Text Processing: Implications for Online Learning
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Gunn, T, & Beaudin, L. C. (2006). Text Processing: Implications for Online
Learning. International Journal of Knowledge, Culture and Change Management,
6 (4) pp.89-94.
Introduction
The ability to read and comprehend text is a well-recognized goal of education.
Narrative and expository text have historically comprised the knowledge and information
that is communicated in classrooms. Regardless of the decade or nation, students have
sat at their desks with hard copy versions of required readings. However, with the
presence of new technology and resulting modes of transmission such as web-based
materials and/or multi-media objects, this experience has, and will continue to become
less common. More frequently, students are being expected to search and read
documents found on the Internet. While it is difficult to argue that having timely, vast
amounts of information at one’s disposal is problematic, we cannot assume that
information alone is sufficient. As well, in a time when literally anyone can publish a
blog or Website, we have to be cognizant of the need to provide properly constructed
web-based materials. Without attention to structure and design, online materials may
potentially add a stumbling block to students learning effectively.
For decades, text-processing research has driven effective text construction. Do
the same principles apply to Internet text? Are Websites constructed with the psychology
of text processing in mind? Karsenti (2001) argues that the arrival of web-based courses
and other Internet resources appears to be one of the great focuses of pedagogical
innovations in teacher education programs. While many claims have been made
regarding the potential for web-based learning, to date, little attention has been given to
online text processing. This paper will examine text processing research and its
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implications for online learning. Specifically, do the same principles that guide
instructional text apply to Internet sources? If so, what implications do they have for the
design of online instructional materials?
Text Processing
Research findings indicate that word recognition processes must be accurate and
automatized in order for text comprehension to occur (e.g., Adams, 1990). More simply,
text comprehension depends upon the basic decoding skills of the reader. However, word
recognition is only one of many reading comprehension processes. There are a several
notable text processing models, but the most widely accepted is Kintsch’s (1988). He
developed the construction-integration (CI) model of comprehension. Kintsch (1988,
1992) suggests that processing occurs in two stages. During the first stage (i.e.
construction), concepts from the text, as well as syntax, semantic, and world knowledge
are activated to produce a network of activated concepts. The activation process then
continues throughout the network strengthening links between contextually compatible
units or concepts and weakening those that are incompatible (i.e. integration). This
continues until a stable state is achieved. The outcome is the second stage, which is
referred to as the reader’s mental representation (Kintsch, 1988, 1994a, 1994b;
McNamara & Kintsch, 1996).
Although it is a holistic structure, a mental representation embodies a number of
different components. Of primary importance are the textbase and situational models.
The textbase model is created by way of those elements and relations that are found
directly in the text (McNamara & Kintsch, 1996). In order to create a textbase model, the
reader must have syntactic and semantic knowledge of the text, but also be able to infer
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its microstructure and macrostructure. A strong textbase model contributes to high text
memory.
Conversely, the situation model involves meaning making. In other words, it is a
representation of the situation depicted in the text (i.e., goals, events, actions, characters)
(Zwaan, 1996). Meaning making is the result of combining the textbase with the reader’s
prior knowledge and experience. A strong situation model contributes to high text
learning. Various sources contribute to the building of a situation model including
knowledge about language, the world, the specific communicative situation, as well as
personal experiences (McNamara & Kintsch, 1996). These sources help to “transform
what by itself is only an isolated memory structure into something that relates to, and is
integrated with, the reader’s personal store of knowledge and experience” (McNamara &
Kintsch, 1996, p. 252). Therefore, when the reader is unable to create a mental
representation of the text, processing and understanding cannot take place.
Text Elements
The manner in which text is written and/or structured either helps or diminishes
its comprehensibility. In order for to it be effectively processed, text must contain good
coherence or structure (e.g., Kintsch, 1994a). Specifically, text microstructure is
comprised of local text properties (i.e., connectives, argument overlap, pronominal
reference). These properties give the text coherence at a propositional or local level
(McNamara & Kintsch, 1996). Conversely, text macrostructure refers to the global
organization of the text (i.e., topic headers and topic sentences). Because macrostructure
specifies the most important portions of the text, the reader is aided in the construction of
a strong mental representation.
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According to Kintsch (e.g., 1985), if the micro- and/or macrostructure are poor, it
is difficult to develop an effective textbase model. This is worsened when the reader is
lacking in domain knowledge (i.e., topic familiarity). On the other hand, if the reader is
knowledgeable of the topic, it is easier to build a strong situation model, despite the text
being poorly written. Regardless, poorly written text is typically difficult for the reader to
process and therefore not conducive to learning.
Kintsch’s text processing theory has even greater implications for online learning
given the Internet’s increased demands on literacy skills. For instance, online
environments are often based on rules that can be unfamiliar and non-traditional to the
reader. Readers are required to navigate web links, to use technological symbols and
jargon, and to scroll through a paperless document, to name a few. The text-based
components of online learning environments are now web-based and technology driven.
In the case of online courses, students are required to create a schema of the “virtual
classroom” and its contents as well as utilize a new or different skill base.
Given these concerns, it is evident that text must always be clear and concise.
Creating online text that has appropriate microstructure is the mandate of all authors,
whether the text is online or in paper form. However, for the web author, it is important
not to exchange parsimony for clarity, as there is a tendency for online text to be brief
and direct. While this may be an artifact of technology (i.e., technology is designed to
expedite task engagement), web authors must ensure that ideas and sentences are
internally coherent.
With respect to text macrostructure, it is recommended that web authors provide a
site map or advanced organizer so that readers have a mental picture of how the webpage
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is organized. To achieve this, the author can create a page that displays the webpage
outline with an overview of topics and reading requirements. In the case of online
learning environments, course sites should also be designed with an intuitive and clear
internal navigation system that is easy for students to master. Therefore, it is imperative
to remember that learning from text requires deliberate action on the part of the reader to
comprehend and extract meaning (Cassamise and Snyder, 2005). This becomes more
obvious in the online environment wherein readers typically have to rely heavily on text
processing.
Narrative versus Expository Text
When reading narrative text, it is easy for the reader to develop a strong mental
representation. The text is typically structured in a manner that is familiar to the reader.
Its contents typically describe common experiences such as everyday events, personality
traits, and human emotions (e.g., Graesser, Bertus, & Magliano, 1995; van Dijk &
Kintsch, 1983). Even if the text has poor micro- or macrostructure, the reader can get the
gist of the text and create a situation model. Obviously, this is not the case with
expository text. It is full of technical jargon, theory, and assumptions about the reader’s
knowledge base. This is worsened when the text is poorly written; which is a
surprisingly common occurrence (e.g., Britton, van Dusen, Gulgoz, & Glynn, 1989).
Some common expository text problems include poor introductory passages, a failure to
link ideas together, abrupt changes in topics, poor or nonexistent headings and text
signals, assumptions about reader knowledge, topic contradictions, and so forth (Gunn,
2000).
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Therefore, mental representations of text, text coherence, and topic familiarity all
contribute to text processing (e.g., van Dijk & Kintsch, 1983).
Regardless of a reader’s
technical abilities, comprehension can be difficult if one or more of these components are
lacking. It is safe to presume that those searching the Internet are typically looking for
news, instructional materials/guides, and domain specific information (i.e., historical,
medical, economic, entertainment, etc.). That being the case, the most common genre of
Internet text is expository as opposed to narrative.
Expository text is defined as “text that is written to expose information or ideas.
Similar to narrative text, it may be used for entertainment, persuasion, or aesthetic
purposes. However, unlike its entertainment counterpart, its primary purpose is to inform
the reader” (Gunn, 2000, p. 16). As explained above, expository text requires the reader
to enter the text processing experience with appropriate comprehension skills. Readers
should have strong decoding skills, semantic knowledge, and comprehension skills.
Writers of expository text must assist their readers with properly structured
materials. The text should be coherent at the micro level with appropriate syntax (i.e.,
grammar), topic clarity, strong argument overlap (i.e., continuity of ideas from one
sentence to the next), appropriate connectives (e.g., and, or, but), and pronominal
references (i.e., clear references to who and what you are referring to from sentence to
sentence e.g., “Bob” is “he”).
The text must also have coherence at the macro level. The text must begin with
an introduction or advanced organizer for the body of the text. In addition, each
paragraph should have topic sentences and concluding sentences that link adjacent
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paragraphs. There should also be textual signals (i.e., headers, topical overviews, topical
summaries) to assist the reader making transitions between topics and or sections of text.
Potential Problems with Internet Text
Despite these “musts”, Internet text is often lacking in one or more of the above
cited areas. To begin, we may safely assume that a significant number of readers are not
highly proficient text processors. This is further compounded by the surprisingly
frequent display of poor text structure in online environments. A quick glance through a
number of Websites verifies this assumption. Website text is often abruptly written,
poorly formatted, and visually cumbersome.
One of the most common problems is poor coherence due to non-existent or
difficult to follow signaling. For example, it may be that the font is the same size as the
body of the text and/or only marginally distinguishable because of coloring. Moreover, it
is off center or is not distinctive from the paragraph or section that it is signaling. This is
additionally problematic when the website text is surrounded by a vast array of
advertisements.
Also contributing to poor coherence is difficulties at the micro- and macro levels.
The structure of the text is difficult to follow when sentences are presented in point form,
or when the Website is forsaking clarity for brevity. Simply, the sentences appear to be
loosely interconnected without attention to paragraph continuity or persuasion (i.e., poor
argument overlap)
While poor microstructure does not always contribute to poor macrostructure,
they are often interdependent. That is, where microstructure is disjointed and weak, there
are poor connections between paragraphs and sections. One of the hallmarks of good
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macrostructure is appropriate headings as well as well-defined topic and concluding
sentences and paragraphs. Moreover, the individual sections appear to logically flow,
one to the other. Website text rarely provides these since their intention is to be a brief
discussion or information source. Therefore, it is important that instructors both be
attentive to this in their own webpage development, but also careful in selecting wellconstructed online resources for their students to access. When a Website is well written
it will provide enough clarity to assist the reader in navigating through jargon laden,
domain specific information. In other words, the expository compositions are easy to
process or comprehend.
As discussed earlier, poorly written text in combination with low domain
knowledge often leads to poor text comprehension. One way to circumvent this problem
is to help the reader link new information to his or her world or previous knowledge.
This may be accomplished by using simple, clear language and everyday examples.
Conclusion
The goal in appropriately constructing text is to enable the reader to remember
and learn from what was written. This is especially important for expository text, as its
intention is to be informative, particularly when it is read by those who are attempting to
acquire information (i.e., readers with low domain knowledge). This suggests that text
must have strong micro- and macrostructure.
For those who are designing online courses, they must be especially cognizant of
the factors affecting text processing. In attending to the literature on text processing and
exploring the nature of online learning, one can see that online education that is well
organized has the potential to accommodate multiple learning styles. As well, the online
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environment offers a unique opportunity to enhance text-based instruction in its ability to
link to a variety of learning objects within a text document. For instance, while writing
expository text, the online instructor can link to definitions, images, and sounds that can
enhance the text processing capabilities of their students. The following guiding
principals will aid online instructors as they develop and present web-based materials to
their students:

Include a site map or visual representation.

Be sure that formatting is consistent throughout (i.e., appropriate headings,
color schemes and structure).

Create text that is easy to navigate and user friendly.

Attend to appropriate and logical text sequencing.

Create links to various other online learning objects (i.e., sound, text, and
images that enhance learning and comprehension for a variety of learning
styles.)
In summary, the Internet is becoming a vital source of information for learning.
Therefore, it is critical that Websites adhere to the principles of good text construction.
By applying a few simple text construction principles to Website text, the writer and
reader are guaranteed a more satisfying, meaningful reading experience. Finally, authors
of online learning materials must understand that structure, navigational structure, page
formatting, coherence of text, prior knowledge, reader interest, and ease of use all
contribute to efficient learning from text.
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