptions which could then be integrated into the scientific perspective to
produce a refined perspective of energy. The end of such a course of study should be the
ability of the students to use energy terminology in the appropriate way in any situation
which would most likely be similar to the expert’s use of language where each use is
appropriate to the situation (Warren, Ballenger, Ogonnowki, Rosebury, & HudicourtBarnes, 2001).
2.2.10 Meaningful learning and science education
According to Linn and Eylon (2000) and the National Research Council, (2000; 2007),
when students develop understandings that are coherent rather than a collection of facts,
they are more likely to be able to apply their knowledge to new situations and continue to
learn more efficiently even after instruction. Yager (1991) reported that a small number of
students perceive the connection linking science as a school subject and as it presents itself
in everyday life. A number of authors recommended that one of the aims of good science
teachings is to produce students who can use scientific knowledge in their society (Kolstø,
2001; Lewis & Leach, 2001; Simonneaux, 2001).
Students may need to be taught scientific principles in the context of ‘real-life’ situations if
they are to appreciate its values and relate the principles afterwards in life. Thus, a body of
research proposes that learning established science content meaningfully is simply not
attainable for the majority of students in the context of conventional school science
(Aikenhead, 2003; Shapiro, 2004). A general quest in recent projects is to get students to
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become scientifically literate (Zisk, 1994). Therefore, studies have been attempting to get
students to become science conscious with regard to ‘energy’ and related concepts (Keser,
Özmen & Akdeniz, 2003).
2.2.11 Gender and Science learning
Dominant issues in the relationship between gender and achievement have been examined
by a number of researchers (Gipps & Murphy, 1995; Murphy, 1991). For example pupil
attitudes to science learning have been examined (Clarke & Trafford, 1996; Johnston,
O’Neill, Walters, & Rasheed, 1995), and teacher expectations of the various sexes have also
been researched (Blatchford, 1996; Skelton, 1997).
In a study by the American Association of University Women (AAUW) to consider gender
equity in advancing education and career prospects for females, proof was presented to
confirm that girls were not getting similar quality of education as boys (Bleuer & Walz,
2002). Nevertheless, research gave evidence that the AAUW report was wrong (Kleinfield,
1998; Sommers, 2000). According to Kleinfield (1998) from grade school through college,
females at present obtain higher grades and achieve higher-class ranks than males. In
general differences in males and females, academic attainments are usually minute. There is
therefore no significant disparity in gender variation in the academic performance of males
and females.
2.2.12 Location and students energy perceptions
Researches have revealed that geographical locations, (Urban, Semi-urban and Rural)
influence learning outcomes at all levels of education in developing countries (AnamuahMensah, Otuka & Ngman-Wara, 2006; Uzoechi, 2006).
21
Urban areas are usually geographic areas encompassing a large population centre,
economically and socially connected adjoining communities. Areas that cannot be described
by this definition are not urban areas (Morrissey, 1987). A geographical area constituting a
city or town is also referred to as urban area, (Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, 1996).
According to Ghana education service (GES) areas with district code one to three can be
classified as urban area. For example, the following location had been assigned district
codes one, Kumasi metropolis in Ashanti Region, Suyani in Brong Ahafo Region, and Ho
in Volta Region.
Semi-urban area is a location that is partly connected with a town or city (Chambers 21st
Century Dictionary, 1996; Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English,
2001). From GES, areas with district code four to six can be classified as semi-urban. For
instance, also from the Ashanti Region, Amansie West, Sekyere West and Afigya Sekyere
has been given district code four, five and six respectively. According to the Demographia
World Urban Areas, semi urban areas or exurbans are mainly defined by generally large
residential development that is not of sufficient density to be considered urban and is also
not agricultural.
A settled place outside a town and city is known as a rural area (Chambers 21st Century
Dictionary, 1996; Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, 2001). Such
areas are distinct from more intensively settled urban area. According to GES areas with
district code seven and above can be classified as rural. For example, district code nine is
assigned to Wassa West is Western Region. Rural areas according to Deavers and David
(1985) are areas economically based on agriculture, manufacturing, and mining, while
socially its scope includes persistent poverty and growth of retirement population.
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Despite the number of studies done on alternative frameworks on energy (Trumper &
Gorsky, 1993; Solomon, 1983; Watts, 1983) little or nothing has been reported on the
influence of location on the students’ energy perceptions. Considering the fact that the
students’ perceptions of energy may be as a result of what environment they are exposed to
in their daily living, it is expedient that factors such as location be studied. It is likely that
students in urban areas with the exposure to sophisticated technology (computers and the
Internet, cars, television and more network services) may hold perceptions about energy
which are different from those of students in rural areas. Perhaps other factors like literate
parents, educated homes, and library facilities, and avenues for social interaction are also
highly likely to influence the perceptions of energy held by students in urban areas.
Exposure to cultural beliefs and practices are also likely to have great effects on the
perceptions of energy held by students in rural areas. More importantly, the presence of
infrastructure in the urban areas and lack of such infrastructure in the rural areas may
determine the exposure of the students to different themes associated with energy. The
arrangement of Government of Ghana, as part of the Growth and Poverty Reduction
Strategy II (GoG, 2002), is to develop the physical environment of schools in order to
guarantee quality standards in education, and particularly science education. This
arrangement is an acknowledgment that, physical situations, including infrastructure and
equipment, are extremely important to influencing successful teaching and learning at all
levels of education.
2.2.13 Academic programme differences and energy
23
A student in school faces at least two languages at any one time. But there may also be an
additional language problem caused by the different disciplines of science and how these
disciplines use words to explain the same phenomena. This is discussed by Lucas (1995)
and Nordine (2007) who have all indicated there is a difference in the use of terms between
the various subject domains of science. Barak, Gorodetsky, and Chipman (1997) discuss the
way physics, chemistry and biology teachers all talk about energy in different fashions and
how these various usages can lead to misconceptions. For example, physicists talk about
energy transferring from one body to another while biologists talk about energy flowing;
physicists and chemists talk about energy transformations while biologists talk of change in
energy forms. Kirkwood, Carr and McChesney (1986) stated that different concept of
energy are held by different discipline. The authors further advanced the argument that there
are obvious ideas of different framework with links to the discipline of academic
programme, though not always strong. This belief was recently reinforced by Nordine
(2007). Kruger (1990) concurred when he made the observation that Science teachers at
various levels may find it hard to agree upon a generally acceptable and applicable
explanation of the nature of energy. The biologists or chemists perspective of the concept is
not likely to be identical to that of the physicists.
These comments reflect similar arguments to those on the influence of culture and language
meaning that how a concept is taught will influence how it is conceived. Studies have
asserted that instruction is an essential part of students’ concept acquisition (Klahr &
Nigam, 2004; Linn, Lee, Tinker, Husic, & Chiu, 2006). Each subject has its own language
Barak, Gorodetsky, and Chipman (1997) noted that different views of energy may be due to
24
the vocabulary used in biology to describe energy and thus from a student’ point of view
confer different meanings on a phenomenon such as energy.
This range of scientific language use increases over time as different specialist subject
teachers teach students general science and as different science disciplines are covered. It is
little wonder students continually revert to the common usage language which reinforced by
everyday use (both in and out of school) with all the language conflict which occurs during
formal education.
2.3 Conceptual framework
Research from disciplines such as cognitive and developmental psychology (Carey, 1991)
and science education gave rise to ‘Novice-as-Theorist’ accounts of science learning. These
accounts assumed that students spontaneously generate ideas to account for phenomena in
the natural world. These ideas, though often inaccurate from the perspective of scientific
theory, help students organize and explain events around them (Vosniadou & Brewer,
1992).
Samarapungavan and Wiers (1997) suggested that students’ belief systems about nature
ought to be observed as ‘explanatory frameworks’ rather than completely precise theories.
They propose that students’ impulsive ideas about nature demonstrate a number of similar
theory qualities, provided there exists conceptual rationality that explains a diversity of
natural occurrences in conditions of a small, internal consistency in the students’ idea.
However, studies have pointed out that students' perceptions are essential considerations to
the social and psychological aspects of the learning of science (Fraser, 2000; McInnis,
25
2003). Students’ perceptions of what counts as energy concept and the value derived from
them may control their decisions about science and its applicability in daily life.
2.3.1
Conceptual framework of students’ perception of energy
From the literature, the perceptions of energy held by students’ maybe represented as a
schematic diagram (Fig 1). In the diagram, one directional arrow head describes the study
direction and elements under consideration.
Students’ Perception of Energy
(Science Teaching and Everyday
living)
Scientific perspectives
Alternative Perspectives
Scientific Language
Trendy Language
Remediation
Meaningful Learning
(Integrating accepted scientific concept
into everyday thinking)
Figure 1: Students’ perception of energy
As shown in Figure 1, students’ perceptions of energy (which is their ideas, interpretations
and understanding of energy) is largely a product of the students’ everyday experiences with
the environment. These experiences are either gotten from their interactions within the
society, or from science lessons on energy in the classroom. Experiences derived from
26
interactions within the society leads to alternative perspectives of energy, while experiences
gotten from science classrooms with suitable instructional strategies produce scientific
perspectives of energy.
Both scientific and alternative perceptions are observed from the type of language the
students use. Trendy language shows that students hold alternative perspectives, while
scientific language depicts scientific perspectives. Remediation may bring about meaningful
learning in science education as shown in Figure 1. Subsequently students should be able to
integrate energy in school science into their daily living.
2.3.2
Conceptual framework of the study
A conceptual framework for the study was developed based on the literature review of good
practices elsewhere. The summary of the conceptual framework of the study is presented in
Fig 2. In the Figure, one directional arrow head describes the study direction and elements
under consideration. Double arrow heads show that the connected elements have effect on
each other.
Energy framework
Questionnaire items
(Anthropocentric,
Depository, Ingredient,
Activity, Product,
Functional, Flow)
Students’ perceptions of
energy
Meaningful learning
(Integrating accepted
scientific concept into
everyday thinking)
Fig 2: Conceptual framework of the study
27
Suggested remediation
As shown in Fig 2, the questionnaire items are made up of the energy frameworks which
explore the students’ perceptions of energy. Application of a suggested remediation may
lead to meaningful learning. Meaningful learning is to integrate scientific concept into
everyday thinking (energy framework).
2.4 Summary
Most studies revealed that students perceive energy in a manner that is different from the
scientific perspectives. Some studies suggested that students should be taught energy with
the consideration of their perspectives as this may consequently lead them to refine their
perspectives of energy.
In this chapter, the conceptual framework which explains how students generate ideas both
from science classrooms and everyday living to account for energy was presented. It shows
that with appropriate teaching strategy alternative perspectives could be refined to produce
meaningful learning. Students’ perceptions (belief systems) about energy ought to be
observed as ‘explanatory frameworks’ rather than complete and precise theories (di Sessa,
1993; Harris, 1994; Samarapungavan & Wiers, 1997).
28
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Overview
This chapter describes the research design used to collect data on students’ perceptions of
energy. The chapter also covers the strategies used to determine the population of interest
and sampling procedures. It noted that population was randomly selected to suit the
exigencies of the study period. The research instruments used in collecting the data, the
method of data collection and data analysis are also discussed.
3.2 Research design
This study is a survey research aimed at describing students’ perceptions of energy and the
influence of gender, geographical location and academic programme on these perceptions.
In this research a cross-sectional survey design in which data are collected at one point in
time from one or more sample was used (McMillan, 1996).
Diagrammatic representation of the research design
The summary of the research design is presented in Fig 3. In the diagram, one directional
arrow head describes the study direction and elements under consideration.
29
Cross-sectional Survey Design
Design Questionnaire
Pilot Study
Data Collection
Data Analysis (Presentation and discussion of results)
Conclusion and Recommendations
Figure 3: Research design
Figure 3 shows the steps taken in the research. Firstly, a questionnaire was designed
containing items showing energy perceptions. Secondly, the questionnaire was piloted and
subsequently used to collect data from the students within a period of four weeks. Thirdly
the data collected was analysed then the results were presented and discussed. Finally
conclusion was reached and recommendations made from the findings.
This design was employed in order to find out students’ perceptions of energy and the
influence of gender, geographical location and academic programme on their perceptions.
Based on this approach the Researcher used questionnaire to explore and gather data on
students’ perceptions of energy; (the students’ gender, geographical location and academic
programme). Respondents were only required to respond to existing practices and their
current status. These practices included everyday language use of energy, which illustrate
30
students’ perceptions of energy as being associated with humans, as activity, as a product,
as fuel, and as a flow model and their category included gender, geographical location and
academic programme. The usefulness of this approach for the study is that it allows the
collection of data from the sample and determination of the status of the sample with respect
to the variables (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). This approach had the advantage of making it
possible for the Researcher to measure the reactions of many respondents to a limited set of
questions, thus facilitating comparison and statistical aggregation of the data (Patton, 2002;
Kumekpor, 2002). It was also an efficient and accurate means of determining relatively
inexpensive, quicker and reliable information about the population (Kumekpor, 2002).
Again, findings related to perceptions are noted to be reliable if data are drawn from a wider
and representative sample which is a typical characteristic of survey design. Since the
purpose of this study was to obtain large data on perceptions of energy to describe Ghanaian
students’ views about energy, the Researcher found survey appropriate.
3.3 Population of study
The population of a study is the group that conform to specific criteria and to which the
Researcher would like to generalize the result of the study (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). This
study concerns all students enrolled at the SHS in Ghana. These students are all required to
study the Integrated Science Curriculum which has topics on energy. However, in order to
collect reliable data from students who have well-formed concepts about energy, second
year students were targeted by the Researcher as appropriate for the study. Third year
students were not selected because they had written their final West African Senior
Secondary Certificate Examination (WASSCE) and were not available in school at the time
31
of this study. The students (both males and females) were located in schools within rural,
semi-urban and urban settlements. Also, the students either offered science programmes
(Science, Home Economics, Agriculture and Technical) or non-science (Arts and Business).
These characteristics of the students were relevant in this study because energy is taught as
a core concept in non-science classes and in detail in science classes which could make
students perceive energy differently. The variables of interest were geographic location,
gender and programmes offered by the students and their effects (if any) on their
perceptions of energy.
3.4 Sample and sampling procedures
The group on which information is obtained is known as the sample of the study (McMillan,
1996). In this study the sample was made up of 720 students selected from the accessible
population. The accessible population is the SHS students in three Regions offering
integrated science programme.
Sampling is the process of selecting a number of individuals from a population, in such a
way that the selected individuals are representative of the population (McMillan, 1996). Out
of the 10 regions in Ghana, lottery method was used to select three regions for the study.
The regions were labeled on pieces of paper, folded and drawn out at random. The three
regions represent 30% of the regions in Ghana. Lottery method was used since all 10
regions have the required characteristics and choosing any one would not affect the study.
More so this method was employed to ensure representativeness of the sample for the
purpose of the survey and reduce biases in the selection process. Northern, Brong-Ahafo
and Central regions were drawn from the selection and used for the study.
32
After selecting the regions, next was the choice of location of schools. This was done based
on settlements considered as urban, semi-urban and rural. Tamale Metropolis (Northern
Region), Berekum Municipality (Brong-Ahafo Region) and Swedru Town (Central Region)
were considered urban. Dormaa, Nsoatre, Apam, Yendi, Techiman were semi-urban
settlements and Nwanmanafo, Berekum-Biadan, Kwanyarko, Obrachere, Pong-Tamale and
Savilugu were rural settlements in this study. All these settlements were selected
purposively to reflect geographical location with the object of analysing the influence of
location on students’ perceptions of energy.
Six schools each from the three geographical locations making-up a total of 18 schools were
selected. Two schools each were purposively chosen from the regions to reflect the three
types of settlements (urban, semi-urban and rural) considered in the population (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1: Sample by schools
Study Area
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Brong Ahafo Region
Municipality:
School A
School B
District 1:
School A
School B
District 2:
School A
School B
Central Region
Municipality:
School A
School B
Metropolitan:
School A
School B
District 1:
School A
School B
District 1:
School A
School B
District 2:
School A
School B
District 2:
School A
School B
Northern Region
(GES district code of SHS)
In the schools, stratified random sampling was used to select students from SHS 2. This is
a sampling process in which subgroups, or strata, are chosen for the sample in the same
proportion as they appear in the population (McMillan, 1996). This sampling procedure
33
was used to ensure representativeness of gender and academic programmes since the
sample were not of the same size (Fraenkel & Wallen 2003). For example, it was found
that some academic programmes had high number of males than females or vice versa.
Stratifying the sample by gender therefore enhanced the proportion of males and females.
With assistance from the teachers, stratified random sampling of academic programmes
followed by instant random selection of male and female students were done to arrive at
40 students from each school visited. Ten students were selected from each of the four
academic programmes namely Science, Arts, Business and Home Economics/Technical to
cover perceptions by academic programmes.
3.5 Research Instruments
The most common instruments used in surveys are questionnaires and the interview
schedules (Patton, 2002). The differences between both instruments are mainly in how
they are administered. However, in this study the main instrument used for the data
collection was a questionnaire others were document analysis and field notes.
Interview schedule: Interviews are conducted verbally, and the answers to the questions
were recorded by the Researcher (Fraenkel & Wallen 2003). The advantages of this
instrument are that the interviewer can clarify any questions that are unclear and the also
Researcher can ask the respondent to expand on answers that are particularly important
and informative. A big disadvantage, on the other hand, is that it takes much longer time
for the questionnaire to be completed. Furthermore, the presence of the Researcher may
inhibit respondents from saying what they really think.
34
Questionnaire: In a questionnaire, the subjects respond to the questions by writing or, more
commonly, by marking an answer sheet (Patton, 2002). In the case of this study students
responded to the questions by marking an answer sheet. The use of this instrument was to
allow the Researcher to efficiently explore the students’ perceptions of energy. Advantages
in the use of the questionnaire are that they can be mailed or can be given to a large number
of people at the same time. As in this situation, it was given to large number of students. In
particular, the questionnaire was used to obtain consistency and wide range of exploratory
data on students’ perceptions of energy. Also, as indicated by Walonick (2004), using
questionnaire reduces middle-man bias and minimizes verbal or visual clues that would
influence students’ responses.
The data collected on students’ perceptions of energy was in line with seven energy
frameworks. These energy frameworks were adopted from Trumper and Gorsky’s (1993)
and Watts’s (1983) distinct frameworks of energy and modified to determine the students’
perception of energy in the Ghanaian setting. It was made up of two main sections;
Section A and Section B. Section A focused on the biographic data of the respondents that
included class and sex. Section B is made up 21 items structured into three Likert scale
format of true, partly true and not true. Likert scale is a self-reporting instrument in which
an individual responds to series of statements by signifying the degree of agreement. Each
choice is given a numerical value, and the total score is presumed to indicate the
respondent’s perception of energy (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Three of the 21 items were
framed to illustrate instances of each of the seven frameworks of energy perceptions by
Watts (1983). Watts’ (1983) seven (7) frameworks, which were later substantiated by
35
Gilbert and Pope (1986) and are consistent with Trumper and Gorsky’s (1993) nine
distinct conceptual frameworks for energy, and are categorized as follows:
1. Anthropocentric - which finds out how a student perceives energy to be associated
with human beings;
2. Depository/possess and expend – which finds out how the student perceives that
some objects have energy and some needs it;
3. Ingredient - the focus here is on whether the student is able to perceive energy as
dominant within some objects and can be released by some trigger.
4. Activity -this deal with energy being identified by overt displays, and the display
itself is actually called energy;
5. Product/process - whether the student perceives energy as a by-product of some
situation and is relatively short-lived.
6. Others are Functional - whether the student thinks about energy as a very general
kind of fuel or less restricted technical devices and not essential to all processes;
7. Flow transfer – energy is regarded as some sort of physical fluid that is transferred in
certain processes.
The items in the questionnaire described each of these seven energy frameworks and took
into consideration common use of energy in everyday life in Ghana.
3.6 Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which the questionnaire serves the intended purpose or
provides trusted data for the research purpose (Robson, 1995). In order to ensure that the
36
data gathered was valid, the Researcher pilot tested the questionnaire. The pilot test was
done specifically to help in checking the clarity of the items, give feedback on internal
validity of the items and to ensure the appropriateness of data. In order to determine content
validity, the questionnaire was further scrutinized by the Researcher’s Supervisor and other
seasoned researchers.
3.7 Reliability
Reliability measures the consistency of an instrument to obtain similar responses when
repeated on two or more samples with similar characteristics (Robson, 1995). Data from
pilot-test were used to test the internal consistency of the questionnaire. Cronbach alpha
coefficient of reliability is an internal consistency coefficient requiring only one test
administration was computed to determine the consistency of related items (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2003). To address the reliability of the questionnaire, data from the pilot-test were
fed into SPSS computer software and reliability coefficients computed at .05. The reliability
coefficients ranging from 0.728 -0.770 were found for the 21 items addressing students’
perceptions of energy (see Appendix C). The results show that the items were internally
consistent.
3.8 Pilot testing the questionnaire
According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2003) a pilot study is a small scale research conducted
before carrying out an actual study in order to show defects (if any) in the research
arrangement. A pilot study was carried out with 40 SHS 2 students of AME Zion Girls
SHS, Winneba. The sample was made up of 20 students offering Home Economics, 10
students offering Business and 10 students offering General Arts. Piloting the questionnaire
37
provided information which served as guidance to the Researcher to correct deficiencies and
ensure the appropriateness of the items in answering research questions (Fraenkel &
Wallen, 2003). In particular, pilot-test was done in this study to determine the precision,
consistency and stability of responses to the questionnaire. From the pilot-test, the
Researcher realized that 5 of the 21 items used to illustrate the energy frameworks were too
long and could affect students understanding and the duration to complete the questionnaire.
The items were therefore reconstructed into shorter statements to ensure better
understanding and easy responses.
Validity and reliability are important concerns in empirical research. They provide the basis
for ascertaining the credibility and acceptability of research findings in quantitative study
(Creswell, 2003). After constructing the questionnaire the next process was how to ensure
validity and reliability of the questionnaire in gathering the data.
3.9 Data collection procedure
The Researcher obtained a permission letter from the Head of Department (Department of
Science Education, University of Education, Winneba) to the heads of the Senior high
schools under the study. This was done to formally seek for permission from the school
heads to administer the questionnaire.
A total of four weeks was used to collect data from the three regions. Heads of most schools
organized the students for the questionnaire administration on the same day the Researcher
visited the schools. The questionnaire administration was done during break periods in order
not to interfere with the learning process.
38
At each school the Researcher visited, a teacher was assigned by the Head or Assistant
headmaster to assist in identifying the required male and female proportions and select the
10 students each from the four programmes needed for the questionnaire administration.
The selected students were often conveyed to one classroom and briefed on the purpose of
the study. Each student was told to opt out if s/he did not want to be involved in answering
the questionnaire. In all the schools visited, the selected students were excited about the
study on their perceptions of energy, in its daily use and participated keenly. They were
given the opportunity to ask the Researcher questions to clarify issues that were not clear to
them. In order to ensure independent responses, students also consented to complete the
questionnaire before leaving the classroom. A maximum of 15 minutes were used by the
students to respond to the items in the questionnaire in all the 18 schools visited. The return
rate was 100%.
3.10 Data analysis procedure
The process of making data gathered in a study simpler in other to make it understandable is
known as data analysis (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). The questionnaire items were arranged
serially. Under each item, code numbers were assigned to the Likert scale as follows: not
true (1), partly true (2) and true (3). Based on these codes, data were then fed into statistical
package for social science (SPSS) for processing into tables of frequencies and percentages.
This was done to ensure clear description of gender, location, programmes and perception
of the students by frequency and percentages. Table of frequencies and percentages
obtained from SPSS analysis was therefore used to answer research question 1.
39
To answer research questions 2, 3 and 4, the data were recoded into no perception (not true
=0) and perception (partly true and true =1). Each of the three items which related to the
energy frameworks was regrouped into the seven energy frameworks. The scores obtained
by individual students were summed up under each energy framework. Since the research
questions sought to find the extent of perceptions by gender, geographical location and
academic programmes offered by students, the summed up data were recoded as follow:
0 = no perception
1 = low perception about the specific energy framework
2 = moderate perception about the specific energy framework
3 = high perception about the specific energy framework
For instance, considering the three items under anthropocentric framework, a student
indicates not true (0) to one of the items and true (1) and partly true (1) to the other two
items respectively. The total score will add up to be 2. The student is then said to have
moderate perception of energy as anthropocentric.
Tables of frequencies and percentages were obtained with the aid of the SPSS and used to
answer research questions 2, 3 and 4 descriptively.
In order to address the three hypotheses stated in this study Chi square test was used. Chi
square test was employed by the Researcher since the data that were reported are in
frequencies (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Chi square is a nonparametric test of statistical
significance, and it is appropriate to use this test when data are in the form of frequency
counts. Chi square test compares frequencies actually observed in a study with expected
frequencies to see whether they are significantly different (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003).
40
Values of Chi square were processed using SPSS to determine any statistical differences of
perceptions in relation to gender, location and programmes offered by the students. The
differences were computed in relation to the seven energy frameworks. This was to further
strengthen the outcome of the analysis of the research questions.
41
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Overview
This chapter deals with the presentation, descriptive analysis and discussions of results that
were obtained from the data collected.
4.2 Presentation of results
Twenty one items were developed for the SHS students who took part in the study (see
Appendix A). The items are descriptions of the distinct frameworks for classifying students’
perception about energy. Thus, the items include human centered energy perception,
perception of energy as a depository model, energy as an ingredient in things, energy as
associated with activity, energy as product by certain processes, energy as functional- a kind
of fuel associated with making life easy and finally energy as a fluid which is transferred in
some process (Watts, 1983; Trumper & Gorsky, 1993). Data collected also included gender
and programme offered by students.
This section presents the results of the gender of the students, programme offered by the
students, the geographical location of the schools, and energy perceptions of the students
used in the study.
42
4.2.1 Gender of students
The first item in part A of the questionnaire for Integrated Science students sought to find
out the gender of the students. The results are presented in terms of frequencies and
corresponding percentages of gender of students in Figure 4
323, (45%)
Male
397, (55%)
Female
Figure 4: Frequency and percentage distribution of students based on gender
Figure 4 shows the distribution by sex of the students whose perceptions of energy were
sought for in the study. The distribution reflects the proportion of male and female students
obtained from the selected schools used in this study. The result showed that, there were
more male students (55 %) than female students (45 %). (See Appendix D for details in a
table).
43
4.2.2 Programmes offered by students
The second item in part A of the questionnaire for the students sought to find out the
academic programmes of the students. The results are presented in terms of frequencies and
corresponding percentages of students’ academic programmes in Figure 5.
Fig 5: Frequencies and percentage of students based on programmes offered in the
selected schools
Figure 5 illustrates the distribution of students by programme. One hundred and seventy two
representing (24 %) were in the Science programme, 281 making (39 %) of the respondents
were in the Arts class, 178 making (25 %) were in the Business class while the remaining
89 representing (12 %) offered Home Economics programme. The result reveals that the
44
majority of the students in the study were offering the Arts programmes. See also Appendix
D for details in a Table.
4.2.3 Geographical location of the students
The Researcher identified the geographical location of schools. The results are presented in
terms of frequencies and corresponding percentages of students by geographical location of
school in Table 4.1
Table 4.1: Frequencies and percentages of students by geographical location of school
Geographical location of School
Frequency
Percentage
Urban
240
33.3
Semi-Urban
240
33.3
Rural
240
33.3
Total
720
100.0
Table 4.1 illustrates the geographical locations of selected schools used in the study. Equal
numbers (33.3 %) of students were obtained from urban, semi-urban and rural locations.
This equal numbers depict a fair representation of location of schools of students in
Ghanaian second cycle schools.
4.2.4 Energy perceptions
In Section B of the questionnaire there were 21 items that sought to determine students’
perceptions of energy. The students’ responses are presented as frequencies and percentages
in Table 4.2.
45
Table 4.2: Frequencies and percentages of students’ perceptions about energy
Perceptions based on framework
True
(%)
Partly true
n (%)
Not true
n (%)
Total
n (%)
443 (61.5)
383 (53.2)
76 (10.6)
215 (29.9)
201 (27.9)
122 (16.9)
720 (100.0)
720 (100.0)
547 (76.0)
111 (15.4)
61 (8.5)
719 (99.9)
558 (77.5)
661 (91.8)
601 (83.5)
90 (12.5)
39 (5.4)
89 (12.4)
72 (10.0)
19 (2.6)
30 (4.2)
720 (100.0)
719 (99.9)
720 (100.0)
691 (96.0)
20 (2.8)
9 (1.2)
720 (100.0)
8. Energy stored in charcoal
9. Energy is in things but needs another
to make it come out
(D) Process/Product
10. Sleep to gain energy
11. Boy running display energy
560 (77.8)
544 (75.6)
103 (14.3)
128 (17.8)
57 (7.9)
47 (6.5)
720 (100.0)
719 (99.9)
641 (89.0)
589 (81.8)
49 (6.8)
57 (7.9)
30 (4.2)
74 (10.3)
720 (100.0)
720 (100.0)
12. Hammer is creating energy by
hitting hard on a nail
(E) Activity
592 (82.2)
74 (10.3)
52 (7.2)
718 (99.7)
13. Wood burns to release energy
387 (53.8)
98 (13.6)
232 (32.2)
717 (99.6)
14. Ice melts to give off energy
15. Some energy is released to produce
heat
(F) Fuel
16. Electricity makes tape work
17. Oxygen provides energy to our
body
18. Energy is something that can make
things work
306 (42.5)
572 (79.4)
132 (18.3)
105 (14.6)
282 (39.2)
43 (6.0)
720 (100.0)
720 (100.0)
583 (81.0)
556 (77.2)
83 (11.5)
115 (16.0)
53 (7.4)
48 (6.7)
719 (99.9)
719 (99.9)
630 (87.5)
69 (9.6)
20 (2.8)
719 (99.9)
(G) Flow
19. Energy flows into television
20. Energy is some kind of fluid
629 (87.4)
459 (63.8)
61 (8.5)
162 (22.5)
29 (4.0)
99 (13.8)
719 (99.9)
720 (100.0)
21. Blood flows and carries energy
570 (79.2)
100 (13.9)
49 (6.8)
719 (99.9)
n
(A) Anthropocentric
1. A box has no energy
2. Reacting chemical has energy in
them
3. Energy is associated with people
(B) Depository/ Possess and expend
4. Store energy and use it
5. Water gives energy
6. A battery has got energy
(C) Ingredients
7. Food has energy in it
Note: Some students did not respond to all items
46
Items 1-3 in Table 4.2 were on students’ anthropocentric perception. It was found that 61.5
% of the students indicated true, 10.6 % of them responded partly true and 27.9 % indicated
not true for a box has no energy. The percentages of students that indicated true, partly true
and not true to ‘reacting chemicals has energy’ in them were 53.2 %, 29.9 % and 16.9 %,
respectively. While 76% of the students indicated true to ‘energy is associated with people’,
15.4 % and 8.5 % responded partly true and not true, respectively.
Items 4-6 were on students’ perception of things as possessing and expending energy
(‘depository’ model of energy). It was found that 77.5 % of the students indicated true to
‘store energy and use it’, while 12.5 % and 10 % of them indicated partly true and not true
in that order. About 92% of the students indicated true to ‘water gives energy’, 5.4 %
responded partly true, 2.6 % indicated not true. While 83.5 % of the students indicated true
to ‘battery has got energy’, 12.4 % and 4.2 % of them responded partly true and not true in
that order.
Items 7-9 focused on students’ perception of energy as an ingredient in things. The results
showed that 96 % of the students responded true to ‘food has energy in it’, whereas 2.8 %
and 1.2 % indicated partly true and not true, respectively. While 78 % of the students
indicated true to ‘energy is stored in charcoal’, 14.3 % responded partly true, the rest 7.9 %
indicated not true. Also 75.6 %, of the students indicated true, 17.8 % and 6.5 % of the
students indicated partly true and not true to ‘energy is in things but needs another to make
it come out’.
47
Items 10-12 were on students’ perception of energy as a product/process. In the illustrations
given to show this perception 89 % of the students indicate true to ‘sleep to gain energy’,
whereas 7 % and 4 % indicated partly true and not true in that order. In their response to
‘boy running display energy’, 81.8 % of the students specified true whereas 10.3 %
indicated not true. Also in their response to ‘hammer is creating energy by hitting hard on a
nail’, 82 % of the students indicated true as 10 % and 7 % of them indicated partly true and
not true, respectively.
Items 13-15 were on students’ perception of energy as activity. For instance in their
response to ‘wood burns to release energy’, about 54 % specified true while 14 % and 32 %
indicated partly true and not true, respectively. Also, about 43 % of the students indicated
true to ‘ice melts to give off energy’, 18 % of them indicated partly true and 39 % indicated
not true. In their response to ‘some energy is released to produce heat’, about 79 % of the
students indicated true, 15 % and 6 % of them indicated partly true and not true,
respectively.
Items 16-18 focused on students’ perception of energy as fuel. To illustrate this perception
81 % of the students indicated true to ‘electricity makes tape work’, 11 % indicated partly
true, 7 % choose not true. In their response to ‘oxygen provides energy to our body’ 77 % of
the students indicated true, whereas 16 % and 7 % of them choose partly true and not true,
respectively. Regarding ‘energy is something that can make things work’ about 88 % of the
students specified true while 10 % and 3 % of them indicated partly true and not true in that
order.
48
Items 19-21 were on energy flow perception. For instance 87 % indicated true to ‘energy
flows into television’, whereas 8.5 % and 4 % indicated partly true and not true,
respectively. For ‘energy is some kind of fluid’, about 64 % indicated true, 22 % and 14 %
indicated partly true and not true in that other. In their response to ‘blood flows and carries
energy’ 79 % of the students indicated true, as 13.9 % specified partly true, 7 % of them
choose not true.
4.3 Descriptive analysis and discussion of results
This section presented the results of the analyses of the 4 research questions formulated to find
out students’ perception of energy, the extent to which these perceptions are influenced by their
gender, geographical location and the programme they offer.
4.3.1 Research question 1
What perceptions do students have about energy?
The question was designed to find out the perceptions that Ghanaian students in the SHS
have of energy. To answer this research question, the responses of the students to the 21
items on the seven frameworks on energy were analysed in three different sets.
49
The responses of the students to the first set of seven items on the energy frameworks are
shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6: Perceptions of students about energy based on first set of seven items
From Figure 6 it is observed that majority (61.5 %) of the students in this study perceive
energy to be associated with people, considering their response to a box has no energy. This
finding is in accordance with the studies of Watts (1983) and Trumper and Gorsky (1993)
that students perceive energy as a human centered conceptual framework.
Regarding the students’ response to store energy and use it, the results in Figure 6 also show
that majority (77.5 %) of the students perceive energy as being possessed and used up by
things. This is in consonance with the findings of Trumper and Gorsky, (1993) and Watts,
50
(1983) that student perceive energy as ‘depository’ (posses and expend). This is one of the
models of energy in the conceptual framework of energy.
From students’ response to ‘food has energy in it’, this finding reveals that majority of the
students (96 %) perceive energy as an ingredient in things and can be released by a prompt.
Similarly findings have been reported by studies outside Ghana in countries like Great
Britain (Lijnse, 1990), and Israel (Trumper & Gorsky, 1993).
The process/product framework has been identified by Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and
Watts (1983) as a conceptual framework which describe students’ perceptions about energy.
In this study, 89 % of the students went in for this framework of energy. It, therefore,
implies that just as reported in the literature, students in this study also perceive energy as
being produced by some processes, and in this case sleep produces energy.
The results also reveal that with respect to the students’ responses to ‘wood burns to release
energy’, the students perceive energy as connected with activity. Hence most students’,
about 54 % were of the view that energy is associated with activity. This finding is also in
agreement with Finegold and Trumper’s (1989) findings that students indicated energy was
made by some process during activity.
A very high proportion (81 %) of the students perceived energy as fuel, with respect to
students’ response to ‘electricity makes tape work’. This implies, therefore, that SHS
students in the selected schools have the perception that energy is a sort of fuel connected
with making life easy. This finding is in accord with studies by Trumper and Gorsky,
(1993) and Watts (1983), in which students’ view of energy was that it is functional.
51
Concerning the students’ response to ‘energy flows into television’, the result shows that
majority (87.4 %) of the students perceive energy as fluid that flows. Other studies
confirmed this perception of energy as some sort of fluid that flows in some processes
(Driver, Squires, Rushworth, & Wood-Robinson, 1994b; Duit, Roth, Komorek, & Wilbers,
1994; Leach, Driver, Scott & Wood – Robinson, 1995).
The responses from the students to the second set of seven items on the energy frameworks
are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Perceptions of students about energy based on second set of seven items
Considering the students’ response to ‘reacting chemical has energy in them’, from Figure 7
it may be said that about half of SHS students in this study perceive energy to be associated
52
with people. This finding is in accord with the studies of Watts (1983) and Trumper and
Gorsky (1993) that students perceive energy as a human centered conceptual framework.
The results in Figure 7 also show that about 92 % of the students perceived water as giving
out energy, a perception which implies possession of energy by water. This is in agreement
with the findings of Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and Watts (1983) who classified this type
of perception as ‘depository’ (posses and expend) model of energy in the conceptual
framework of energy.
Regarding students’ responses to ‘energy stored in charcoal’, the findings reveal that high
about 78% of the students perceive energy is an ingredient in things and can be released by
a prompt. Similarly findings had been reported by studies in countries like Great Britain
(Lijnse, 1990), and Israel (Trumper & Gorsky, 1993).
As shown in Figure 7, about 82 % of the students in this study were of the view that a boy
running displays energy. The finding is similar to the process/product framework that was
identified by Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and Watts (1983) to describe students’
perceptions about energy.
In the students’ responses to ‘ice melts to give off energy’, about 43 % of them agreed that
when ice melted it gave out energy. Here less than half of the students associated the
process of melting with evolution of energy. Majority of the students either believed this
was partly true or not true. This is also in agreement to Finegold and Trumper’s (1989)
findings that students indicated energy was made by some process during activity.
53
From students’ response to ‘oxygen provides energy to our body’, the findings reveal that
about 77 % of the students considered oxygen as a fuel providing energy to human body.
Thus, the students associated energy with fuel. This finding is in accord with studies by
Trumper and Gorsky, (1993) and Watts, (1983), in which it was found that students’ view
of energy was that it was functional.
Regarding students’ response to ‘energy is some kind of fluid’, the result shows that about
64 % of the students perceive energy as fluid. As fluid flow, it may be inferred that the
students were of the view that energy flows. Some studies (Driver, Squires, Rushworth, and
Wood-Robinson (1994b), Duit, Roth, Komorek, and Wilbers (1994), Leach, Driver, Scott
and Wood – Robinson (1995) have also found the ‘energy as fluid flow’ concept among
students.
In Figure 8 responses of the students to the third set of seven items on the energy
frameworks have been displayed as charts.
54
Figure 8: Perceptions of students about energy based on third set of seven items
The responses of the students to ‘energy is associated with people’ indicate that about 76 %
of the students agree with the statement. As this statement associates people with energy
then it may be inferred that student perceive energy as connected to humans. This finding is
in accord with the studies of Watts (1983) and Trumper and Gorsky (1993) who found that
students perceive energy as a human centered.
With the students’ response to ‘a battery has got energy’, the results as displayed in Figure 8
show about 84 % of the students perceive energy as being possessed and used up by things.
This also confirms the findings of Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and Watts (1983) who
identified ‘depository’ (posses and expend) model of energy.
55
Considering students’ response to ‘energy is in things but needs another to make it come
out’, the finding reveals that about 76 % of the students perceived energy as an ingredient in
things and can be released by a prompt. This finding has been reported by studies carried
out in countries like Great Britain (Lijnse, 1990), and Israel (Trumper & Gorsky, 1993).
Figure 8 reveals also that about 82 % of the students in this study indicated true to ‘hammer
is creating energy by hitting hard on a nail’. Thus majority of the students associated energy
as a product resulting from hitting on a nail with a hammer. This is similar to the
process/product framework that has been identified by Trumper and Gorsky, (1993) and
Watts (1983) as a conceptual framework which describe students’ perceptions about energy.
Majority of the students’, about 79 %, agreed that ‘some energy is released to produce heat’.
It may be inferred from their responses that activities of releasing energy and producing
heat have been recognised. Similarly findings by Finegold and Trumper (1989) that
students’ view of energy included activities and processes that occur.
From students’ response to ‘energy is something that can make things work’, about 88 % of
the students indicated that this is true. It may be inferred that energy can make things work
and so energy may be considered as a fuel this perception held by majority of the students in
this study tallies with studies by Trumper and Gorsky (1993) and Watts (1983), in which
students’ view of energy was that it is fuel.
Considering students’ response to ‘blood flows and carries energy’, from result about 79 %
agreed that a blood flow carries energy. The majority of the students, therefore, perceive
blood as a fluid that flows and carries energy along (Driver, Squires, Rushworth, & Wood56
Robinson, 1994b; Duit, Roth, Komorek, & Wilbers, 1994; Leach, Driver, Scott & Wood –
Robinson, 1995).
4.3.2. Research question 2
To what extent does gender influence the students’ perceptions of energy?
The question sought to find out the degree to which gender of students influence their
perceptions of energy.
To answer research questions 2 the data were re-coded into no perception (not true =0) and
perception (partly true and true =1). Each of the three items which related to the energy
frameworks was regrouped into the seven energy frameworks. The scores obtained by
individual students were summed up under each energy framework. Since the research
questions sought to find out to what extent does gender influence the students’ perceptions
of energy, the summed up data were re-coded as follow:
0 = no perception
1 = low perception about the specific energy framework
2 = moderate perception about the specific energy framework
3 = high perception about the specific energy framework
For instance, considering the three items under anthropocentric framework, a student
indicates not true (0) to one of the items and true (1) and partly true (1) to the other two
items respectively. The total score will add up to be 2. The student is then said to have
moderate perception of energy as anthropocentric.
57
Table 4.3 show frequencies and percentages of male and female students perceptions
categorized under the seven frameworks.
Table 4.3: Gender of students and their perceptions of energy
Gender of
students
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Extent of perception by the seven frameworks
Low
Moderate
No perception
perception
perception
High perception
Anthropocentric
4(1.0 %)
39(9.8 %)
139(35.0 %)
215(54.2 %)
2 (.6 %)
20(6.2 %)
109(33.9 %)
191(59.3 %)
Depository/Possess and expend
0(.0 %)
4(1.0 %)
42(10.6 %)
350 (88.4 %)
1(.3 %)
6(1.9 %)
56(17.3 %)
260(80.5 %)
Ingredients
1(.3 %)
2 (.5 %)
53 (13.4 %)
340 (85.9 %)
0 (.0%)
5 (1.5%)
43 (13.3%)
275 (85.1%)
Activity
0 (.0%)
6(1.5%)
65(16.4%)
326(82.1%)
0 (.0%)
5(1.6%)
68(21.2%)
248(77.3%)
Process/Product
8(2.0%)
57(14.4%)
162(40.8%)
170(42.8%)
5(1.6%)
54(16.9%)
133(41.6%)
128(40.0%)
Fuel
0 (.0%)
8(2.0%)
50(12.6%)
338(85.4%)
0 (.0%)
3(.9%)
491(5.3%)
269(83.8%)
Flow
0(.0%)
3(.9%)
6(1.5%)
8(2.5%)
79(19.9%)
61(19.0%)
312 (78.6%)
249 (77.6%)
Total
397(100.0 %)
322(100.0 %)
396(100.0 %)
323(100.0 %)
396 (100.0 %)
323 (100.0%)
397(100.0%)
321(100.0%)
397(100.0%)
320(100.0%)
396(100.0%)
321(100.0%)
397(100.0%)
321(100.0%)
The results in Table 4.3 show the extent to which gender has influenced the perceptions of
energy .With the exception of the anthropocentric framework, a higher percentage of the
male students indicated a ‘high perception’ of all frameworks. For anthropocentric energy
framework the percentages of male and female students with ‘no perception’, ‘low
perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ are 1.0 % and 0.6 %, 9.8 % and 6.2 %, and 35 % and
33.9 % in that order. However, higher percentage (59.2 %) of female students showed a
58
‘high perception’ of the anthropocentric framework than the percentage (54.2 %) of male
students.
Regarding depository/possess and expend energy framework, Table 4.3 shows that the
percentages of male and female students’ with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and
‘moderate perception’ are 0 % and 0.3 %, 1 % and 1.9 % and 10.6 % and 17.3 %
respectively. However, 88.4 % of male students appeared higher compared to 80.5 % of the
female students having a ‘high perception’ of this energy framework.
On energy as an ingredient, as revealed in Table 4.3 the percentages of male and female
students indicating ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ are 0.3 %
and 0 %, 0.5 % and 1.5 % and 13.4 % and 13.3 % correspondingly. The percentage of
female and male students indicating ‘high perception’ of this energy framework is 85.1 %
and 85.9 %.
With respect to the perception that energy is associated with activity, from Table 4.3, it
show that 0 % and 0 %, 1.5 % and 1.6 % and 16.4 % and 21.2 % of male and female
students reveals ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ in that order.
The percentages of the male students 82.1 % is seen to be higher than the percentage of the
female students 77.3 % with ‘high perception’ of this energy framework.
Also, on energy as a process framework, the percentages of male and female students with
‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ of this energy framework are
2.0 % and 1.6 %, 14.4 % and 16.9 % and 40.8 % and 41.6 % respectively as shown in Table
59
4.3. The percentage (40.0 %) of female students’ with ‘high perception’ appeared lower
than that of the male students’ percentage (42.8 %).
Regarding energy as a fuel, Table 4.3 shows that 0 % and 0 %, 2.0 % and 0.9 % and 12.6 %
and 5.3 % of male and female students reveal ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and
‘moderate perception’ respectively. The percentage (83.4 %) of female students with ‘high
perception’ of this energy framework appears slightly lower than the percentage (85.4 %) of
male students.
Data on Table 4.3, reveal that 0 % and 0.9 %, 1.5 % and 2.5 %, and 19.9 % and 19 % of
male and female students indicated ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate
perception’ to energy as a flow. While 77.6 % of female appears only slightly lower than
78.6 % of male students with ‘high perception’ of energy as a flow.
From the result it is clear that perception of energy in the seven frameworks is influenced by
gender to a large extent. However, this result seem not to provide statistical prove about a
significant differences between male and female students perception of energy frameworks.
Further, whether this is statistically significant difference in influence of gender on students’
perception of energy or not, hypothesis 1 has been used to address the issue later in this
chapter.
4.3.3 Research question 3
To what extent does geographical location influence the students’ perceptions of energy?
The question aimed at finding out the extent to which geographical locations influence
students’ perceptions of energy. To answer research questions 3, the data were re-coded into
60
no perception (not true =0) and perception (partly true and true =1). Each of the three Items
under each energy framework was assigned marks according to choices of each student and
the total marks of each student recorded for each frame work. Since the research questions
sought to find the extent of perceptions by geographical location of students, the summed up
data were re-coded as follow:
0 = no perception
1 = little perception about the specific energy framework
2 = some perception about the specific energy framework
3 = large perception about the specific energy framework
61
The result from this new coding was used to compose Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Geographical location and students’ perceptions of energy
geography location
Extent of perception by the seven frameworks
No
Low
Moderate
perception
perception
perception
High perception
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Anthropocentric
6(2.5%)
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Depository/Possess and Expend
0(.0%)
5(2.1%)
0(.0%)
4(1.7%)
1(.4%)
1(.4%)
26(10.9%)
16(6.7%)
17(7.1%)
Total
86(36.0%)
86(35.8%)
76(31.7%)
121(50.6%)
138(57.5%)
147(61.3%)
239(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
26(10.9%)
34(14.2%)
38915.8%)
208(87.0%)
202(84.2%)
200(83.3%)
239(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Ingredients
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
1(.4%)
Activity
2(.8%)
2(.8%)
3(1.3%)
26(10.8%)
35(14.6%)
35(14.6%
212(88.3%)
202(84.5%)
201(83.8%)
240(100.0%)
239(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
2(.8%)
1(.4%)
8(3.3%)
38(15.8%)
45(18.9%)
50(20.8%)
200(83.3%)
192(80.7%)
182(75.8%)
240(100.0%)
238(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
29(12.1%)
43(18.1%)
39(16.3%)
98(41.0%)
95(39.9%)
102(42.5%)
107(44.8%)
93(39.1%)
98(40.8%)
239(100.0%)
238(100.0%)
240(100.0%)
0(0%)
3(1.2%)
0(0%)
5(2.1%)
9(2.8%)
4(1.7%)
31(12.9%)
39(16.3%)
29(12.2%)
204(85.0%)
198(82.8%)
205(86.1%)
240(100.0%)
239(100.0%)
238(100.0%)
1(.4%)
2(.8%)
9(3.8%)
5(2.1%)
176(73.3%)
187(78.6%)
240(100.0%)
238(100.0%)
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
54(22.5%)
44(18.5%)
42(17.5%)
198(82.5%)
240(100.0%)
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Process/Product
5(2.1%)
7(2.9%)
1(.4%)
Fuel
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
Flow
Urban
Semi-urban
Rural
The results in Table 4.4 show the extent to which geographical location has influenced the
perceptions of energy. For anthropocentric energy framework the percentages of students in
urban, semi-urban and rural location with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate
62
perception’ are 2.5 %, 0 % and 0 %; 10.9 %, 6.7 %, and 7.1 %; and 36.0 %, 35.8 % and
31.7 % in that order. From the analysis in Table 4.4 a high percentage of students from rural
location (61.30 %) largely perceive energy as anthropocentric. Both students at the semi-urban (57.5
%) and urban (50.6 %) location indicated a ‘high perception’ of energy as anthropocentric.
Regarding depository/possess and expend energy framework, Table 4.4 shows that the
percentages of students’ in urban, semi-urban and rural area with ‘no perception’, ‘low
perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ are 0 %, 0 % and 0.4 %; .2.1 %, 1.7 % and 0.4 %;
and 10.9 %, 14.2 % and 15.8 %, respectively. But a higher percentage (87 %) of the students in
the urban settlement highly holds this perception compared to the percentages of 84.2 % and 83.8 %
respectively, of students in semi-urban and rural location.
On energy as an ingredient, as revealed in Table 4.4 the percentages of students in urban,
semi-urban and rural area indicating ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate
perception’ are 0 %, 0 %,and 0.4 %; 0.8 %, 0.8 % and 1.3 %; and 10.8 %, 14.6 % and 14.6
%, respectively. Again, more students in the urban location (88.3%) than those in semi-urban and
rural location (84.5 %and 83.8 % respectively) had ‘high perception’ of energy as an ingredient.
With respect to the perception that energy is associated with activity, from Table 4.4, it is
noted that 0 %, 0 %, and 0 %; 0.8 %, 0.4 % and 3.3 % ;and 15.8 %, 18.9 % and 20.8 % of
students in urban, semi-urban and rural areas in that order, indicated ‘no perception’, ‘low
perception’, and ‘moderate perception’, respectively. More students in urban location (83.3 %)
had ‘high perception of energy as an activity.
63
Also, on energy as a process framework, the percentages of students in urban, semi-urban
and rural area with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ of this
energy framework are 2.1 %, 2.9 % and 0.4 %; 12.1 %, 18.1 % and 16.3 %; and 41.0 %,
39.9 % and 42.5 % respectively as shown in Table 4.4. Also less than 50 % of the students in
each of the locations urban, semi-urban and rural had ‘high perception’ of energy as a
process/product.
Regarding energy as a fuel, Table 4.4 shows that 0 %, 1.2 %, and 0 %; 2.1 %, 2.8 % and 1.7
%; and 12.9 %, 16.3 % and 12.2 % of students in urban, semi-urban and rural area had ‘no
perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’, respectively. However, over 80 %
of the students in each of the locations of the urban, semi-urban and rural area had ‘high perception’
of energy as a fuel.
Table 4.4, also reveals that 0.4 %, 0.8 % and 0 %; 3.8 %, 2.1 % and 0 %; and 22.5 %, 18.5
% and 17.5 % of students in urban, semi-urban and rural location had ‘no perception’, ‘low
perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ of energy as a flow. A higher percentage (82.5 %) of
students in rural location had ‘high perception’ of energy as flow while 73.3 % of urban students and
78.6 % of student located in semi-urban settlement had ‘high perception’ of energy as a flow.
From the results when ‘moderate perception’ and ‘high perception’ results in Table 4.4 are put
together as perception of the frameworks then over 80 % of students in the three geographical
settings all have good perception of all the seven frameworks of energy. Thus, the results appear to
show that no geographical location has greater advantage in influencing students’ perception of
energy. To confirm this further a Chi square test was carried out.
4.3.4 Research question 4
64
To what extent does programme offered by students influence their perceptions of energy?
The question aimed at finding out to which extent academic programmes offered by
students influence their perception of energy.
To answer research questions 4, the data were re-coded into no perception (not true =0) and
perception (partly true and true =1). Each of the three items which related to the energy
frameworks was regrouped into the seven energy frameworks. The scores obtained by
individual students were summed up under each energy framework. Since the research
questions sought to find the extent of perceptions by academic programmes offered by
students, the summed up data were re-coded as follow:
0 = no perception
1 = little perception about the specific energy framework
2 = some perception about the specific energy framework
3 = large perception about the specific energy framework
The result from this new coding was used to draw up Table 4.5.
65
Table 4.5: Frequencies and percentages of extent of perceptions of energy by seven
frameworks and their programme
Extent of perception by the seven frameworks
Programme
Total
Moderate
perception
High perception
92(35.4%)
156(34.0%)
144(55.4%)
262(57.1%)
260(100%)
459(100.0%)
2(.8%)
8(1.7%)
40(15.3%)
58(12.7%)
219(83.9%)
391(85.4%)
261(100.0%)
458(100.0%)
0(.0%)
2 (.8%)
39(14.9%)
220(84.3%)
261(100.0%)
1(.2%)
5(1.1%)
57(12.4%)
395(86.2%)
458(100.0%)
2(.8%)
9(2.0%)
46(17.6%)
87(19.0%)
213(81.6%)
361(79.0%)
261(100.0%)
457(100.0%)
34(13.1%)
77(16.8%)
105(40.4%)
190(41.6%)
116(44.6%)
182(39.8%)
260(100.0%)
457(100.0%)
3(1.2%)
8(1.7%)
35(13.5%)
64(14.0%)
221(85.3%)
386(84.3%)
259(100.0%)
458(100.0%)
9(3.5%)
5(1.1%)
46(17.7%)
94(20.5%)
204(78.5%)
357(77.9%)
260(100.0%)
458(100.0%)
No perception
Low perception
Anthropocentric
Science
Non-science
3(1.2%)
3 (.7%)
21(8.1%)
38(8.3%)
Possess and expend
Science
Non-science
0(.0%)
1(.2%)
Ingredients
Science
Non-science
Activity
Science
Non-science
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
Process/product
Science
Non-science
5(1.9%)
8(1.8%)
Fuel
Science
Non-science
Science
Non-science
0(.0%)
0(.0%)
Flow
1(.4%)
2(.4%)
Analysis of Table 4.5 shows the extent to which the academic programmes has influenced the
students’ perceptions of energy. For anthropocentric energy framework the percentages of
science and non-science students with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate
perception’ are 1.2 % and 0.7 %, 8.1 % and 8.3 %, and 35.4 % and 34.0 % in that order.
However, 57.1 % of non-science and 55.0 % of science students hold ‘high perception’ of energy as
human centered.
66
Regarding depository/possess and expend energy framework Table 4.5 shows that the
percentages of science and non-science students’ with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’,
and ‘moderate perception’ are 0 % and 0.2 %, 0.8 % and 1.7 % and 15.3 % and 12.7 %
respectively. Also over 80 % of non-science and science students each had ‘high perception’ of
energy as being possessed and used.
On energy as an ingredient, as revealed in Table 4.5 the percentages of science and nonscience students indicating ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ are
0 % and 0.2 %, 0.8 % and 1.7 % and 14.9 % and 12.4 %, respectively. Again, more nonscience students (86.2 %) highly perceive energy as an ingredient than the 84.3 % of science
students.
With respect to the perception that energy is associated with activity, from Table 4.5, it
show that 0 % and 0 %, 0.8 % and 2.0 % and 17.6 % and 19.0 % of science and nonscience students reveals ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ in that
order. About 80% of both science students and non-science students had ‘high perception of energy
as activity.
Also, on energy as a process framework, the percentages of science and non science
students with ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’, and ‘moderate perception’ of this energy
framework are 1.9 % and 1.8 %, 13.1 % and 16.8 % and 40.4 % and 41.6 %, respectively as
shown in Table 4.5. Less than 50 % of student in each of the discipline science and nonscience had ‘high perception’ of energy as a product/process.
67
Regarding energy as a fuel, Table 4.5 shows that 0 % and 0 %, 1.2 % and 1.7 % and 13.5 %
and 14.0 % of science and non-science students reveals ‘no perception’, ‘low perception’,
and ‘moderate perception’, respectively. Again, over 80 % of student in each of the discipline
had ‘high perception of energy as a fuel.
Table 4.5, also reveals that 0.4 % and 0.4 %, 3.5 % and 1.1 %, and 17.7 % and 20.5 % of
science and non-science students indicated no perception, little perception and some
perception to energy as a flow. Both science (78.5 %) and non-science (77.9 %) students had
‘high perception of energy as a flow.
From the results it is realized when ‘moderate perception’ and ‘high perception’ results in Table 4.5
are put together as perception of the frameworks then over 80 % of students in the two disciplines all
have high perception of all the seven frameworks of energy. Thus, the results appear to show that
academic programme has more advantage in influencing students’ perception of energy. To confirm
this further a Chi square test was carried out.
4.3.5 Research question 5
What model may be formulated from the findings for effective teaching of energy in
Ghanaian senior high schools during Integrated Science lessons?
From the findings in this study it show that majority the students have high perception of
the seven frameworks of energy. Therefore in teaching energy at the senior high school,
students should be taught with the consideration of these their perceptions of energy as this
may consequently lead to the development of refined perceptions of energy (Duit &
Haeussler, 1994; Eminah, 2010; Lijnse, 1990; Solomon, 1983).
68
4.4 Tests of Null Hypotheses
The null hypotheses were formulated to test whether there are any statistically significant
differences between the students’ perception in relation to their gender, geographical
location and the programme they offer. In order to address the three hypotheses stated in
this study Chi square test was used. Chi square test was employed by the Researcher since
the data that were reported are in categories (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2003). Chi square is a
nonparametric test of statistical significance, and it is appropriate to use this test when data
are in the form of frequency counts and normal distribution is not assumed of the data.
4.4.1 Null hypothesis 1
(H0): There is no statistically significant difference between male and female students’
perception about energy.
This sought to test whether there is any significant difference between the male and female
students perception of energy. Chi square was used in testing this hypothesis. The
hypothesis was tested at α= 0.05. Table 4.6 below presents χ2 values with corresponding
significant values of the frameworks.
Table 4.6: Chi square values of gender of students and their perception of energy
Framework
Chi square Value
Anthropocentric
4.054
Possess and expend
9.364
Ingredients
2.815
Activity
2.744
Process
1.289
Fuel
2.306
Flow
4.683
* Difference is significant at the .05 level.
69
df
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
.256
.025*
.421
.254
.732
.316
.197
From the Table 4.6, except for ‘possess and expend’ (i.e. χ2= 9.364, α= 0.05> .025), all other
Chi-square values were not significant at P <.05. The null hypothesis that there is no
statistically significant difference between male and female students’ perception about
energy is not accepted. Thus, the results reveal no statistically significant difference
between the male and female perceptions of energy in all seven frameworks except ‘possess
and expend’ framework of energy (P=.025). This, therefore, means that male and female
students do not differ significantly in their perceptions of energy. The difference only exists
in their perception of energy as a depository model by Watts (1983).
4.4.2 Null hypothesis 2
(H0): There is no statistically significant difference between urban, semi-urban and rural
students’ perception about energy.
Hypothesis 2 was formulated to determine whether there existed any statistically significant
difference among urban, semi-urban and rural area students’ perception of energy. In testing
this hypothesis Chi square was computed. The test was done at α= 0.05. Table 4.7 shows
the results.
Table 4.7: Chi square values of students’ geographical location and their perception of
energy
Framework
Chi Square Value
Anthropocentric
18.488
Possess and expend
7.055
Ingredient
4.328
Activity
10.284
Process
8.376
Fuel
3.103
Flow
13.740
* Difference is significant at the .05 level.
70
df
6
6
6
4
6
4
6
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
.005*
.316
.632
.036*
.212
.541
.033*
From Table 4.7, the computed values for possess and expend (.316), ingredient (.632),
process (.212) and fuel (.541) frameworks are greater than α= 0.05. Thus, the result indicates
that there is no statistically significant difference among urban, semi-urban and rural
students’ perceptions of energy with respect to ‘possess and expend’, ‘ingredient’, ‘process’
and ‘fuel’. This means that students in these three different locations do not differ
significantly in their perception of energy as being possessed and used up, an ingredient, a
process and a fuel.
However, there were statistically significant differences in students’ perception of energy
among the three geographical locations (urban, semi-urban and rural) in terms of
anthropocentric (.005< α= 0.05), activity (.036< α= 0.05) and flow (.033< α= 0.05)
frameworks. The difference were not however high at α= 0.05.
4.4.3 Null hypothesis 3
(H0): There is no statistically significant difference between science and non- science
students’ perception of energy.
The hypothesis was to determine whether differences existed in the energy perceptions of
science and non-science students. The results of Chi square values of science and nonscience students’ perceptions are presented in Table 4.8.
71
Table 4.8: Chi square values of science and non-science students’ perceptions of
energy
Framework
Anthropocentric
Possess and expend
Ingredients
Activity
Process
Fuel
Flow
Chi square Value
.685
2.625
1.601
1.891
2.522
.420
5.475
Df
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)
.877
.453
.659
.389
.471
.810
.140
Table 4.8 presents the chi-square values with their significant values for the seven
frameworks. The result shows no significant difference between science and non-science
students’ perception of energy. This means science and non-science students did not differ
in their perceptions of energy. This is not in accordance with Kirkwood, Carr and
McChesney (1986) who stated that “differing disciplines hold differing concepts of energy”
(p.178).
4.5 Summary
In summary, the major findings in this study include the following:

The students in this study perceived energy as anthropocentric, depository,
ingredients, activity, process, fuel and flow-model. Hence the perceptions of energy
of the students in this study can be classified under these broad consistent
frameworks of energy.

The male and female students’ perceptions were found to be different with respect to
the ‘depository’/‘possess and expend’ framework. Gender appears to have no
72
influence on the students’ perceptions of energy except for the ‘depository’ ‘possess
and expend’ framework where the two sexes differ.

The perceptions of energy of students in this study from urban, semi urban and rural
area were found to be different with respect to the anthropocentric, activity and
flow-model frameworks. The difference was basically between students from urban
and the other two locations. Geographical location appears to influence their
perceptions in anthropocentric, activity and flow-model frameworks.

Science and non science students were found to have the same perceptions of
energy. Therefore academic programme appears not to have any influence on the
students’ perceptions of energy.
73
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Overview
This chapter presents the summary of the findings, conclusion drawn from the findings,
implications and recommendations of the study.
5.2 Summary of key findings
The study revealed that:

Ghanaian students in the sampled schools have alternative perceptions of energy.
The perceptions held by these students are in accordance with alternative ideas of
energy held by other students elsewhere in the world. The perception of energy held
by the students are consistent with the alternative conceptual frameworks of energy
as classified by Watts (1983) and Trumper and Gorsky (1993).

Female students largely perceive energy as ‘human centered’ than the male students.
The male students hold a large perception of the framework that energy is depository
and energy is an activity. Both male and female students appear to have the same
degree of perceptions of energy as an ingredient, a process, a fuel and a flow.

More students in the urban location largely perceive energy as depository,
ingredient, activity and process/product. Most students in rural area mainly perceive
energy as anthropocentric and flow. Both urban and rural students perceive energy
as a flow to the same extent.

Science and non-science students appear to have the same degree of alternative
perception about the concept of energy.
74

No significant difference exist between female and male students’ perception of
energy with the exception of the perception that energy is possessed and used up

No significant difference exist among urban, semi-urban and rural area students
perceptions of energy as ‘depository’, ‘ingredient’, ‘process’ and ‘fuel’. However,
the students’ perceptions of energy as anthropocentric, activity and flow depend on
their geographical location.

The perceptions of students about energy do not depend on their academic
programme of study.
5.3 Conclusions
From the findings of the study conducted, the following conclusion can be drawn:
The conclusion of the study is that, Ghanaian students in the sampled SHS have their
perceptions about energy. The students’ perceptions of energy is that energy is: human
centered (anthropocentric); possessed and expended; an ingredient in things; an activity; a
process/product; fuel and a fluid that flows. These perceptions are in accordance with
conventional distinct alternative conceptual framework of energy by Trumper and Gorsky
(1993) and Watts (1983).
Based on the conclusions in this study, the Researcher suggests a border-crossing teaching
model comprising three regions: students’ perceptions (alternative framework), scientific
perspective and refined perspective. This is in line with a number of researchers (Duit,
1987; Nordine, 2007) propositions that energy should be taught from practical physical
experiences and variety of language. That is energy should be taught as a concrete material
and further adjusted to the scientists’ view which is the mathematical formulations of the
75
energy concept. This model begins with students’ alternative perceptions which must not be
discarded but refined into more scientific perspective using the seven frameworks of energy.
The summary of a model formulated for effective teaching of energy is presented in Figure
9.
Students’
Perceptions
Refined
(Alternative
Perspective
Scientific
Perspective
Frameworks)
Figure 9: A border-crossing model for teaching energy
i) Students’ perceptions (Alternative frameworks): The development of the concept
of energy should begin with what students perceive of energy. The common
meaning or what is often classified as students’ alternative conceptions of energy
in everyday experience should be harnessed at the start of lessons. Instances
pertaining to energy frameworks (as anthropocentric, as depository, as
ingredient, as activity, as product of processes, as functional, as flow of fluid)
should be found in books on energy concept, in teaching syllabus and during
teaching.
76
ii) Scientific perspective: The classical scientific views about energy must then be
stressed. Operational definitions of energy and numerical calculations of energy
should be addressed in a more strictly scientific form.
iii) Refined perspective: Students’ alternative framework must then be related to
classical scientific views. Students must be given the opportunity to integrate
their school science knowledge with their everyday experiences into a coherent
perspective that is organized around the principle of energy transformation.
Perhaps, this might promote a more meaningful learning of energy than teaching energy
concept from the physics perspective as it is currently reflected in the Ghanaian SHS
Integrated Science classrooms or teaching syllabus.
5.4 Implications of findings
The findings established the influence of gender, geographical location and academic
programme on the students’ perception of energy. The results of the study are that students
in this study perceived energy as anthropocentric, depository, ingredients, activity, process,
fuel and flow-model. Hence the perceptions of energy of the students in this study can be
classified under these broad consistent frameworks of energy. The findings are useful in
teaching and learning of energy as it brings to bear, broad consistent specific frameworks
that the students perceive of energy. The teaching style of energy could be refined if
teachers recognize and apply these frameworks in teaching.
5.5 Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:
77

It is very important that teachers should be aware of the ways the students talk and
think about energy (as anthropocentric, as depository, as ingredient, as activity, as
product of processes, as functional, as flow of fluid).

In the teaching of energy, rather than simply contradicting students’ perceptions, a
better strategy is to build on what the students perceive and try to help them modify
their perceptions in an appropriate manner.

Teacher educators should train science student teachers to develop the strategy
required to build on students’ perceptions of energy. Also, science teacher trainees
should be equipped with the skills needed to help their students modify their
perceptions of energy.

Curriculum developers should take into consideration students’ perceptions about
energy in the development of science teaching syllabuses.

Science textbook writers should factor in students’ perceptions of energy when
presenting concepts related to energy in science textbooks. This will enable the
students study from what they know to more sophisticated concepts.
5.5 Areas for Further Research
In view of the delimited scope of this study as well as the limitations encountered, it is
recommended that future research focuses on the following areas:

Teachers’ perceptions of energy and their influence on the students’ perception of
energy.

Students’ perceptions about other scientific concepts, ( e.g. diffusion)
78

Other researchers should design interventions to modify students’ perceptions of
energy and other scientific concepts.
79
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APPENDICES
Appendix A
Students’ Questionnaire on Perceptions of Energy
University of Education, Winneba
Faculty of Science
Department of Science Education
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR INTEGRATED SCIENCE STUDENTS
This questionnaire is part of a study on “Senior high school Students’ perception of
Energy”. The information you provide will help to determine Ghanaian students’ perception
of energy. The information will be used for the purpose of this study. I would be grateful if
you could respond to the items as appropriately as possible. Your anonymity is assured.
Thank you for your co-operation.
A. Biographic Data
(Please tick in the appropriate box [ ])
Gender: Male [ ]
Female [ ]
Class (Tick as appropriate): Science [ ]
Art [ ]
91
Business [ ]
Home Economics [ ]
B. Energy perceptions:
True
Partly
True
Not
True
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
When wood burns, it releases energy.
Energy is what makes something work. Electricity would make a tape recorder work, so
energy is fuel.
7. In the body, blood flows and carries energy to all part of the body.
8. Two reacting chemicals have energy in them. Although they don’t talk to things, they’
have got energy in them like humans do. However, in their own way they are living.
9. If we don’t have water, we can’t survive. If we drink water, we get energy. Water also
has got something to do with power station like Akosombo dam, it gives electrical
energy. Therefore, water is a source of energy.
10. Energy is not stored in charcoal but when it is burnt, it produces energy for cooking.
[ ]
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11. A boy running fast is displaying energy.
[ ]
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12. When ice melts it will give off heat. So it produces heat energy.
[ ]
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[ ]
13. Energy is provided to our bodies from its chemical reaction with the oxygen we breathe.
14. In electricity, energy flows into television to make it work.
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Perceptions
1.
3.
A box has no energy because a person pushing it upwards is doing all the work. If the
box has energy, it can help the person to push it upward.
You have to have energy and store it and then use it up. You get energy from oil, petrol
and the sun or anything that possesses energy.
Food has energy in it. When we eat food energy is released to the body.
4.
After a hard days work, one needs to sleep/rest to gain energy.
2.
5.
6.
15. A student has a lot of energy because he/she can push a desk from the right to the left end
of the classroom. Once the desk is there it cannot do anything so the desk definitely has
not got energy. Meanwhile, the student can walk away back to the right end of the
classroom. So energy is associated with people.
16. A battery has got energy, the bulb needs it to give light and the wires carry the energy to
the bulb. That is things possess and expend energy.
17. There is energy in things. It is there but it needs another form of energy to make it come
out. Like a seed, it has energy inside it to grow but it needs the sunlight.
18. The hammer is creating energy by hitting fast on the nail. That is energy is associated
with activity.
19. In a chemical change, some energy is released to produce heat. This means energy is
created by certain processes.
20. Energy is something that can make things work. For instance, petrol would make a
vehicle to move.
21. In a circuit, energy comes out from the negative end, flows round the circuit,
encountering the light bulb on the way, where it can transfer some of the energy, and it
goes back to the battery. Thus, energy is some kind of fluid which is transferred during
process.
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93
Appendix B
Permission to conduct a Study
94
Appendix C
Pilot test results on reliability statistics
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
.756
23
Reliability Statistics: Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Item Deleted
Corrected Item- Cronbach's Alpha if
Total Correlation
Item Deleted
Students’ Perception of Energy
A box has no energy (anthropocentric)
31.81
31.590
.113
.770
Store energy and use it (possess and
expend)
32.28
29.635
.432
.738
32.56
30.654
.575
.735
32.47
32.771
.110
.759
31.61
29.730
.379
.742
32.22
29.721
.417
.739
32.50
30.714
.588
.735
Reacting chemical has energy in them
(anthropocentric)
32.14
30.809
.357
.744
Water gives energy (possess and
expend)
32.50
32.257
.270
.750
32.44
32.597
.180
.755
32.39
30.244
.401
.741
31.78
31.321
.162
.763
32.50
32.257
.333
.749
32.42
30.707
.458
.739
32.42
31.107
.391
.743
Food has energy in it (ingredients)
Sleep to gain energy (process)
Wood burns to release energy (activity)
Electricity makes tape work (fuel)
Blood flows and carries energy (flow)
Energy stored in charcoal (ingredient)
Boy running display energy (process)
Ice melt to give off energy (activity)
Oxygen provides energy to our body
(fuel)
Energy flows into television (flow)
Energy is associated with people
(anthropocentric)
95
A battery has got energy
32.44
32.425
Scale Mean if Scale Variance if
Item Deleted
Item Deleted
.181
.755
Corrected Item- Cronbach's Alpha if
Total Correlation
Item Deleted
Students’ Perception of Energy
Energy is in things but needs another to
make it come out (possess/expend)
32.33
31.943
.233
.752
Hammer is creating energy by hitting
hard on a nail(process)
32.39
29.444
.601
.728
Some energy is released to produce heat
(activity)
32.50
32.143
.360
.747
Energy is something that can make
things work (fuel)
32.47
31.913
.277
.750
32.14
31.494
.237
.753
Gender of students
31.67
33.829
.000
.758
Programme students offer
30.69
30.447
.241
.756
Energy is some kind of fluid (flow)
Students’ Characteristics
96
Appendix D
1. Frequencies and corresponding percentages of students by gender
Gender
Frequency
Percentage
Male
397
55.1
Female
Total
323
720
44.9
100.0
2. Frequencies and percentages of students based on programmes offered in selected
schools
Programme offered by student
Frequency
Percent
Science
172
23.9
Arts
Business
Home Economics
Total
281
178
89
720
39.0
24.7
12.4
100.0
97