History of Satellite Broadcasting: Development and
Advancement of Radio and Television Technology
D. Ayansola Ogundele and Yinusa A. Adediran
National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA),
Obasanjo Space centre, Opposite pyakassa junction, Lugbe, Abuja
Federal University of Technology, Minna
*delesolad@yahoo.com, ayansoladaniel@gmail.com and **yinusaade@yahoo.com
Abstract – The space age began when the Russians
launched the first man-made earth orbiting device,
SPUTNIK 1, on October 4 1957. This was followed, on
October 26 1959, by the transmission to earth of television
pictures of the far side of the moon by the Russian vehicle
Lunik III. When these space technology achievements took
place, television was a mere 21 years old in practical
terms. Satellite broadcasting of television is a major
source of revenue for the satellite communications
industry. Geostationary satellites have carried television
program since their inception for commercial service in
the late 1960s. The first time that a GEO satellite was used
extensively for video transmission was for the Tokyo
Olympic Games in 1968, which were broadcast live in the
United States using a link through an early Intelsat
satellite over Pacific Ocean. Satellite radio broadcasting
commenced in 2001 from Sirius satellites in elliptical
orbits and two XM satellites in GEO. The signals are
transmitted in S- band at 2.3 GHz and are aimed
primarily at automobiles, which is where most people
listen to the radio. Satellite television is available in many
places with a wide choice of programmes. On the other
hand, there is very little satellite sound broadcasting.
Satellite television provides a useful product, whereas
satellite radio is not yet offering something which people
feel that they must have. This paper, therefore, examines
the development that has taken place in satellite
broadcasting a century ago and the advancement of radio
and television technology.
Index Terms –satellite broadcasting, radio broadcast
technology, Video on Demand (VOD)
I.
INTRODUCTION
Satellites are essential part of today’s technology. The
world has now come to rely on them in many ways. The
ground breaking achievement of the launch of Sputnik 1
by Russia set the pace for an enormous rate of
development that saw communications, satellite
television, satellite radio, global positioning system and
many other areas of life revolutionized. Satellite
broadcasting services provide clear video images and
sound via broadcasting satellites (BS). Satellite
broadcasting is the distribution of video content over a
satellite network. The audio and video signals are
acquired at the origination point and transmitted
through an uplink truck to a geo-synchronous satellite.
The orbiting satellite re-transmits the signal to a
predetermined geographical area over an "open" or
secure channel. Small, inexpensive “downlinks” receive
the signal and display the content on television
monitors. Many organizations use satellite broadcasts to
make enterprise-wide announcements, to launch
products or to publicize significant events.
II. A CENTURY OF SATELLITE
BROADCASTING
A. History of Satellite Broadcasting
The timeline of the history of satellite broadcasting
is shown in Table 1.
B. Benefits of Satellite Broadcasting
The benefits that can be derived from satellite
broadcasting are highlighted below.
(i) It enables people to send and receive important as
well as confidential information to each other from
one part of the globe to the other without being
connected to the wires.
(ii) It enables a nation to avoid any adverse
consequences that can be a threat to the national
security.
(iii) It saves lives of several people from the natural
disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, floods,
draughts, volcanoes, etc. It can also predict the
upcoming natural.
(iv) It helps the scientists to know about the various
conditions of the different planets and that of the
universe for their experiments.
(v) It is semi-controlled through the manual processes,
and so they can be used for the purposes for which
the necessity rises.
TABLE 1
History of Satellite Broadcasting
Years
Events that happened
1925
Japan's broadcasting history started in 1925. Since then, broadcasting has greatly progressed from
radio to television, to satellite broadcasting and to High-Vision .
1964
Broadcasters in Japan made a collective effort to make a TV broadcast of the Tokyo Olympic Games
in October 1964.
1967
Russian created its national network of satellite television in 1967 and was based on powerful
geostationary buses which provide mostly free-to-air television channels
1967
June 25, 1967 was the date of the world's first global satellite broadcast.
1972
The UNESCO Declaration of November 15, 1972, said that " satellite broadcasting shall respect the
sovereignty and equality of all states
1977
In 1977, the satellite broadcasting bands were planned for Europe at an infamous ITU conference,
WARC-77.
1986
British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) was formed in December 1986.
1989
Sky Television was launched in February 1989.
1994
PrimeStar and DirecTV/United States Satellite Broadcasting launched the digital satellite format on
June, 1994.
1997
Hunan Satellite Television broadcasts to audience abroad. It was formed on January 1, 1997. The
network is based in Changsha, Hunan province.
1991
On October 1, 1999, the Tibet Television started its satellite broadcasting channel, which broadcast
telefilms and other programs in the Tibetan language every day.
2000
Digital satellite broadcasting started in December, 2000, using the new broadcasting satellite BSAT-2.
2004
The US government launched a commercial-free 24-hour Arabic language satellite broadcasting
television network called Alhurra (Al Hurra)
2010
On 1 January 2010, the world’s first 3D channel, SKY 3D, started broadcasting nationwide in South
Korea by Korea Digital Satellite Broadcasting.
III. DEVELOPMENT AND ADVANCEMENT
OF SATELLITE RADIO BROADCASTING
A satellite radio[2] is a digital radio whose signal is
broadcast by a communications satellite which covers a
much wider geographical range than terrestrial radio
signals. It is a subscription service and offers a
meaningful alternative to ground-based radio services in
some countries, notably the United States. Mobile
services, such as Sirius, XM, and Worldspace, allow
listeners to roam across an entire continent, listening to
the same audio programming anywhere they go. In
areas where tall buildings, bridges, or even parking
garages obscure the signal, repeaters can be placed to
make the signal available to listeners. The range or
reach of the satellite radio is significantly greater than
that of conventional radio, which is generally local and
emits signals that fade with distance and can be
disrupted by mountains or other objects on the
landscape. Satellite broadcasting technology allows a
radio broadcaster to send a signal to a satellite located
in orbit above the earth; the satellite then returns the
same signal to a large area of the earth’s surface (the
signal’s “footprint”). The technology allows a signal to
be sent [3].
A. History of Radio Broadcasting
Alot of development has taken place in radio
technology in 100 years ago. Table 2 shows the history
of radio technology and development over a century
ago[1].
TABLE 2
History of Radio Broadcasting
Year
1900 - 1910
1910-1920
1920-1930
1930-1940
1940-1950
1950-1960
1960-1970
1970-1980
1980-1990
1990-2000
2000-2010
Events that happened
Marconi sends, in 1900, his famous S (dit dit dit) in Morse code from England to Canada. In 1906
at Brant Rock MA, Fessenden plays his violin, sings a song, reads a bible verse or two into a
wireless telephone of his own invention. This is the first broadcast and it happens Christmas Eve,
1906.
Between 1912 and 1917 Herrold and his students broadcast music and talk on a regular schedule
to a growing San Jose audience. During world war I, all amateur wireless stations were ordered to
shut down in April, 1917 by the Government so as to use radio for defense purposes.
Radio Arrives: Licenced radio broadcasting. In 1923, WEAF in New York accepts the first "radio
ad."
Radio matures as a big bussiness. In 1934, FCC was formed and replaced the FRC and regulates
radio. Edwin Armstrong invents FM.
Radio was the voice of the war effort during the World War II. By the late 1940s, television arrived.
All the big stars and programs and advertisers that made the 1930s and 1940s the "golden age of
radio" defect to TV. Radio networks evolve
Radio re-invents. FM makes a comeback
With inexpensive satellite technology available to every station, hundreds of new radio networks
emerge and die, mostly offering music formats delivered by big city DJ's.
Radio industry was de-regulated.
New radio station owners want to cut costs, use automation to run three stations at once. Digital
takes over radio technology. Digital stuff, DBS, DMX, Internet, etc. took over.
Radio broadcast technologies took over.
B. Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) by Satellites
Digital broadcasting is an evolving technology
which provides an enhanced variety and choice of
programme and a rugged delivery mechanism. In the
early days of radio broadcasting in the 1920s,
transmissions used the lower frequency band and AM
(amplitude modulation), opening the door on a wealth
of new entertainment and information opportunities.
Early radios have low quality of the reproduction in the
formative years, but the novelty and excitement of the
programmes took priority. The International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) allocated the
frequency range of 1452- 1492 MHz for digital audio
broadcasting by satellite. In 1950s, FM radio
broadcasting began in the UK and in the late 1990s,
there was extension to digital broadcasting. In addition
to improving the sound quality, the move to digital
technology has provided a more rugged transmission
mechanism which prevents much of the noise,
distortion and interference found in more traditional
broadcast systems.
C. Radio Broadcast Technology
Radio broadcasting [4] is an established use of radio
technology. It is an audio (sound) broadcasting service,
broadcast through the air as radio waves (a form of
electromagnetic radiation) from a transmitter to a
receiving antenna. Stations can be linked in radio
networks to broadcast common programming, either in
syndication or simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting
also can be done via cable FM, local wire networks,
satellite and the Internet. The objective of radio
broadcasting is to entertain, inform and educate people.
The developments in radio technology are aimed at
providing reliable, interference free and high quality
voice and music to the listener at home or those moving
in as wide area as possible. The different radio
broadcast technology are: AM broadcasting, VHF FM
broadcasting and digital radio broadcasting.
With the migration of many listeners from the
medium wave bands to the higher quality transmissions
on VHF FM, many AM broadcasters sought ways of
improving the transmissions used on the medium wave
bands. One way was to introduce a stereo capability, a
feature which is now standard on VHF FM. A number
of systems were developed to provide this on AM, but
the one which has gained the most widespread
acceptance is called C-QUAM. VHF FM is the most
widely used form of broadcasting in areas of the world
where the population is relatively high. Its bandwidth
enables it to carry high quality transmissions, stereo,
and other services such as RDS. VHF FM Broadcasting
can be divided into three namely: broadcast VHF FM,
Radio Data Service (RDS) and Digital Radio Broadcast.
Broadcast VHF FM is the accepted medium for high
quality transmissions. RDS is standard on most car
radios and hi-fi tuners today. It is used on VHF FM
radio broadcast transmissions and provides a number of
facilities that are of great use to all radio listeners, but
particularly to those radio listeners in cars. RDS enables
traffic reports to be received more easily, and provides
many facilities including enabling the radio station
name to be displayed on the radio display. RDS
provides travel news. Audio Broadcasting (DAB) is a
form of radio broadcasting technology now used in a
number of countries. DAB adds more flexibility and the
possibility of near CD quality. DAB Digital Radio is an
entirely new system for broadcasting and receiving
radio stations. It does not suffer from the multipath
effects often experienced on FM transmissions and as
the system uses what it known as a single frequency
network (SFN) there is no retuning required when
moving from one coverage area to the next.
it offers some significant advantages. While DAB
digital radio is becoming established in some areas of
the globe, the system that has been chosen for use in the
USA is known as High Definition (HD) Radio. HD
Radio enables high quality audio to be received along
with the ability to incorporate many new features and
facilities. The HD Radio system was developed by
iBiquity and has now been selected by the FCC in the
USA. It will take the place of both the existing AM and
FM transmissions and offers the following advantages
for both listeners and broadcasters alike. HD radio has
improved audio quality, reduced levels of interference,
opportunity to use additional data services and easy
transition for broadcasters and listeners.
F.
Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM)
D. Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB)
Digital Multimedia broadcasting (DMB) is based
on the Eureka 147 Digital Audio Broadcast or DAB
system that is widely deployed in the UK and many
other countries around the world for audio broadcasting.
One of the advantages of using DMB is that it can be
rolled out and used without much modification for
mobile video applications, simply increasing the level
of error correction to cope with the mobile
environment. Eureka 147 allows for broadcasts both
from terrestrial transmitters and from satellite based
transmitters. For DMB both platforms are possible, but
in view of the differing platforms and transmission
requirements there would need to be some
modifications between the two systems. For terrestrial
based transmissions a flavour of the system designated
as
T-DMB
(Terrestrial
Digital
Multimedia
Broadcasting) is used, whereas for satellite broadcasting
S-DMB (Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting) is
used. Like many other broadcasting systems, DMB and
DAB use a form of transmission known as Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM). This was
adopted because of its high data capacity and suitability
for applications such as broadcasting. It also offers a
high resilience to interference, can tolerate multi-path
effects and is able to offer the possibility of a single
frequency network, SFN.
E. High Definition (HD) Radio
Digital technology is being applied to many areas
of radio communication including radio broadcasting as
DRM is set to revolutionize broadcasting on the
long, medium and short wave bands. Since the very
earliest days of broadcasting these wavebands have
been filled with signals that are amplitude modulated.
These transmissions are of low audio quality and
particularly in recent years there has been a move away
from these bands to find higher quality transmissions.
Broadcasts in the VHF FM band have received far more
listeners with the result that audience figures are
dropping for AM broadcasting. Now DAB Digital
Radio is available in many countries and this has set
new standards in broadcasting. DRM system provides
many of the improvements that are badly needed along
with the flexibility to allow for future developments.
DRM was founded in Guangzhou, China in 1998 and
now has its headquarters in Geneva.
IV.
DEVELOPMENT AND ADVANCEMENT
OF SATELLITE TELEVISION
BROADCASTING
Satellite television is television delivered by the
means of communications satellite and received by a
satellite dish and set-top box. In many areas of the
world it provides a wide range of channels and services,
often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable
providers. There are many ways in which television can
be distributed these days. From the old analogue
television radio broadcasts, through the new digital
methods of radio delivery to IP based delivery over
wired networks such as the Internet[3].
A. History of Television Development
B. Digital Video Broadcasting by Satellite
One hundred years of history of television
development is shown in Table 8.3.
The pioneering article by Arthur C. Clarke,
published in 1945 in the Wireless World magazine,
envisaged broadcasting as one application of satellites
operating in the geostationary orbit. One major event on
the way to realizing Clark’s ideas occurred on July 11
1962, when the AT & T satellite TELSTAR was used to
transmit live television pictures between the USA and
Europe (France and the UK). This event brought
satellite and television technologies significantly
popular.
Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is being adopted
as the standard for digital television in many countries.
The DVB standard offers many advantages over the
previous analogue standards and has enabled television
to make a major step forwards in terms of its
technology. Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) offers
advantages in terms of far greater efficiency in terms of
spectrum usage and power utilisation as well as being
able to affect considerably more facilities, the prospect
of more channels and the ability to work alongside
existing analogue services. The different technologies
of DVB are Digital Video Broadcast-Terrestrial (DVBT), DVB-T2, Digital Video Broadcast – Handheld
(DVB-H), Digital Video Broadcast – Satellite Services
to Handheld Devices (DVB-SH), Digital Video
Broadcast – Return Satellite via Satellite (DVB-RCS).
DVB-T is the most widely used digital television
standard around the globe for terrestrial television
transmissions. The DVB-T standard was first published
in 1997 and since then it has become the most widely
used format for digital broadcast in the world. DVB-T
network has the following characteristics that can be
varied: 3 modulation options (QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM,
5 different FEC (forward error correction) rates, 4
Guard Interval options, 2k or 8k carriers, 6, 7 or 8MHz
channel bandwidths and Video at 50Hz or 60Hz. DVBT2 is the next development of the Digital Video
Broadcasting - Terrestrial standards. It builds on the
technology and on the success of DVB-T to provide
additional facilities and features in line with the
developing DTT or Digital Terrestrial television
market. Although some may see DVB-T2 as a
competitor to the existing DVB-T standard, this is not
the case,. It is planned that the two standards will coexist for many years, with DVB-T2 allowing additional
features and services.
DVB-H is one of the major systems to be used for
mobile video and television for cellular phones and
handsets. It was developed from the DVB-T
(Terrestrial) television standard that is used in many
countries around the globe including much of Europe,
and also other countries including the USA. DVB-SH is
a standard or specification that is likely to be widely
used for Mobile TV services. The DVB-SH standard
has been developed to deliver video, audio and data
services to small handheld devices including mobile
phones and PDAs and using frequencies typically
within S band but in any case below 3 GHz from either
satellite or terrestrial networks. DVB-SH has also been
designed to complement DVB-H which is focussed on
delivering mobile video from terrestrial networks at
frequencies within the UHF TV bands. One of the key
features of DVB-SH is that it is aimed for use for both
satellite and terrestrial delivery.
DVB-RCS is one of the DVB family of standards that is
in widespread use for a number of television broadcast
applications that can be delivered by a variety of
methods. The DVB standards now dominate the
television area and they have been very successfully
implemented in many countries. While most television
standards simply involve a one way transmission using
a "one to many" concept, DVB-RCS uses a return
channel to enable two way transmissions to be made.
DVB-RCS is ideal for use in many areas where there is
no terrestrial infrastructure installed. DVB-RCS
supports several access schemes making the system
much more responsive, and thus more efficient, than
traditional demand-assigned satellite systems.
C. Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) Technology
There are now many ways in which television
material can be delivered these days. One method that is
set to make a huge impact is Internet Protocol Interface.
Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) is based around the
use of Internet Protocol, and this means that the service
tends
to
be
used
in
conjunction
with
telecommunications services of which broadband
internet lines are the most widely used, although any
service that can carry packet data can be used. There are
two basic ways in which the material for IPTV can be
handled. It can be sent out as broadcast or “multicast”
material to many users simultaneously or it can be used
to provide video-on-demand where the material is sent
to just one subscriber who has requested that particular
item.
D. Television Standards
The different standards a There are various
television standards, namely[3]: colour – NTSC, PAL
and SECAM, the MAC family, High-Definition
Television (HDTV), W-MAC, HD-MAC, MUSE and
Enhanced PAL –PALPlus.
Most of the colours found in nature can be
approximated by a colour reproduction system
developed and codified during the 1920s and 1930s by
the Commite International d’Eclairage (CIE). The CIE
basis was studied in the 1950s by the National
Television Standard Committee (NTSC) during the
development of colour television in the USA and NTSC
was adopted by the FCC in December 1953. The MAC
system, first proposed in 1981, was introduced as a
hybrid analogue video/digital audio format which
would be component based and avoid some of the
problems associated with the processing of PAL and
SECAM signals. It was adopted in Europe as a standard
for satellite television in 1983.
HDTV refers to video having resolution
substantially higher than traditional television systems
(standard-definition TV or SDTV). HD has one or two
million pixels per frame, roughly five times that of SD.
Early HDTV broadcasting used analog techniques, but
today HDTV is digitally broadcast using video
compression. HDTV is about image resolution, where
the number of lines is a primary parameter from which
others are derived. The several proposals for HDTV
standards are 1250 lines (Europe), 1125 lines (Japan)
and 1050 lines (USA). Wide screen or W-MAC is
simply a slightly modified form of MAC and it deals
with the wide screen transmission using an aspect ratio
of 16:9.
The HD-MAC system is a method of
compatible HDTV delivery such that normal MAC
receivers can operate satisfactorily with an HD-MAC
input, and specially equipped receivers with the decoder
circuits and installed and a 16:9 screen can obtain the
full benefit of HDTV at 1250 lines resolution. The
MAC and HD-MAC standards were developed for use
in Europe and, although expressed as an analogue
signal format, the majority of the signal processes were
realised digitally. The Japanese HDTV proposals chose
1125 lines with a 60Hz field rate. By using the same
signal-processing techniques as were proposed for HDMAC the system known as MUSE was proposed for the
1125 environment and has actually been in service (a
few hours a day) in Japan for a number of years,
although the number of viewers has been small owing
to the large size and cost of the receivers.
Although not attempting to produce HDTV
standards of quality, which some believed was neither
practical nor necessary; some terrestrial operators have
supported the development of, and now adopted,
enhanced PAL to place themselves better to compete
with any threat from satellites or cable.
E. Direct-to-Home (DTH) Satellite Broadcasting
Satellite Direct-to-Home (DTH) is a strong alternative
to cable TV. It enables customers to receive a minimum
of 200 to 300 channels on a fairly economical basis.
The other advantage is the availability of satellite
broadcast in rural and semi-rural areas where cable is
difficult to install. DTH service is a digital satellite
service that provides television services direct to
subscribers anywhere in the country. Since it makes use
of wireless technology, programs are sent to the
subscriber's television direct from the satellite,
eliminating the need for cables and any cable
infrastructure. This is particularly valuable in remote
and difficult to reach areas where cable and in many
cases, terrestrial television services are poor or non
existent.
F. Satellite Newsgathering (SNG)
Satellite news gathering (SNG) is the use of mobile
communications equipment for the purpose of
worldwide newscasting. Mobile units are usually vans
equipped with advanced, two-way audio and video
transmitters and receivers, using dish antennas that can
be aimed at geostationary satellites. The earliest SNG
equipment used analog modulation similar to
conventional television and radio. The technology first
demonstrated its capability during the war between
England and Argentina over the Falkland Islands in
1982. Analog SNG was used extensively during the
Desert Shield and Desert Storm operations in the
Persian Gulf. During the 1990s, digital modulation
supplanted analog modulation, giving rise to the newer
technology of digital satellite news gathering (DSNG).
G. Video on Demand (VoD)
Video on Demand (VOD) or Audio Video on
Demand (AVOD) are systems which allow users to
select and watch/listen to video or audio content on
demand. IPTV technology is often used to bring video
on demand to televisions and personal computers.
Television VOD systems either stream content through
a set-top box, a computer or other device, allowing
viewing in real time, or download it to a device such as
a computer, digital video recorder (also called a
personal video recorder) or portable media player for
viewing at any time. Airline AVOD systems offer
passengers the opportunity to select specific stored
video or audio content and play it on demand including
pause, fast forward, and rewind. British telecom in the
UK and other similar organisations, especially in the
USA, have advertised trials of VOD services down the
telephone line using a technology called asymmetric
digital subscriber’s loop (ADSL) which allows
interactivity with the subscriber in order to set up the
service. VOD is the transmission of primarily precoded
material to the viewer on request and is the electronic
equivalent of the video-tape rental business.
TABLE 3One hundred years of history of television development
Year
Events that happened
1880s-1899
Period of Dreams, Concepts and Initial Discoveries
1900
The word "Television" is first used
1922-1927
Early Experiments with a MECHANICAL scanning disc system. TV Picture is neon orange and
very small.
1928-1934
First Mechanical TV Sets sold to public - At the peak, 42 US stations were in operation using the
Jenkins system. However, picture quality is lacking. Not suitable for commercial use. Electronic
TV offers greater promise.
1926-1935
Early Experiments with All-Electronic Cathode Ray Television (the basic system we have today)
1935-1941
Electronic (Experimental) TV begins broadcasting in Germany, England, Italy, France, USA,
Holland, etc.
Early 1940s
Work begins on CBS Mechanical Color Television
July 1, 1941
Electronic (Commercial) Black & White Television begins broadcasting in United States
1942-1945
World War-II halts all TV sales and most all public broadcasting.
Late 1946
First American Post War TV set is RCA 630-TS (Less than 7,000 TV sets in USA, pre WW-II)
June 25, 1951
First Mechanical color television set placed on market (CBS-Columbia) at $499.95.
Oct 20, 1951
Mechanical CBS Color TV Broadcasting ends forever
May 1954
First All-Electronic Color Television Set is RCA CT-100, selling at $1,000
1987
Japanese demonstrate ANALOG high-definition TV system (called MUSE)
1990
General Instrument's Video Cipher division announces DIGITAL Hi-Definition System
1995
Congress Passes the Telecommunications Act of 1995, replacing the old 1934 laws
Late 1990s
Internet, World-Wide-Web explodes onto the scene - ushering in new global communications for
the 21st century!
V. Conclusion
Satellite broadcasting utilizes satellite technology for
the broadcast delivery of video, audio, data, music,
voice, interactive and broadband services. It enables
satellite radio and television signals to be broadcast. In
this paper, the various advancement and development
that had taken place in satellite radio and television a
century ago were explained. This is to enable readers to
acquaint themselves with the history of satellite
broadcasting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge National Space Research and
Development Agency, Nigeria for the support rendered.
REFERENCES
[1] M. Adams, “A Century of Radio,” California
Historical Radio Society., California, U.S.
[2] The Satellite Broadcasting and Communications
Association (SBCA), “Satellite Radio,” Bridge
Multimedia: Emergency InfoOnline: Resource
Directory, Section X, pp. 201, 2006.
[3] B.G. Evans, “Satellite Communication Systems”,
The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom, 2000.
[4] H. Vardhan, “Radio Broadcast Technology”,
Noida, pp. 53-63, January, 2002.