HUMAN BIOLOGY (YEAR 11) – D406
Some variation is possible in the sequence of material
presented in the syllabus. Teachers should adopt
whatever sequence they feel is most appropriate for
their students.
When preparing programs of work, teachers should plan
to use a wide range of teaching strategies commensurate
with the broad aims of the subject. Students should be
involved in laboratory investigations, project work,
assignments, and field work in the community.
Rationale
Human Biology is the scientific study of humans as
individuals and as populations and of their interactions
with the environment.
This academic discipline
encompasses the study of the structure and function of
the body, the human life cycle, the biological and
cultural evolution of humans, human ecology and
modern social issues.
This one-year subject considers our relationship with
the primates, the coordinated functioning of the
musculo-skeletal system, the supply of raw materials
needed by cells through gas exchange, nutrient
procurement and internal transport, cell structure and
functioning, human reproduction and development, and
significant human diseases.
Working Scientifically
General objectives
This section may be taught separately but should be
emphasised throughout the teaching of the content of
the whole subject. By the end of the subject, students
should have demonstrated competence in:
 the process skills of science associated with
designing and performing controlled experiments,
collecting, recording, presenting and interpreting
data
 the
manipulative
skills
associated
with
measurement of physical quantities, basic
laboratory procedures and microscopy
 the literacy skills associated with information
retrieval, report writing and effective oral and
written communication
General Aims
To develop an understanding of:
 humans as mammals, primates and hominids
 adaptations for posture, locomotion and object
manipulation, and the beneficial effects of exercise
 the role played by the respiratory, digestive and
circulatory systems in supplying the needs of the body
 the life sustaining processes of cellular respiration,
synthesis and growth performed by cells
 the genetic and environmental influences on human
development, and the changing needs of people at
the various stages of their lives
 the nature, causes, prevention and treatment of
significant human diseases.
To develop competence in the:
 process, manipulative and literacy skills associated
with science.
To foster positive attitudes towards:
 the scientific study of human problems and a
willingness to adopt rational scientific approaches to
solving these problems
 the differences in physical, intellectual and social
capabilities among individuals
 the maintenance of personal health and a
commitment to the adoption of a health-sustaining
lifestyle.
Content
Analysis of problems, formulation of questions or
hypotheses for testing.
Use of scientific knowledge to identify independent and
dependent variables, and which variables should be
controlled.
Use of scientific knowledge in developing predictions.
Selection of samples to ensure they are sufficiently large
and are representative of the population.
Selection of apparatus and instruments that enhance
safety and accuracy of measurements and observations.
Use of replication and repeat measures to get a fix on
sampling and measurement errors, and to increase
sample space.
Selection of graph type and scales that display data
effectively.
Analysis of data to identify patterns or trends in the
data, or relationships between variables.
Writing of conclusions that are consistent with the data,
explained in terms of scientific knowledge and related
to the question, hypothesis or prediction.
Evaluation of experiment to identify the main sources of
error (sampling, measurement and control of variables)
and making changes to the design or technique that
would minimise or eliminate that error.
Recognition of other scientific approaches e.g. data
searches, surveys and integration of information from
many sources to build a complete picture.
Competent measurement of length, volume, mass and in
microscopy.
Teaching – Learning Program
The content of the syllabus has been divided into two
sections each containing core and non-core material.
The non-core content (in italics under ‘Content’) is
considered to be enrichment material that will enhance
students' understanding of the core content. Teachers
and students should select material from the non-core
content to be studied concurrently with the core.
Fifteen per cent of teaching time should be made
available for this task, which will enable students to
study half of the non-core content presented in the
syllabus.
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Human Biology (Year 11) – 2004-2005
monkeys, lesser apes and pongids; formal classification
names not required).
A comparative study of the social behaviour of the nonhuman
primates,
human
social
behaviour,
communication. Features characteristic of hominids –
upright stance, uniquely intelligent brain and highly
manipulative hands.
Retrieval of information from a variety of sources, its
collation into succinct reports, and its accurate and clear
communication both orally and in writing.
Discussion of the ethical issues associated with the use
of new medical technologies.
Humans as functioning organisms
Posture and movement
The skeleton as the structural framework of the body;
bone as a tissue. Major bones and their functions.
Types of joints and the range of movement they permit
– ball and socket, hinge, pivot and gliding. The
structure of synovial joints as illustrated by the knee
joint. The first aid associated with bone fractures.
Adaptations to an erect posture especially the foot,
knee, pelvis, vertebral column and foramen magnum, as
compared to a quadruped.
Movement about a joint as a result of the contraction of
paired muscles attached to articulated bones by tendons.
The sliding filament model of muscle contraction, actin
and myosin.
The coordinated functioning of the muscles and
skeleton in supporting the body against gravity; muscle
tone. The functional anatomy of the upper limbs in
relation to object manipulation; major bones, joints and
muscle groups. Power and precision grip. Adaptations
of the thumb in relation to precise object manipulation.
The functional anatomy of the lower limbs in relation to
locomotion; major bones, joints and muscle groups.
Injuries to ligaments, tendons, bones, cartilages and
nerves. Arthritis, slipped disc, whiplash, paraplegia
and quadriplegia.
General objectives
On completion of this section of the subject students
should be able to:
 describe human biology as a multi-disciplinary study
of humans at the levels of populations, individuals,
systems, tissues and cells
 describe the general principles of biological
classification and those features that characterise
humans as mammals, primates and hominids
 recognise that an upright stance, uniquely intelligent
brain and highly manipulative hands distinguish
humans from other primates
 explain that human posture, object manipulation and
locomotion involve the coordinated activity of
muscular and skeletal systems
 describe the body's requirements for nutrients and
oxygen to supply energy and matter for activity,
growth, repair and replacement
 explain how the digestive system facilitates the
absorption of nutrient molecules
 explain how the respiratory system is adapted for
efficient uptake of oxygen and release of carbon
dioxide
 describe how the circulatory system transports
nutrients and oxygen to the cells, waste material and
carbon dioxide from the cells, and acts as a link
between all body tissues and major organ systems
 describe the beneficial effects of exercise on the
musculo-skeletal, respiratory and circulatory
systems
 describe the major cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases and explain the factors which increase their
risk of occurrence
 accurately measure time, length, mass, volume,
temperature and pulse rate
 use food composition tables to analyse a diet and
demonstrate competence in conducting chemical
tests on foods
 demonstrate an awareness of basic first aid skills
associated with bone fractures, haemorrhage and
resuscitation
 demonstrate a positive attitude towards adopting a
health sustaining lifestyle.
Internal transport
The body's requirements for nutrients and oxygen to
supply energy and matter for activity, growth,
replacement and repair. The need for a specialised
transport system. The circulatory system as the link
between all the major organs of the body and the body
tissues. The heart – chambers, valves, vessels, direction
of blood flow. Blood pressure. General direction and
function of systemic and pulmonary circulation. Names
of major vessels only – aorta, vena cavae, pulmonary
vessels, carotid, coronary, renal, mesenteric, hepatic
portal system. Structure and functions of arteries, veins,
capillaries; mention arterioles and venules. Origin and
fate of blood cells (not in detail), as well as their general
functions. The first aid associated with hemorrhage and
shock.
Content
Blood clotting, blood transfusion, blood groups,
anemia.
Relationships between cells, tissue fluid and plasma.
Exchange between capillaries and tissue fluid, diffusion,
the return of tissue fluid in the lymphatic system.
Introduction
Overview of the nature and scope of the subject of
human biology. Humans can be studied at the levels of
populations, organisms, systems, organs, tissues and
cells. Humans are classified as mammals, primates and
hominids.
Gas exchange
The structure and function of the respiratory system –
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, bronchi,
bronchioles, alveoli, pleural membranes, diaphragm,
intercostal muscles and vocal cords. The mechanics of
breathing. First aid associated with resuscitation.
Diffusion of gases between air in the alveolus and the
The primates
Primate features, adaptations and evolutionary trends as
illustrated by a comparative study of humans and other
present day primates (with at least one example from
each of prosimians, new world monkeys, old world
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Human Biology (Year 11) – 2004-2005
 explain how decisions relating to sexual behaviour,
the control of pregnancy and treatment of infertility
involve consideration of relevant physiological,
social and moral factors
 discuss the structural, physiological, behavioural
and intellectual changes that occur during human
development and senescence
 explain how genetic and environmental factors
influence all aspects of human development and
senescence
 describe the causative organisms, effects of and
treatments for, sexually transmitted diseases and the
social factors influencing their spread
 demonstrate competence in preparing wet mount
slides, staining slides by irrigation, and using a
monocular microscope to observe slides using both
low and high power objective lenses
 demonstrate an interest in the scientific study of
human problems and be willing to use scientific
approaches to dealing with these problems
 display empathy towards individuals with physical,
social and intellectual disabilities.
blood. Composition of inhaled and exhaled air. Role of
erythrocytes and plasma in the transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Asthma, emphysema and lung cancer.
Respiratory and circulatory adaptations to high
altitudes. Respiratory volumes.
Nutrient procurement
Cells require nutrients – amino acids, simple sugars,
fatty acids, vitamins and minerals to supply energy for
metabolism and matter for synthesis. Concept of
balanced diet, dietary defects.
Energy values of foods. Variations in dietary needs in
infancy, adolescence and pregnancy.
The derivation of these nutrients from proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids.
Simple chemistry of
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins at the level of their
major building blocks, i.e. glucose, amino acids, fatty
acids and glycerol. Mechanical digestion, the four types
of teeth.
Tooth structure, deciduous and permanent teeth, dental
formulae, dental diseases.
Chemical digestion by enzymes; names (use source
terms e.g. salivary amylase) source, substrate and
product. The structure of the alimentary canal in
relation to its functions – secretion, absorption,
peristalsis and defecation.
Anorexia nervosa, ulcers, indigestion, constipation and
bowel cancer.
The role of the circulatory and lymphatic systems in
absorption and transport of products of digestion via the
liver to the tissues.
Food poisoning and health regulations for the food
industry.
Content
Cell structure and metabolism
The human body consists of systems, organs, tissues
and cells. Cells perform the life processes of cellular
respiration, synthesis and growth. Substances move
across cell membranes by diffusion, osmosis and active
transport. The structure of the cell in relation to the
functions it performs – endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes,
centrioles, nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membranes,
chromosomes.
Cytological techniques used to study the structure and
function of cells - sectioning, staining, light and
electron microscopy, radioactive tracers and
chromatography.
Cellular respiration involves energy transformation
from glucose to ATP in the mitochondrion. (Details of
glycolysis and citric acid cycle are not required.)
Supply of energy for synthesis, muscle contraction,
nerve impulses etc. Synthesis of cell components
requires energy and matter. The function and properties
of enzymes, the lock and key model. DNA as the
information which directs the synthesis of proteins by
ribosomes.
The genetic code, messenger and transfer RNA.
Growth by mitotic cell division, cell expansion and cell
specialisation. The structure and function of four basic
tissue types – epithelial, muscular, nervous and
connective – as illustrated by one example of each.
Cancer – types, causes, diagnosis, prevention and
treatment.
Exercise and cardiovascular diseases
Atherosclerosis, stroke and heart attack. Risk factors –
hereditary, smoking, poor diet, lack of exercise, stress, –
their physiological effects and resultant diseases.
A health-sustaining lifestyle.
Planning and conducting an exercise program.
Measurement of levels of fitness. Effects of exercise on
muscle tone, flexibility of joints, oxygen consumption,
vascularisation of muscle and heart functioning.
Continuity of the human species
General objectives
On completion of this section of the subject students
should be able to:
 explain that cells carry out the life-sustaining
processes of cellular respiration, synthesis and
growth
 explain how the structures of tissues, cells and
cellular organelles are related to the functions that
they perform
 describe the role of DNA, enzymes and ATP in
cellular metabolism
 discuss the nature, types and causes of cancer,
preventative measures and treatments
 relate the structure of reproductive cells and organ
systems to the functions they perform
Reproduction
Sexual reproduction as a cellular event. Gametes carry
genetic information from parents to offspring.
Advantages of placental development, long gestation
and infant dependency.
The macroscopic structures of the male reproductive
system – scrotum, penis, testes, seminiferous tubules,
epididymis, vas deferens, accessory glands, urethra.
The macroscopic structures of the female reproductive
system – labia, vagina, clitoris, ovaries, fimbriae,
31
Human Biology (Year 11) – 2004-2005
uterine tubes, uterus, endometrium, cervix. Stages of
the menstrual and ovarian cycles, natural forms of
contraception.
The function of the reproductive systems – meiosis
and gametogenesis, erection, semen, insemination,
orgasm, transport of egg and sperm, survival times of
gametes, fertilisation, implantation, signs and
symptoms of pregnancy, identical and non-identical
twins.
Hormones as regulators of the development and
maintenance of reproductive structures and behaviours.
The roles of estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, HCG
and prolactin (feedback loops are not necessary).
Oxytocin and prostaglandins.
The mechanisms, effects, cost, side effects and ethical
issues associated with the use of artificial forms of
contraception. Sterilisation.
Causes and treatment of infertility, artificial
insemination by donor, in-vitro fertilisation, surrogacy,
ethical issues.
Sexually transmitted diseases, syphilis, gonorrhoea,
chlamydia, herpes, AIDS, causative agents, effects,
treatment and control.
The aetiology of breast, cervical, testicular and prostate
cancers and the importance of self-examination and
screening of these cancers.
patterns, nuclear and extended families, the role of
grandparents.
Adolescence, Adulthood and Senescence
Physical, social and sexual development during puberty.
The range of sexual behaviours and factors influencing
their development.
Indices of physical maturity.
Transition to independence and interdependence.
Menopause.
Theories of ageing
Ageing, characteristics of senescence. Dying, signs of
death, stages of dying, needs of the dying person and
their family; the modern hospice concept.
Bioethical issues relating to euthanasia.
Time Allocation
The subject has been designed to be completed through
a structured education program of approximately 120
hours in any suitable contexts and series of learning
experiences. Typically the subject will be studied over
the period of one school year. For administrative
reasons schools wishing to vary this delivery pattern
(e.g. over a shorter period or over a longer period up to
two school years) are required to notify the Chief
Executive Officer of the Curriculum Council.
Subject Completion
Pregnancy
Implantation, cell multiplication and specialisation. The
three primary tissues. The embryo (weeks 0-8) and fetus
(weeks 9-39). Milestones of development – heart beat,
limb buds and ossification. Role and development of
amnion, chorion and placenta. The impact of parental
lifestyle choices on the healthy growth and development
of the embryo/foetus. Prenatal care. Signs and symptoms
of the birth process. Changes to mother and child during
birth. Post-natal care.
Natural birth, induction, breech. Caesarean, Leboyer,
home and hospital births. Defects due to abnormal
birth. Cot death/SIDS.
Genetic potential and environmental determination.
Environmental and genetic causes of birth defects.
Rubella, alcohol, smoking, diet, radiation, mutagenic
agents, chromosomal and gene mutations. Birth defect
types and frequencies – Down Syndrome, cleft lip, spina
bifida, PKU, muscular dystrophy. Genetic screening and
counselling, amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling,
karyotypes, fetoscopy and ultrasound, abortion.
Students must complete the school’s structured
educational and assessment program for a subject in
order to be eligible to receive a grade unless there are
exceptional and justifiable circumstances.
In
situations where the school considers that insufficient
information has been gathered to justify the award of a
grade for the subject, a result of U (for unfinished)
should be allocated. The Curriculum Council offers
the flexibility for the U to be converted to a grade
after the final grades have been submitted. Further
details on assessment and grading are provided in
Volume I of the Syllabus Manuals.
Resources
Note: 1: The resources in this list were available at
the time of printing, but please be aware that their
subsequent availability cannot be guaranteed.
Note 2: ‘(OP)’ identifies resources that are out of
print but still valuable if teachers can locate them in
their department or library.
Infancy and childhood
Dependency of offspring, food, hygiene and protection.
The structure of the breast and breast feeding, relative
merits of breast and bottle feeding.
Cultural patterns of feeding babies.
Intellectual and emotional needs, bonding.
Piagetian ages and stages of intellectual development.
Milestones of development. Changes in physical
proportion.
Gross-to-specific, cephalocaudal and
proximodistal trends in motor development. The role of
parents in the social and language development of the
child. Parental roles, the one-parent family, working
mothers, child care centres. Laws relating to children
in Australia, the Family Court. Cultural family
Textbooks
No one text covers the syllabus comprehensively or
with the desired emphasis in all sections. The books
listed below may be regarded as basic general texts
suitable for significant parts of the subject.
Criddle, R.A., Human Biology for the 1990s, Book 1,
Bookland, Perth, 1990.
Newton, T.J., and Joyce, A.P., Human Perspectives,
Book 1, (3rd ed.) McGraw-Hill, Sydney, 1995.
Laboratory Manuals
32
Human Biology (Year 11) – 2004-2005
Anderson, K.C., and Mars, R., Designing Science
Experiments, (2nd ed.), Bio Publishers, 1994.
DeLeuil L.S., (ed), Human Biology Laboratory Manual
Year 11, (3rd ed.), Science Teachers' Association of
WA, Perth, 1992.
*Wicks, J., Guide to Exercise, National Heart
Foundation, ACT, 1984.(OP)
Wilson, K., and Ross, J., Foundation of Anatomy and
Physiology (5th ed.), Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh,
1981.(OP)
Teacher References
Continuity of the human species
Davis, B.O., Holtz, N., and Davis, J.C., Conceptual
Human Physiology, Charles Merrill, Columbus, Ohio,
1985.(OP)
Harrison, G.A., Weiner, J.S., Tanner, J.M., and
Barnicot, N.A., Human Biology (2nd ed.), Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 1977.
Tortora, G., and Anagnostakos, N.P., Principles of
Anatomy and Physiology (5th ed.), Harper and Row,
New York, 1987.
Austin, C.R., and Short, R.V., (eds), Reproduction in
Mammals, Book 8: Human Sexuality, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1980.
*Brumby, M., Issues in Biology, Nelson, Melbourne,
1984.(OP)
Flann, E., To Be or Not To Be, Australasian Educational
Press, Blackburn, Vic., 1984.
Gadd, P., Individuals and Populations, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
Hartl, D.L., Human Genetics, Harper and Row,
Cambridge, 1983.(OP)
Jones, R.E. (ed), Human Reproductive Biology, (2nd
ed), Academic Press, 1997.
Katchadourian, H.A., and Lunde, D.T., Fundamentals
of Human Sexuality (3rd ed.), Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York, 1980.
Kubler-Ross, E., Living with Death and Dying,
Macmillan, New York, 1981.
*Llewellyn-Jones, D., Understanding Sexuality (2nd
ed.), Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 1984.(OP)
*Martin, M., and Kinnear, J., Genetics: A Human Focus,
Nelson, Melbourne, 1985.
Medina, J., The Clock of Ages : Why We Age – How We
Age – Winding Back the Clock, Cambridge University
Press, 1996.
Pollard, I., A Guide to Reproduction Social Issues and
Human Concerns, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*Riddell, R., Human Development and Australian
Families, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne, 1986.(OP)
Sadow, J.I.D., Human Reproduction, Croom Helm,
London, 1980.(OP)
Supplementary
Note: References suitable for students are marked with
an asterisk to distinguish them from teacher references.
Many of the titles designated as teacher references
contain sections which are suitable as student library
reference material. Pamphlets produced by government
departments and other community agencies are an
additional source of student references.
Humans as functioning organisms
Borushek, A., and Borushek, J., Heart Disease
Prevention Manual, Family Health Publications, Perth,
1981.(OP)
*Cooper, K.H., The Aerobics Programme for Total Well
Being, Bantam, 1983.
*Cornett, F.D., and Gratz, P., Modern Human
Physiology, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
1982.
Fox, E.C., and Mathews, D.K., The Physiological Basis
of Physical Education and Athletics, Saunders College
Publishing, New York, 1981.(OP)
Jacob, S.W., Francone, C.A., and Lossow, W.J.,
Structure and Function in Man (5th ed.),
W.G. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1982.(OP)
McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., and Katch, V.L., Exercise
Physiology,
Energy,
Nutrition
and
Human
Performance, Lea and Febinger, 1981.
McNulty, J.C., et al., Our State of Health – An
Overview of Health and Illness in WA in the 1980s,
Health Department of WA, 1986.(OP)
Nelson, H., and Jurmain, R., Introduction to Physical
Anthropology (4th ed.), West Publishing Company, St.
Paul, 1988.
Rowe, N., (1996), The Pictorial Guide to the Living
Primates, Pagonias Press.
Siegel, I.M., All about Bone: An Owner's Manual,
Demos Vermande, 1998.
Vander, A., Sherman, J., Luciano, D., Human
Physiology : The Mechanisms of Body Function,
WCB/McGraw-Hill, 1997.
Weiss, M.L., and Mann, A.E., Human Biology and
Behaviour (5th ed.), Addison Wesley Longman, New
York, 1990.
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Human Biology (Year 11) – 2004-2005
Assessment Structure
Science process skills
Science process skills are the intellectual skills
associated with observing, recording, presenting and
interpreting data, designing controlled experiments,
information retrieval, report writing and communicating
ideas orally and in writing as outlined in the syllabus.
Sensorimotor skills
Sensori-motor skills are the manipulative skills
associated with measurement, performing chemical
tests, and microscopy as outlined in the syllabus.
Assessment structures are an integral part of all
Accredited Subjects.
The structure specifies:
1. the components and learning outcomes to be
included in assessment
2. weightings to be applied to these components
3. the types of assessment considered appropriate for
the subject.
Table 1
Syllabus Content
Humans as functioning organisms
Continuity of the human species
Core content
Non-core content
Table 2
Learning Outcomes
Content knowledge
Science process skills
Sensorimotor skills
Table 3
Types of Assessment
Examinations
Topic/section tests
Practical tests
Other assessment techniques
e.g. laboratory reports, assignments,
oral presentations etc.
Notes on Table 3
Examinations and topic tests
Examinations and tests should include items from the
full range of levels in Bloom's taxonomy.
An
appropriate balance of test items would be:
Knowledge and comprehension
65-75% of items
Application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation
25-35% of items.
Weighting
percentage
45-55
45-55
80-90
10-20
Grade-Related Descriptors
Weighting
percentage
Grade-Related Descriptors describe the student
performance standards that are used to award grades
in this subject. Schools delivering this subject have
been provided with a copy of the document.
Additional copies may be purchased from the
Curriculum Council.
60-70
20-30
5-15
Weighting
percentage
30-50
20-40
5-15
20-30
The assessment program must provide students with the
opportunity to demonstrate achievement of the
requirements of the subject.
and
Students must complete the requirements of the subject.
Notes on Table 1
Both core and non-core content are to be assessed.
Notes on Table 2
Content knowledge
This includes students' ability to recall, explain, analyse,
apply, evaluate and synthesise knowledge of the facts,
concepts, propositions and theories outlined in the
syllabus.
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