Erik Erikson: Psychosocial development
Introduction and biography
Erikson’s theory takes Freudian thought farther because it includes
social and cultural influences. Erikson believes that the ego develops
individually through its biological (psychosexual) processes, but also due to
interpersonal concerns and relationships (psychosocial.) Erikson actually
thought the prime motivation for development was social- the internal drive
to interact with others. Erikson’s theory deeply reflects his own struggle for
development of an individuated personality, because of his confused,
bicultural background. His mother was Jewish and Danish, and Erikson had
the fair characteristics of the Nordic people. His stepfather was Jewish, and
Erikson thought he was his natural father until later in his development,
when he found out he was fathered by a relationship with a Danish
Protestant who left her unmarried and with child. He didn’t know what
culture to affiliate and ultimately renamed himself: Erik Erikson, Erik, son
of Erik- child as father to the man. He connected to Freud by teaching art to
children of Freud’s entourage, and marrying a woman in his retinue, Joan
Serson, who was studying to be a psychoanalyst. (They flipped roles later in
life as Erikson became the analyst and Serson became the artist.) Erikson
was analyzed by Freud’s daughter, Anna, and finally became an analyst
himself, although he had no degree beyond a certification as a Montessori
teacher. (Many of his ideas about development can be traced to Maria
Montessori’s approach to the child and her understanding of the inherent
positive development of children, given positive encouragement and
stimulation and support.) After he moved to the US in 1933, due to the
pressures in Germany against Jewish people, he began teaching at Harvard
and working with Henry Murray who developed his own personality theory
and tests. Erikson also worked with anthropologists and did field research in
2 Native American cultures, the Sioux and the Yurok. When Harvard
demanded a loyalty oath in response to the Communist scares of the 1950s,
Erikson felt similar pressures as he had in early Nazi Germany and he
refused to sign such an oath, believing that education must be allowed to
speak freely for critical thought to be developed. His theory expanded
Freudian theory to include the entire lifespan, and he and his wife continued
their own studies long into the 80s.
Epigenetic Principle is the idea, recognized in biological development and
easily seen in the fetus, that there is a plan to our development and according
to this plan, parts develop in a particular order, and not until all the parts
develop fully does the individual become a functioning whole. So, according
to the stage theory, we must all follow a framework of development through
the 8 stages, and there is a particular focus and area of development at each
stage. If a stage is imperfectly resolved, there will be later handicaps.
Eight psychosocial stages were defined by different social aspects in each
stage. His first stages correspond to Freud’s but the last ones are more
encompassing of adult development. There is an ego strength (Virtue)
developed in each stage. Each stage involves a crisis with conflict centered
on a particular issue. The virtue developed becomes part of one’s ego skills.
There is an opposite form of the virtue if the ego strength is poorly
developed. Early development paves the way for later developments,
although there can be rehabilitation later in life within positive relationships.
Significant others are important at each stage, so intergenerational
relationships are important for aiding younger people to develop and helping
older people to feel vital and useful late in life. The individual’s
development can also impact social/cultural development, too. (Hitler’s
impact on Europe vs. Nelson Mandela’s impact in South Africa.)
1. Trust vs. mistrust
o Basic trust is the sense that others are dependable and will
nurture and provide for you, as well as the sense that one is
worthy of care, and inherently trustworthy. It is based in good,
appropriate, responsive parenting. The baby is busy soaking up
the stimulation available- food, sensory stimulation- and
actively assimilates these experiences into a picture of self and
the world. This is an interactive stage, as the baby tries to
explore and get the parent to pay attention. If the world is not
responsive to the baby’s needs, s/he develops a sense of
mistrust. Some mistrust is useful, as complete naiveté or
gullibility puts a person at risk. In a healthy resolution, there is
more trust than mistrust however, allowing the person to
connect with others and trust them.
o The virtue developed is Hope.
2. Autonomy vs. shame, doubt
o During the second year of life the toddler develops a sense of
autonomy and self control, due in part to toilet training and
motor development, walking and climbing. The psychological
issue is broader, though, including the concepts of holding on
and letting go. Adults that support toddlers’ exploration and
protect them from their vulnerability build in a sense of
personal control. Those who are over-protected or shamed by
their experiences or parents’ discipline develop a sense of doubt
in their efforts at independence. Autonomy should prevail in a
healthy development, but some shame and doubt enable moral
development and safety awareness.
o The virtue developed is Will.
3. Initiative vs. guilt
o From 4 – 5 years old children learn what kind of person to be,
based on identification with parents (Freud’s Oedipal complex
and gender identity development) Children are interested in
sexuality and sex differences and are developing a conscience
(superego). They are curious and their explorations may be
intrusive on others. Their play may reflect this curiosity. But
the challenge is to develop some sense of initiative in exploring
the world. If this curiosity is shamed, the child develops a sense
of guilt.
o The virtue developed is Purpose.
4. Industry vs. inferiority
o School develops a sense of industry, learning to win
recognition from producing things. Without a healthy
development of this skill, the child develops feelings of
inferiority. Teachers and coaches are vital in encouraging
persistence on task and valuing the products of children.
o The virtue developed is competence.
5. Identity vs. identity diffusion
o During adolescence, the teen tries to develop a separate sense of
identity from parents and others. Ego identity is the awareness
of one’s own individuality, as well as a continuity in one’s
meaning for others. The question is “Who am I?” Personal
identity will develop past identifying with role models, as the
teen must develop his/her life story, encompassing his values.
o Identity confusion happens if a teen can’t develop a coherent
sense of identity.
o Negative Identity develops if a teen develops an identity based
on negative role models, criminals, slackers, etc. This is
particularly a risk id juvenile delinquents are housed with
hardened criminals to better learn the criminal lifestyle and
value.
o Identity foreclosure occurs if a teen chooses an identity
commitment too quickly without independent thought.
o Moratorium is the period in adolescence when teens actively
explore all the career and values possibilities. It makes
commitment to a values system more meaningful.
o The virtue of this stage is fidelity, the ability to commit to a
loyalty promised. This does not only apply to marriage, but
various areas of adult personal responsibility.
6. Intimacy vs. isolation
o Erikson believed that until identity is firmly established, it is
not possible to develop true psychological intimacy with
another person. Once identity is set, though, it is possible to
choose fusion with another without fear of loss of self.
o Distantiation is a term Erikson used as the counterpart to
intimacy- the willingness to isolate from others or destroy any
who seem dangerous to one’s self. These people often remain
isolated and self-absorbed, even if they go through a number of
relationships on the surface (Donald Trump comes to mind.)
Marriage may resolve this crisis, but it doesn’t necessarily.
People can also develop intimacy with others than spouse.
o The virtue of this stage is love.
7. Generativity vs. self-absorption
o Generativity is the interest in establishing and guiding the next
generation. These people mentor youth, train others at work,
develop social institutions that benefit others, as well as
develop tolerance for others who hold different ideas. It may
simply be expressed in parenting, but does not require
becoming a parent to develop.
o Stagnation is the negative resolution of this stage, with the
person not able to be involved in caring for another.
o The virtue of this stage is Care.
8. Integrity vs. despair
o Old age is about making sense of one’s life. To develop
integrity means you feel your life has been meaningful and you
don’t feel regrets about your life choices.
o Despair is the experience of regret, blame, and feeling fear and
resistance to the process of death.
o The virtue of this stage is Wisdom.
The role of culture in relation to the stages- while Erikson believed the
stages to be universal and sequential, he believed the way people resolve the
stages is dependent on their culture. He defined the particular institution that
was most involved in developing each stage. Individuals affect institutions.
Stage 1: Religion is the institution most involved in restoring a sense of
trust through faith, as well as giving a definition to the evil the religion
hopes to protect one from. So religion supports trust development.
Interestingly, terror management theory purports that when threatened,
people will cling to patriotic institutions and church in an effort to feel
protected from evil.
Stage 2: Law is the institution most involved in supporting our willgiving us some freedoms to express ourselves and defining the limits of
our reasonable influence over others. Law defines clear boundaries- the
things the toddler is struggling to understand as she explores. Law also
offers punishments for infractions, and in the past public shaming (the
docks) was a reasonable punishment for breaking the law.
Stage 3: Ideal prototypes are elements in society, particularly related to
economic success, that exemplify the virtue of purpose. Tribes revere the
buffalo hunter as a prototype, but unfortunately in modern society,
straightforward models are not so clear. They may be represented as
military or police, celebrity athletes, etc.
Stage 4: Technological elements particularly support the sense of
competence, which is interesting as children begin getting into video and
other games at this time. Technology offers ways to divide labor and use
all members’ abilities in various forms of work. A society that
discriminates against certain members weakens itself by not developing
significant peoples’ skills.
Stage 5: Ideological perspectives are necessary to give the identity stage
something to develop fidelity toward. These may be political beliefs,
social, occupational orientations, but social institutions enter the
consciousness of adolescents at this point. Identity is formed in
relationship to institutions of society. This is also why significant social
revolution usually starts in the colleges and within adolescent, ideological
groups. Civil rights movement, rebellion against Vietnam, women’s
movement all got their energies from youth who were affected. They
changed our society in the process of finding a format to rebel against.
Stage 6: Patterns of cooperation and competition are seen in the
family, which develops and models active love. Communal forms can
supplant the family, particularly for people who did not come from
healthy families. As an adult, you can form and choose your family.
Stage 7: Currents of education and tradition give older adults ways to
mentor youth and nurture others. Schools offer means of nurture to those
who may or may not have had children of their own. It develops the
virtue of Care.
Stage 8: Wisdom is a detached concern with the quality of life itself as
one faces death. When one develops wisdom, there is a natural
opportunity to pass that on- to younger family members, or through
rituals. Rituals help youth develop character traits that have been
deemed important for the society due to the wisdom of the elders. People
or societies whose rituals stagnate, however descend into obsessiveness
and rigidity. Unfortunately, our own American culture has a hard time
valuing the strength and wisdom of the elders and we are poorer for it.
There is little wisdom to be gained in celebrating youth and beauty.
Racial and ethnic identity impacts individual development, and particularly
challenges biracial people or those who immigrate and become minorities in
a culture. This particularly explodes during adolescence, as teens try to find
an identity that fits them. When a society discriminates against a minority, it
makes identity development much harder for members of that minority, as
little of who they are is seen as valuable. There are various paths of identity
development for ethnic youth:
 Assimilation means submerging the ethnic identity and choosing
assimilation into the mainstream culture.
 Emphasizing the ethnic identity may feel a more independent
choice.
 Biculturalization means celebrating the beneficial aspects of own’s
heritage and also interacting with the majority culture in certain
contexts.
 Ethnic identity is an enduring, fundamental aspect of self that
includes a sense of connection to a social/ ethnic group. Even though
identity development has to do with developing an independent sense
of self, more interdependent societies, like Asian, Latino include
relationships to others as part of independent identity.
 Stereotyping prevents others from seeing the individuality of the
person for the lens of similarity applied to the group. It may leave an
“invisibility syndrome” that interferes with a healthy self
development. When ethnic pride increases in a group, healthy self
development is easier for members. Increased ethnic or gender
identification may help the person develop stronger self esteem and
reject racism instead of internalizing it. This is reflected in different
terms for the group: African American instead of black, persons with
disabilities rather than handicapped people. Biracial heritage can also
be difficult for a person to resolve, especially if one of the races is
devalued. (In the past, light skinned African Americans were
encouraged to “pass” as white rather than accept marginalization of
their racial heritage.) Also the majority culture often lumps people
together under one term, but these people do not consider themselves
part of a group (Hispanics for Cubans, Puerto-Ricans, Mexicans,
Spanish people or Asians for Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Thai
people.) Embracing one’s ethnicity can build self-worth, but also puts
people into conflict and may force confrontation along the way.
 The process toward developing ethnic identity follows this path:
o Pre-encounter is early in development, before the child even
has thought much about race, or considers race to be a problem,
accepting the majority culture’s devaluation of group.
o Encounter occurs as the child begins to confront his group
identity and tries to internalize some of those values. Often it
occurs when there is a personal experience of discrimination or
a historical experience (death of Martin Luther King) and the
issues of race must be faced.
o Immersion-emersion is a progression- from complete
involvement in one’s emblems of culture and politics, then
moving to see one’s culture as a part of the larger culture.
o Internalization occurs as the person becomes secure about
one’s racial identity and can embrace aspects of the larger
culture as well. The person realizes that s/he is more than his
ethnic identity.
Erikson believed this individual process of identity formation would also
change the culture with the heightened sensitivity that comes with selfawareness. Pseudospeciation is the term he used to describe the exaggerated
sense that some groups have about their difference (and superiority) to other
groups, as if they were a separate species. (Witness the Nazi elimination of
lesser races to promote Aryan superiority.) Today we have a global economy
and need to find ways to value differences in races and cultures, so that our
entire planet survives. Turning our backs on genocide or AIDS in Africa will
come back to haunt all of us.
Gender was of interest to Erikson, as he believed differences in genders
were biologically determined. Social scientists today are casting more doubt
on that precept, but Erikson found evidence for his theory.
 Children’s play would display this inherent difference between the
sexes. He observed 300 children and recorded the edifices they built
with the toys. Girls built more open structures, doorways and showed
people relating, boys built more towers. These structures displayed the
Freudian belief that biology determines destiny. So boys build phallic
structures, and girls build things representing the womb. Girls
emphasize “inner space” and boys emphasize “out world space”.
Upon further analysis of his information others have found his claims
were not supported by the buildings. It is also supposed that
socialization and differing exposure to certain toys would explain
differences in play styles.
 Male and female identity resolution was emphasized by Erikson, as
he believed the different sexes had different roles to fill in the culture.
Feminist theorists have rejected this idea, saying we see differences in
sexes because of very different expectations, exposure to the world,
and reinforcement. They say Erikson did not recognize the powerful
impact of culture on gender roles. There is more that is similar about
men and women than what is different. One particularly difficult
theory espoused by Erikson is the idea that women must resolve
intimacy issues before they can fully move into advanced identity
development. Recent research does not support this idea. Measures of
identity resolution (self-actualization, internal locus of control,
principled moral reasoning) show equal development and positive
functioning equally for men and women. Girls today are expected to
develop a career and function independently just as much as boys.
Those girls who particularly embraced the women’s movement
developed more confidence, initiative and self-esteem after college.
Measures of masculinity actually reflect autonomy and advanced
identity development for both men and women. Women high in
masculinity (androgyny) have better life outcomes than those who are
high only in femininity. Masculinity scales actually measure traits of
individualism and autonomy in both sexes. So women who master
more life roles show advanced identity development.
Research on development through the stages
 Identity status as a paradigm has been developed by Marcia using the
poles of crisis (exploration) and commitment to assess development.
Identity development ranges from diffusion to achieved identity. It has
been seen, however that this is not a linear path, as people can move
up and back in the progression, depending on life experiences.
o Identity diffusion
o Foreclosure
o Moratorium
o Achieved identity
 Correlates of stage measures- higher scores on measures of the
stages are associated with better functioning in many studies.
o Identity is most often studied of all the stages. Subjects who
score higher on ego identity also show career development, use
more mature defense mechanisms, have higher self-concepts,
and score higher on moral judgment. They also have better
recall of childhood memories and memories show themes that
are more mature. People in moratorium are less committed to a
career choice, feel greater anxiety which can interfere with
performance, and are less satisfied with college. Those in
foreclosure are more authoritarian and impulsive.
o Intimacy resolution correlates with interpersonal behavior.
Males who score low on intimacy (isolates) report having fewer
friends when growing up. Intimacy resolution correlates with
femininity on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory for men.
o Generativity is seen in higher levels in fathers than men who
have not had children. Generative parents are also more
authoritative as parents, rather than authoritarian. Generativity
concerns rise during midlife, as adults become more concerned
with others and social issues. Women high in generativity also
show higher levels of prosocial attitudes, more helping, and
volunteering. Generativity can be expressed through work,
political involvement, or social activism.
o Ego integrity (Stage 8) shows up in the elderly as a lessened
fear of death.
Toward a psychoanalytic social psychology
Erikson believed that his theory could be used to improve the human
condition and to understand others better. It was suggested by social
institutions reflect the aspects of personality: the id is expressed in music,
dance, sports, and brothels; the superego in religion, the law and military,
and the ego in work, government and education. He also believed that
studies in the humanities would naturally develop the moratorium and
considering the values one holds. Erikson has been criticized for
incorporating his own cultural values in his theory. His theory holds as
mature measures valued by Western culture: autonomy, industry, and
individuality.