Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004
GE CONTAMINATION,
THE TICKING
TIME-BOMB
Releasing GE (genetically engineered, also
called GM, genetically modified) organisms
into the environment poses special threats to
the environment and the food chain. GE
crops are living and have the ability to
reproduce and multiply. Through crosspollination, the foreign genes they contain
can be transferred to other crops and wild
species.
Genetic
contamination
can,
therefore, magnify over time. GE seeds can
also be spilt, mixed with non-GE seed and
grown illegally, compounding the problems.
GE crops have been grown commercially
since 1996, largely in North America. Since
that time, there have been a number of
episodes of contamination of non-GE crops.
Farmers have already suffered economic
loss, consumers’ health has been threatened
and the integrity of non-GE farming put at
stake. Contamination has even arisen from
small-scale experimental growing and in one
case, Pioneer were fined $72,000 for not
informing the authorities promptly of GE
contamination from a GE field trial in Hawaii1,
underlining the difficulties of containing GE
contamination. This briefing reviews these
incidents of contamination and their impacts.
Whilst the growing of GE crops is relatively
limited, there is an urgent need to prevent
further contamination occurring.
Canada
Canola contamination – driving out
organic farmers, pushing up pesticide
use
GE canola, or oilseed rape as it is also
known, has been grown commercially in
Canada since 1996.
Cross-pollination
between GE canola crops has led to
herbicide tolerant ‘super-weeds’ emerging.
These volunteer oilseed rape weeds (where
seed shed from a crop grown in a field in the
previous season, germinates and is a weed
in the following crop), that are tolerant to
three herbicides (Liberty, Roundup and
Clearfield), were first identified in Canada
in1998, only 3 years after two types of GE
herbicide tolerant (Roundup Ready and
Liberty Link) oilseed rape were first grown2,3.
This resistance to more than one herbicide is
known as ‘gene stacking’ and arises through
pollination of one herbicide tolerant variety by
another. An Agriculture Canada project found
evidence of stacking at all 11 sites it sampled
in 1999 with gene flow taking place at
distances of up to 800 metres4. To control
these herbicide tolerant weeds, both 2,4D
and paraquat (grammoxone) are being
recommended by government agencies to
control herbicide tolerant oilseed rape
volunteers in Canada5. 2,4-D is considered
"highly toxic" due to its hazard to eyes6 and
some forms are also highly toxic to fish.7
Organic farmers do not use GE products
because they do not consider genetic
engineering fits with natural production
systems. Because canola pollen can travel
many kilometres (insect pollination has been
recorded at over 20 kms8), organic farmers in
Canada have been forced to stop growing
canola. Some are taking legal action against
the biotech companies involved to get GE
crops removed from the market and for
compensation.9
USA
Starlink – how GE animal feed entered
the human food chain
In 2000, a variety of GE maize known as
StarLink was discovered in taco shells being
sold for human consumption even though it
was not approved for this use and should
only have been used for animal feed10,11. The
StarLink maize, produced by Aventis (now
Bayer), is genetically engineered to contain a
gene
from
the
bacterium
Bacillus
thuringiensis coding for an insecticidal Bt
toxin known as Cry9C. This particular type of
Bt toxin is not found in other GE insect
resistant crops and there are concerns that it
could be a human allergen because (unlike
the Cry1A and Cry3A Bt toxins used in other
GE crops) it is heat stable and does not
break down in gastric acid in the human
digestive system– characteristics shared by
many allergens12. Because Cry9C is not
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Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004
found in Bt preparations used directly as an
insecticide, there is no experience with its
use and safety.
The contamination appeared to have been
caused by a lack of post-harvest segregation
between StarLink and other maize varieties
and cross contamination of other non-GE
maize varieties because farmers were not
aware or, or did not observe, separation
distances. As a result of the discovery, Kraft,
Safeway and Western Family rapidly recalled
their StarLink contaminated taco shells, an
action which is estimated to have cost them
millions of dollars. Aventis was forced to
remove StarLink from sale and a formal recall
order was issued by the US Department of
Agriculture for all 350,000 acres of StarLink
corn planted across the US in 2000. Although
the FDA has purchased over $13million of
Starlink seed since then, the Cry9C gene
sequences were still being detected in seed
in 2003 possibly because contaminated seed
has been used in hybrid seed production13.
Prodigene – how you could find drugs
in your cornflakes
Many companies and scientists are
promoting the use of GE crops as drug
factories. However, contamination of a food
crop with a drug producing GE variety is one
obvious problem that has already arisen,
even though this is still at the experimental
stage. In a contamination incident which did
not involve cross-pollination, on November
12th 2002 in the USA, the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) announced that it had
quarantined over $2.7 million worth of
soybeans (500,000 bushels) destined for
human consumption at a Nebraska grain
elevator after finding stalks of ProdiGene's
GE maize mixed with the soybeans14. They
later ordered their destruction. The field
where the soybeans were grown had been
used previously by ProdiGene to grow GE
maize which contained genes to produce an
experimental vaccine against a pig disease,
transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV).
The US Food and Drug Administration has
fined Prodigene £2 million15.
Hawaii
–
GE
unmonitored
papaya
spreads
GE papaya, engineered to be resistant to a
viral disease, has been grown widely in
Hawaii since 1998.16 In 2004, it has been
discovered that GE papaya trees have
contaminated both organic and conventional
non-GE papaya on a wide scale17. Local
farmers fear that their markets will now be
lost18 as they may be in Thailand as a result
of contamination (see below). Fifty percent of
Big Island papaya seed samples showed GE
contamination including those taken from
organic farms and people’s gardens.
Researchers send GE tomato seeds
around the world ‘by mistake’
Scientists from the University of California
have admitted that they mistakenly sent GE
tomato seeds to researchers around the
world for seven years without realising.19
Twelve U.S. institutions, 14 foreign research
facilities and two demonstration gardens
received mislabelled GE tomato seeds.
Latin America
Mexican maize – contaminating native
varieties
A paper published in Nature in 2001 reported
GE contamination in native landraces of
maize even though no GE maize should have
been grown there commercially20. It seems
that farmers may have kept and sown maize
imported for food. The findings of the study
came
under
considerable
attack
(orchestrated, it seems, by the biotechnology
industry) but the finding of contamination has
since been confirmed. Sampling in 2003 of
maize from the nine regions of Mexico,
revealed contamination of native varieties
was widespread and occurred in 24% of all
communities sampled.21 What is especially
disturbing is that maize originated in
Mesoamerica, so it is a centre of diversity,
and GE maize was not authorised to be
grown there.
Brazil – illegal growing opens the
market for later
Until recently, GE crops were not allowed in
Brazil, but for years Monsanto’s GE soya was
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Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004
smuggled into the country and grown illegally
creating severe problems for farmers and
exporters wanting to supply the growing
export market of non-GE soybean products.
The illegal growing also forced the
Government to allow the planting of farmsaved GE soya for one year under certain
restrictions.22 Monsanto – the developer of
the GE soya – did not assume any liability or
responsibility for its own product, but
benefited from the illegal cultivation through
increased sales of its pesticide, Roundup,
which was used on the illegal GE soya fields,
and improved prospects for official approval.
Europe
Experimental GE trials contaminated
Two sites in the UK used by agrochemical
company Aventis (now Bayer) to test GE
crops were found to include a second,
unauthorised GE sugar beet line resistant to
two commonly-used herbicides. 23 It is
thought the contaminated seed was the result
of cross-pollination in the fields of the
German breeder KWS who supplied the GE
seeds. Instead of producing a beet resistant
to the weed-killer Liberty, it produced a line
resistant to both Liberty and Roundup,
another widely-used herbicide. Further tests
showed that seeds sown on dozens of test
sites in Germany, France and the
Netherlands
were
also
similarly
24
contaminated.
Japan – GE canola on the loose
In 2004, it was revealed that GE canola was
found growing wild in many locations close to
the ports where it was imported into Japan
and the seed spilt during movement. The
contamination appears to be spreading and
establishing.27
Illegal GE cotton paves the way for
commercial introduction
Mirroring the experiences in Brazil, illegal
growing of GE cotton preceded its official
approval in India. In 2001, some 10,000
hectares of GE cotton were grown illegally in
India from GE cotton seed sold by the
Navbharat seed company.28 It is thought the
seed was produced by crossing US varieties
of GE cotton. In 2002, some GE cotton
varieties were given official approval for
planting in some states of India. Illegal
growing of unapproved varieties and also in
other states of India continues29
Contaminated seed supplies
Across the world, there has been a worrying
incidence of low level GE contamination of
non-GE seed supplies. Contamination at this
stage, because of cross-pollination during
seed production or mixing at seed producers,
is damaging because seed forms the very
base of the food production chain and leaves
non-GE impossible to achieve.

Asia
Thailand – experimental GE papaya
contaminates commercial farms
Confirming Greenpeace’s earlier revelations,
the Thai government has reported that at
least nine farms have been discovered to be
growing GE contaminated papaya trees.25
The Thai government is taking action to
destroy the contaminated trees which can
only have arisen from GE papaya trees being
grown experimentally at the Government
station breeding the trees, because GE
papaya is not grown commercially in
Thailand. Exports of papaya to Europe have
been hit because of fears that contamination
could have spread.26

In Canada, Monsanto had to replace its
canola variety ‘Quest‘ in spring 2001.
Tests had shown that the herbicide
resistant variety Quest GT 73 was
contaminated with the alternative genetic
event GT 200 which is not approved in
any of Canada’s major export markets,
including the U.S. and Japan.30 The
Quest canola variety accounted for about
10 to 12 per cent of the canola growing
area in Canada in 2000.31
In August 2002, Pacific Seeds of Australia
(an Advanta company) reported that it
had found GE contamination in maize
seed imported into, and grown, in New
Zealand for seed production.32 The
contamination was detected at harvesting
of the maize and was destroyed.
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Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004





Pioneer
Hi-Bred,
worried
about
contamination of conventional maize
seed, has moved most of its European
maize seed production from North
America to Romania, Hungary and
Austria33.
In 2000, Advanta Seeds imported oilseed
rape seed into the UK which was found to
be contaminated with around 1% of GE,34
and this was sown on approximately
4,700 hectares and the crops had to be
destroyed and farmers compensated.35
The seed was found to have been
contaminated by GE rape grown over 4
kilometres away36.
In 2002, Aventis (now Bayer), revealed
that oilseed rape seed used at 12 sites in
the UK’s farm scale trials with GE crops,
was contaminated with an unapproved
GE variety. 37
In the USA, the Union of Concerned
Scientists reported widespread GE
contamination at levels of up to 1% in
non-GE maize, oilseed rape and soybean
seed.38
In July 2001, the French Government’s
Food Inspection Agency (AFSSA Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire
des Aliments) reported
that GE
contamination of corn, soya and canola
seed had occurred. Once source of this
seed contamination was GE field trials.39
Counting the costs of
contamination
GE contamination matters for a whole range
of reasons - environmental, health and
economic. Even apparently low levels of
contamination
are
significant
on
a
commercial scale. In an average 10 hectare
oilseed rape field, at a 0.3% seed
contamination level, 30,000 plants in the field
could be GE. English Nature believe that for
GE herbicide-tolerant crops, this would pose
an environmental problem because additional
weed control measures would be needed
with consequent harm to farmland wildlife.40
For farmers trying to farm sustainably without
the use of GE crops, contamination poses a
threat to their environmentally beneficial
forms of agriculture and their ability to supply
a non-GE market. The prospect of food
supplies being contaminated by GE crops
used for drug production raises obvious
questions of public safety. And the economic
costs of mistakes can be large as the Starlink
episode has shown:





Aventis paid at least $100 million to buy
back the 2000 crop.41
The United States Department of
Agriculture spent $20 million to buy seeds
from small companies whose seed stock
was contaminated.42
Kraft lost an estimated $10 million in lost
sales from its taco shells alone.43 Taco
Bell franchises were awarded $60 million
by all the taco shell manufacturers: Kraft,
Azteca Foods and Mission Foods.44
Aventis, Garst and four food companies
(Kraft, Kellogg, Azteca Foods and Mission
Foods) settled a class action consumer
lawsuit for $9 million to customers who
said they suffered allergic reactions.45
Aventis and Garst settled a class action
lawsuit by farmers seeking compensation
for lost markets. The lawsuit sought
damages as well as a requirement for
Aventis to decontaminate all soil, farming
equipment, etc. to prevent further
contamination. The firms will pay $110
million; farmers are likely to receive only
US$1 per acre.46
In addition, GE contamination threatens
people’s wish to have choice about whether
to eat or use GE food and crops.
Greenpeace believes that no more GE crops
or other organisms should be released into
the environment if serious and irreversible
GE contamination is to be avoided. As these
examples have shown, neither companies,
scientists nor regulators can be trusted to
establish and follow rules to prevent genetic
contamination and the very nature of GE
organisms will mean that no system can be
foolproof.
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Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004
References
1
Emily Gersema. April 23, 2003. Pioneer pays fine in
biotech corn mix-up; USDA begins new Investigation. The
Associated Press; Justin Gillis. April 24, 2003. Firm Fined
for Spread Of Altered Corn Genes; Government Wasn't Told
Soon Enough. The Washington Post: E04; Elizabeth Weise.
April 24, 2003. Biotech traces found in regular corn. USA
Today: 11.
2 Downey, R.K. (1999) Gene flow and rape – the Canadian
experience. 1999 BCPC Symposium Proceedings No. 72:
Gene flow and agriculture: relevance for transgenic crops.
British Crop Protection Council: Farnham
3 Hall, L., Topinka, K., Huffman, J., Davis, L. & Good, A.
(2000) Pollen flow between herbicide-resistant Brassica
napus is the cause of multiple-resistant B.napus volunteers.
Weed Science 48: 688-694.
4 Beckie, H.J., Hall, L.M. & Warwick, S.I. (2001) Impact of
herbicide-resistant crops as weeds in Canada. Proceedings
Brighton Crop Protection Council – Weeds pp 135-142.
5 Outcrossing Between Canola Varieties - A Volunteer
Canola Control Issue.
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/crops/canola/outcrossing.html
6 2,4-D Pesticide Fact Sheet. Prepared for the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service by Information
Ventures, Inc. http://infoventures.com/ehlth/pestcide/24d.html
7 EXTOXNET (1996) Extension Toxicology Network,
Pesticide Information Profiles 2,4, D
http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/24-D.htm.
8 Ramsay, G., Thompson, C. & Squire, G. (2003)
Quantifying landscape-scale gene flow in oilseed rape.
DEFRA Final Report RG0216
http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/gm/research/epgrg0216.htm
9 Organic Agriculture Protection Fund, press release,
December 20, 2002. Organic farmers apply for class
certification in lawsuit against GMO giants. Losses due to
introduction of GM canola estimated to be in excess of $14
million http://www.saskorganic.com/oapf/pdf/press-rel20dec02.pdf
10 Biotech Critics Cite Unapproved Corn in Taco Shells.
Washington Post, September 18th 2000
11 www.gefoodalert.org
12 National Research Council (2000) Genetically Modified
Pest-Protected Plants. Science and Regulation. National
Academy Press: Washington DC.
13 Mellon, M & Rissler, J (2004) Gone to Seed, transgenic
contaminants in the traditional seed supply, Union of
Concerned Scientists: Washington DC.
http://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_environment/biotechnology
/page.cfm?pageID=1315
14 See USDA press release
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/lpa/press/2002/11/prodigene.html
15 Alarm as GM pig vaccine taints US crops. The Guardian,
24th December 2002.
16 Gonsalves, D. et al (2004). Transgenic virus resistant
papaya: From Hope to Reality for Controlling of Papaya
ringspot virus in Hawaii. Online. APSnet feature July 2004,
American Phytopathological Society.
http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/ringspot/
17 Hawaii GEAN and GMO-Free Kauai, press release
September 9, 2004: New Research Reveals Widespread
GMO Contamination and Threats to Local Agriculture from
the University of Hawaii’s GMO Papaya.
18 New 'gene flow' problems concern crop producers The
Associated Press, September 23, 2004.
http://pressroom.geaction.org/news/item.tcl?news_item_id=1
01548
19 UC Davis mistakenly ships biotech tomatoes to scientists.
Associated Press, December 18th 2003
http://www.sfgate.com/cgibin/article.cgi?file=/news/archive/2003/12/18/financial1708E
ST0140.DTL&type=science
20 Quist, D, & Chapela, I.H. (2001) Transgenic DNA
introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca,
Mexico. Nature 414: 541-543; CEC (Commission for
Environmental Cooperation of the North American Free
Trade Agreement) 2004. Maize and biodiversity: the effects
of transgenic maize in Mexico.
http://www.cec.org/maize/index.cfm?varlan=english. In
press.
21 Boletín de prensa colectivo de comunidades indígenas y
campesinas de Oaxaca, Puebla, Chihuahua, Veracruz,
CECCAM, CENAMI, Grupo ETC, CASIFOP, UNOSJO,
AJAGI
México, 9 Octubre 2003 Contaminación transgénica del
maíz en México: mucho más grave.
http://www.etcgroup.org/documents/boletinmaize.pdf
22 Vice President of the Republic of Brazil (2003) Executive
Order No. 4,846 & Provisional Measure 131. Unoffical
translation provided by: USDA Foreign Agriculture Service
(2003) Brazil approves biotech soybeans. GAIN Report
#BR3613
23 DETR News Release 2000/0638: 10 October 2000. GM
crops - Aventis sugar beet
http://www.press.dtlr.gov.uk/pns/DisplayPN.cgi?pn_id=2000
_0638
24 Financial Times (October 9, 2000) Modified beet seed
dropped after trial mistake.
25 Government Admission: GM papaya confirmed in NE. The
Nation, September 14, 2004; GM papayas found on 8 more
farms. The Nation (Thailand), September 21, 2004. Available
on: http://www.agbios.com.
26 Europeans shun Thai papaya. The Nation (Thailand),
September 2, 2004.
http://www.safetybio.com/news/Inter/2547/September/02092
004-4.htm
27 Bio Journal - August 2004, Trend: Serious GM canola
pollution in Kashima port, Ibaraki Prefecture,
http://www5d.biglobe.ne.jp/~cbic/english/2004/journal0408.
html
28 Jayaraman, K.S. (2001) Illicit GM cotton sparks corporate
fury. Nature 413: 555.
29 Bhattacharya S. (2003) Modified crops ‘have big benefits
for Third World’, New Scientists 15. Feb 2003
Jayaraman,K.S. (2002) Poor crop management plaques Bt
cotton experiment in India, NatureBiotechnology, Vol 20,
1069.
30 Monsanto (April 25, 2001) Quest Canola Seed
Replacement Offered. Press release
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Briefing
Genetic Engineering Briefing Pack
October 2004
31 Reuters
(April 25, 2001) Monsanto replacing GMO canola
seed in Canada
32 Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, New Zealand.
Testing Imported Seeds For the Presence of GM Seeds.
Investigation into GM maize grown in Pukekohe and
Gisborne, August-September 2002
http://www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/imports/plants/papers/gm
-seeds/
33 Nuttall, N. 2000. Firms move to avoid risk of
contamination. The Times (UK). May 29. www.thetimes.co.uk/news/pages/tim/2000/05/29/timnwsnws01017.ht
ml
34
House of Commons Agriculture Committee inquiry into
genetically modified organisms and seed segregation:
memorandum by the MAFF and the DETR. 10th July 2000.
35 Rogue GM seeds taint UK crop. The Guardian (UK)18th
May 2000.
36 Written submission from Advanta Seeds UK to the UK
House of Commons Agriculture Select Committee, 10 th July
2000.
37 BBC News 16 August, 2002, Urgent tests on GM crop
seeds. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk/2195762.stm
38 Union of Concerned Scientists (2004) Gone to seed.
Transgenic contaminants in the traditional seed supply. UCS:
Cambridge, MA. www.ucsusa.org/documents/seedreport_full
report.pdf.
39 AFSSA - Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des
Aliments. July 23, 2001. de l’Agence française de sécurité
sanitaire des aliments relatif à l'évaluation, en termes de
santé publique, de la signification d’un signal positif à 0,2%
par une sonde 35S et du risque éventuel lié à la présence de
semences de maïs OGM non identifiés, au regard notamment
des taux de présence observés et de la fréquence des cas.
40 See BBC News online. 13 October, 2002. 'GM seed spread'
warning;
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2321443.stm; and
submissions by English Nature dated April 2001 (MAFF
consultation on adventitious presence of GM seeds in seed of
conventional varieties) and August 2002 (DEFRA
consultation on Commission proposals on thresholds for the
adventitious presence of approved GMOs in seeds).
41 Reuters Nov. 16th , 2000. US exports hurt by StarLink biocorn chaos.
http://www.organicconsumers.org/ge/cornsalesdown.cfm
42 Schuff, S. 2001. Major seed companies say they have
StarLink isolated. 12 March. Feedstuffs.
43 Madigan, K. 2003. Risky business. Los Angeles, CA: State
Public Interest Research Groups, As You Sow Foundation.
http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:GBD32fPY6hMJ:www.g
efoodalert.org/library/admin/uploadedfiles/showfile.cfm%3F
FileName%3DRisky_Business_Financial_Risks_that_Geneti
call.pdf+Madigan,+K.+2003.+Risky+business.+Los+Angeles
,+CA:+State+Public+Interest+Research+Groups,+As+You+
Sow+Foundation&hl=en&lr=lang_en
44 International Franchise Association. Taco Bell Franchisees
Receive Financial Assistance From Taco Shell Suppliers. 8
June.2001 http://bizjournals.bison.com/press/pr68tacobell.html
45 U.S. Judge Approves $9 Mln StarLink Settlement – 8th
March 2002 Reuters
http://www.fass.org/fasstrack/news_item.asp?news_id=208
46
Elias, P.. Biotech firms pay $110 million to settle StarLink
lawsuit, 7th 2003 February, Associated Press.
http://ipm.osu.edu/trans/023_071.htm
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