An essay on issues surrounding motivations for
adopting e-Learning technologies within a Higher
Education setting.
Introduction
Aims of the assignment
This assignment aims to consider some of the issues surrounding motivations for
adopting e-Learning within a Higher Education setting. There are several stakeholders
within Universities with regards e-Learning related activities, for example senior
managers, heads of e-Learning, learning technologists, support staff, students and finally
academic staff. The main focus in this work will be directed towards the educators;
academic staff within the writer’s own University whose role involves, without exception,
the use of learning technologies in one way or another.
The context
The context is within a small University with a FTE of between 4000 and 4500. The
majority of students are undergraduates between 18-21 and a large percentage (40%)
of students are mature, part-time and flexible learners (see Appendix 1). Contact time
for most students, across all routes is on average 6 hours per week with the learning and
teaching model advocating Supported Open Learning (SOL) to encourage students to
study independently. The University has recently adopted Enquiry Based Learning (EBL)
as the primary pedagogy for learning and teaching within the institution.
Considering the context outlined above, it is within the tutors’ remit to support their
students in several ways, outside the traditional classroom setting. In order to achieve
this, the University has invested in a variety of technologies, with the primary investment
being the Virtual Learning Environment (VLE). Many members of academic staff use the
VLE solely for serving documents to their students, such as module handbooks, Microsoft
Word files, Microsoft PowerPoint presentations and so on. Whilst this has its benefits for
the students in providing quick access to supporting materials, it also means that many
of the more powerful features of the VLE are overlooked. Opportunities for engaging in
blended learning activities, such as discussions, sequences of learning materials followed
by short formative assessments or the embedding of rich media such as audio and video
are on the whole ignored.
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1
The institution therefore has a majority of students who can be considered to be ‘Digital
Natives’ (Prensky, 2001); where technology is ubiquitously integrated into their lives.
These students have been exposed to rich, interactive resources throughout their
schooling and in their personal lives, such as YouTube, Facebook, various Web 2
technologies, and learning through game playing. When these students come to a HE
setting where one would expect an escalation in the quality of materials and pedagogy,
in contrast, the materials and learning activities within the Virtual Learning Environment
can begin to seem dull and disengaging in comparison. Monereo states that,
“…this new student body process new information and approach to problem-solving
differs radically from those of the generation that grew up with printed texts” (2004,
p34).
It is evident therefore that the University has a responsibility to develop the skills of its
academic staff to a level whereby they are better equipped to support students and meet
their expectations outside the classroom, by providing good quality learning materials
and activities using appropriate technologies and pedagogies, for an increasingly digitally
literate demographic.
Motivation to use technology.
For many academics, the issue of delivering high quality and engaging materials to a
digitally diverse audience, using technologies they may be unfamiliar with, presents both
positive and negative issues, in terms of motivation.
It is important to note at this stage that there are a multitude of issues surrounding the
successful adoption of e-Learning within a HE setting. These can include government
policy, buy-in from senior managers, adequate funding for initiatives and various other
organisational and financial matters. However, it is intended that the main focus in this
assignment is on the personal psychological motivations of the academic staff who are
encouraged to use this technology more effectively.
Motivating factors in academic staff
The area of continuous professional development may be considered to be both an
intrinsic and extrinsic motivator for academic staff with regards the adoption of eLearning technologies. With regards extrinsic motivators or drivers, much in the way of
government papers (‘Harnessing Technology: Transforming learning and children's
services’, ‘The Future of Higher Education’, ‘HEFCE e-Learning Strategy’), initiatives and
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funding (HEA, JISC, ALT) have been devoted to e-Learning activities and there is an
expectation from senior managers within the institution, supported by an e-Learning
strategy, that academic staff are capable of using the tools available to them. More
importantly perhaps might be the intrinsic motivation which lies behind the notion of
professional development.
Many academics are motivated to improve themselves
professionally and contractually have time set aside for research and development
activities. It could be argued that those academic staff who are engaged with e-Learning
activities have a strong intrinsic motivation to learn and develop their thinking around the
use of new technology in their teaching, because they have actively chosen to become
engaged in the subject matter.
It is suggested that choice in learning can be a major intrinsic motivational factor in the
success of learning activities.
“Theorists studying intrinsic motivation have provided the clearest demonstration of the
link between the provision of choice and human motivation.” (Iyengar and Lepper 1999,
p349)
With regards opportunities for academic staff to learn and become engaged with eLearning activities within the University, there is a regular choice of workshops,
demonstrations, instructional training and the opportunity to book one-to-one sessions
with Learning Technologists and training professionals. It is anticipated that this choice
of engagement not only in the variety of delivery, but also in terms of content, will
encourage the levels of intrinsic motivation fostered by choice. Conversely, it could be
argued that to a certain extent, some vitally important choices have already been made
by the institution on behalf of the academic staff and students, which could contribute
negatively to this motivation. The deployment of a particular type of VLE product for
example was determined by a small working group of colleagues, comprising academic
and IT staff, but since its implementation has been widely criticised by many academics.
Citing Deci, Speigel, Ryan, Koestner, & Kaiufman, 1982; Schulz & Hanusa, 1978;
Seligman, 1975, Iyengar and Lepper state that,
“…the absence of choice and control has been hypothesized and shown to produce a
variety of detrimental effects on intrinsic motivation…” ( p349)
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Further motivation for academic staff may be identified in the areas of recognition,
pioneering and career development. Constructivist notions of learning suggest that
learners who are challenged appropriately and who successfully make meaning from
various scenarios, will experience a disruption in their existing knowledge structures,
fuelling a motivation to solve the next challenge or solution.
By making connections to existing knowledge structures and information, effective
teachers can motivate their students to learn more effectively. Caine and Caine (1994, p5)
have called this ‘orchestrated experience’. Rather than providing isolated facts regarding
e-Learning technologies, if we can assist in contextualising current knowledge and linking
it with the new skill, our academic staff will experience enhanced motivation. It may be
that we could relate and link an existing pedagogy to a new e-Learning context. For
example, a computer mediated communication activity, such as a discussion forum
allowing peer grading and commenting, may be connected with a more familiar scenario;
a face to face seminar where students make and feedback on each others’ views. In this
way, we are relating the new e-Learning activity to the academic’s existing knowledge.
By doing this, we are using the
“…innate predisposition of the brain to search for how things make sense, to search for
some meaning in experience.” (Caine and Caine, 1994, p4)
In accordance with Piagetian constructivist theory on learning; through exposure to
technologies, relevant training and independent study, colleagues construct a personal
collection or ‘schema’ of e-Learning knowledge. Wadsworth (1971) states that,
“Schemata (the plural of schema) are the cognitive or mental structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organise the environment.” (p10)
Through the notion of assimilation, when our academic staff encounter new stimuli
related to the use of learning technologies, they can fit these stimuli into their existing
schemas.
“Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a person integrates new perceptual,
motor, or conceptual matter into existing schemata or patterns of behaviour.”
(Wadsworth, p14)
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Instructional sessions in the use of the university VLE tool are regularly made available to
all academic staff. In these sessions, participants learn to setup the tools correctly, in
order to apply them to a learning scenario. Within the environment, often a task which is
taught in one isolated example can be applied across many tools. For example, in the
VLE tool used, it is possible to create a discussion topic and release a link, directly to this
topic, from another area of the VLE, a folder called ‘Discussions’ for example. In order to
do this, the learner has to run through a routine which involves; enabling a tool (the
discussion tool), populating that tool with content (the discussion topic) then releasing a
link to that content item from another area within the VLE (Add content link). Once this
sequence of events has been performed, it can then be applied to a multitude of other
tools within the VLE; Assignments, Web Links, Learning Modules, Assessments and so on.
The process of accommodation allows that when a schema has been developed for the
initial task of creating a discussion topic and releasing a link to the content, when a
further stimuli is introduced such as an assessment tool, the person should be able to
modify their original schema, to encompass the new stimuli and perform the task suitably.
“…accommodation is the creation of new schemata, or the modification of old schemata.
Both actions result in a change in, or development of, cognitive structures..” (Wadsworth,
p15)
Therefore, through the notions of assimilation and accommodation, our academic staff
can begin to create their own ideas. This will lead to the identification of areas within the
academic’s particular field of study where e-Learning can be used effectively, thus
fuelling further motivation. One can see then, that the only through the cognitive
processes involved in accommodation and assimilation, is new knowledge created and
new ideas and understandings formed.
Therefore, academic colleagues need to consider the effective application of the
knowledge they have in relation to learning technologies. Theodore Rosack, argues that
simply having information, for example knowing which buttons to press to gain a certain
result in the VLE, is not the same as knowledge. To have knowledge in its truest sense,
we must think about the facts we are presented with and create our own ideas.
He argues that no amount of information can contribute to the expansion of knowledge
when he says, "information does not create ideas" (p88)
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The following quotation neatly sums up Rosack's key message and rounds off the ideas
of accommodation and assimilation; we need to think about the facts we have, in order
to create knowledge from them.
" The facts are scattered, possibly ambiguous marks; the mind orders them one way or
another by conforming them to a pattern of its own invention. Ideas are integrating
patterns which satisfy the mind when it asks the question, What does this mean? What is
this all about?" (p90)
Another intrinsic motivational factor for consideration might be the desire from academic
staff to use technology effectively to enhance their students’ learning experience. A
primary goal of this is the student experience perhaps leading to levels of satisfaction
and increased self esteem for the tutor as they are complimented on the work they have
done. Extrinsic motivation can lead on from this; academic rewards can be gained such
as published papers, conference presentations and further funding for research, for
example. In this way, colleagues can be seen as pioneers or leaders in the field,
receiving recognition both locally and perhaps more widely in the academic community
and finally the possibility of greater career prospects. This may be referred to as
achievement motivation.
As we move on to consider some of the barriers academics may experience towards
positive motivation, it is worth mentioning the concept of cognitive dissonance or
cognitive conflict.
“Cognitive dissonance is a very powerful motivator which will often lead us to change
one or other of the conflicting belief or action.”
(http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/cognitive_dissonance.htm )
Some colleagues may experience cognitive dissonance in relation to e-Learning
technologies. For example, they may have the belief that technology in learning can be
beneficial but may consider themselves to be incapable of being able to use the
technology or consider themselves to be technophobes and therefore too frightened to
engage with the technology. In this way, a state of conflict arises whereby the academic
appreciates the benefits of learning technologies, but is unconvinced of their ability to
use it effectively. Provided the correct opportunities for engagement are offered,
colleagues may become highly motivated to resolve the issues they face.
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Issues and barriers for academics
As discussed, motivation to use and engage with learning technologies within the higher
education setting in question, can be very strong given the correct environment and set
of circumstances. There do remain however, some issues which may provide barriers
towards strong motivation in academic staff.
One of the main recurring issues surrounding the effective adoption of learning
technologies within HE and the most cited by academic staff is that of time. Many
academic staff do currently use learning technologies to support their teaching activities,
but in terms of the learning how to effectively use the VLE to deliver learning activities,
there is a time investment involved from the academic’s perspective. It takes time to
learn how to setup discussions, create learning modules, setup quizzes and electronic
assignment submission, manage students, enter grades and so on. As argued earlier in
relation to cognitive dissonance, many colleagues do actually realise the possible benefits
but have yet to realise the support and opportunities available to them in order to fuel
further motivation to resolve the conflict. This means that for many, the investment of
time over reward cannot be immediately realised and many become demotivated.
A further barrier to effective adoption may be identified in the academics’ previous
experiences with and perceptions of technologies. Negative experiences in terms of
speed of access, ease of use and social elements such as relationship with the trainers
may contribute towards a negative learning experience. If this negative experience is not
redressed, then motivation to continue with the learning and to form ideas about the
application of the technology to a teaching scenario, will be affected. These issues are
largely based around the emotional side of learning. How to the academics feel when
they cannot grasp a certain teaching point or cannot perform a specific task?
“shame is crucial in social interaction because it ties together the individual and social
aspects of human activity as part and whole. As an emotion within individuals, it plays a
central role in consciousness of feeling and morality. But it also functions as signal of
distance between persons, allowing us to regulate how far we are from others”
(Kitayama 1994. Cited in Emotion in learning: a neglected dynamic)
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This suggests that in a socially situated learning experience, if self-confidence is
undermined or damaged in some way, there are serious consequences for the learning
experience and therefore on the motivation of the student to learn.
What actions can be taken to motivate the academic staff further?
In considering ways in which barriers towards motivation and adoption of learning
technologies can be addressed, the following initiatives and alterations to current
methods might be applied successfully.
1. Teaching and training sessions could be more socially situated and involve peer
support from more competent academic staff. This would contribute to the learners
feeling more comfortable in the teaching setting and therefore a sense of emotional
security. This method would also promote the Vygotskian principle of scaffolding and
push learners into the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD);
“The zone of proximal development, often abbreviated ZPD, is the difference between
what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help.” (Wikipedia)
2. Increase awareness of learning technology tools with appropriate examples which
demonstrate how these fit into education and what the benefits are. This would provide
stimuli for the academic staff and encourage them to make connections with their
current knowledge structures in order to find a suitable application for the technology.
Caine and Caine state that;
“Optimising the use of the human brain means using the brain’s infinite capacity to make
connections…” (p5)
3. Finally, the provision of variety and choice in training sessions and opportunities may
also contribute towards a more engaged and motivated academic. This would help
address the issues surrounding the barrier of time. Some sessions could be made shorter
and more informative than instructional, acting as stimuli. This should also be
accompanied by further opportunities for engagement either in group situations or oneto-one training sessions concentrating more on the instructional elements required to
perform a task.
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In conclusion, the recent government reviews towards the future of higher education
(http://www.dius.gov.uk/policy/he-debate.html ) predicts that in the next 10-15 years
our student populous will have changed to a more flexible, part-time and work-based
demographic. This means that as educators and educational bodies, we have a
responsibility to investigate different and more flexible routes for accreditation, inevitably
involving electronic methods of delivery. In the future, we must ensure that our
academic staff have the opportunities to engage with technology as confident users, who
have a range of learning opportunities available to them and a strong support network of
peers and administrative staff. If this environment can be fostered, motivation to use the
technology should increase further, leading to the most important issue; a successful and
positive student learning experience.
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Appendix 1
York St John University Academic Board
Student Population Update – 1st December 2008
HESES08 will be completed and submitted to HEFCE early next week. This paper
provides an interim summary of student headcount and FTE figures at 1st December
2008. Current estimates suggest that we will be around -6% in the HEFCE contract
range, which is just inside our 6.1% parameter directed by the funding council. In short,
we have slightly too many HEFCE-funded students relative to the funding provided. With
little possibility of Additional Student Numbers (ASNs) in the near future, we need to
ensure that we continue to move towards (and preferably back inside) the -5% HEFCE
contract range in the next two years.
The chart below provides a basic view of how our student (headcount) population has
changed since this time last year. Further disaggregation and cross-tabulation of student
population figures is possible with the full data set on the Staff Information Point.
2008
3158
3103
3196
3107
3891
3788
4000
3500
2341
2340
3000
YSJ
Mode
Level
Domicile
515
471
Age
Disability
The tables that follow provide summaries of the student headcount and FTE figures for
honours-level programmes (table 1), other undergraduate programmes such as
certificates, diplomas and FDs (table 2), and postgraduate programmes (table 3).
Andrew Fern
1st December 2008
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From Yorkshire
No disability
Has disability
Not known
Young
Mature
12
4
180
288
Non-minority ethnicity
Ethnicity
Not known
276
257
Gender
Minority ethnicity
12
17
Male
Female
Home / EU
PG
UG Other
PT
FT
0
UG Hons Degree
500
International
232
250
1000
Not known
992
916
1500
700
720
1528
1386
2000
1608
1642
2500
Total
Student headcount
4500
3819
3811
3983
4061
5000
4996
4976
5055
4902
5279
5197
5500
2007
5511
5447
6000
Region
Table 1
Faculty
Arts
Honours degree summary
Programme
BA(Hons) American Studies JH
BA(Hons) Art and Design
BA(Hons) Contemporary Fine Art Practice
BA(Hons) Contemporary Fine Art Practice JH
BA(Hons) Design Practice
BA(Hons) Design Practice JH
BA(Hons) English Literature
BA(Hons) English Literature JH
BA(Hons) Film & Television Production
BA(Hons) Film & Television Production JH
BA(Hons) Film Studies JH
BA(Hons) History
BA(Hons) History JH
BA(Hons) Media
BA(Hons) Media JH
BA(Hons) Music
BA(Hons) Music JH
BA(Hons) Music Technology
BA(Hons) Performance: Dance
BA(Hons) Theatre
BA(Hons) Theatre JH
Arts Total (JH figures are double-counted on headcounts)
B&C
BA(Hons) Business Management
BA(Hons) Business Management JH
BA(Hons) Communication
BA(Hons) Communication JH
BA(Hons) Community Studies JH
BA(Hons) Counselling Studies
BA(Hons) Counselling Studies JH
BA(Hons) English Language and Linguistics
BA(Hons) English Language JH
BA(Hons) Information Technology JH
GDip Counselling
B&C Total (JH figures are double-counted on headcounts)
E&T
BA(Hons) Education Studies
BA(Hons) Education Studies JH
BA(Hons) Primary Education 3 - 7 years (Lpr)
BA(Hons) Primary Education 5 - 11 years (Upr)
BA(Hons) Theology and Ministry
BA(Hons) Theology & Religious Studies
BA(Hons) Theology & Religious Studies JH
E&T Total (JH figures are double-counted on headcounts)
HLS
BA(Hons) Psychology (non BPS)
BA(Hons) Psychology JH
BA(Hons) Sport Studies
BA(Hons) Sport Studies JH
BHSc(Hons) Occupational Therapy FT
BHSc(Hons) Occupational Therapy In-Service
BHSc(Hons) Physiotherapy FT
BHSc(Hons) Physiotherapy In-Service
BSc(Hons) Healthcare Practice Rehabilitation
BSc(Hons) Healthcare Practice Visual Impairment
BSc(Hons) Psychology
BSc(Hons) Sport & Exercise Science
GDip in Psychology
HLS Total (JH figures are double-counted on headcounts)
Total (JH figures are double-counted on headcounts)
12/2007
47
67
42
24
50
25
163
157
314
50
49
122
66
75
61
93
19
2
66
144
53
1689
174
92
7
14
1
106
38
125
59
45
41
702
53
77
162
349
4
129
59
833
10
51
237
47
280
82
105
49
3
119
129
1112
4336
Page 11 of 14
HEADCOUNT
12/2008 Difference
49
4%
1
-99%
67
60%
34
42%
61
22%
28
12%
163
0%
158
1%
306
-3%
59
18%
71
45%
128
5%
60
-9%
76
1%
55
-10%
92
-1%
22
16%
5
150%
69
5%
151
5%
51
-4%
1706
1%
170
-2%
90
-2%
9
29%
28
100%
-100%
108
2%
32
-16%
129
3%
74
25%
52
16%
40
-2%
732
4%
79
49%
80
4%
166
2%
322
-8%
11
175%
114
-12%
55
-7%
827
-1%
13
30%
51
0%
213
-10%
47
0%
278
-1%
77
-6%
98
-7%
38
-22%
5
67%
2
145
22%
119
-8%
6
1092
-2%
4357
0%
12/2007
23
62
40
12
50
12
159
78
313
25
24
117
32
75
31
91
10
2
66
142
26
1390
165
45
6
7
0
103
19
121
29
22
20
536
52
38
161
348
2
122
29
752
10
25
234
23
276
56
102
32
3
117
128
1006
3685
FTEs
12/2008
24
1
63
18
61
15
161
78
302
29
35
124
30
76
27
92
11
5
67
151
25
1393
164
45
7
14
0
106
16
127
37
26
20
561
78
40
166
322
2
110
28
746
12
24
211
23
272
52
98
25
4
2
144
118
5
991
3691
Difference
6%
-98%
57%
46%
22%
19%
1%
0%
-4%
17%
45%
6%
-7%
1%
-11%
1%
16%
150%
2%
6%
-5%
0%
-1%
0%
29%
94%
-100%
3%
-17%
5%
27%
18%
0%
5%
49%
6%
3%
-7%
0%
-10%
-4%
-1%
23%
-4%
-10%
0%
-1%
-6%
-4%
-21%
44%
23%
-8%
-1%
0%
11
Table 2
Faculty
Arts
Arts Total
B&C
B&C Total
E&T
E&T Total
HLS
Undergraduate other
Programme
Associate ART
FD Community Arts
FD Creative Industries & Technologies: Design
FD Creative Industries & Technologies: Film TV
FD Creative Industries & Technologies: Music Tech
4 Year BA Honours (International)
Associate BC
Certificate Counselling
Certificate in Peace Studies
Certificate in Relationship Counselling (English)
Certificate in Relationship Counselling (Scottish)
Headstart
Is Higher Education for Me?
Modern Foreign Language BC
NCB Enterprise Fellowship (Acorn Programme)
Overseas Exchange Credits
Undergraduate Cert - International Foundation
Associate ETH
College Certificate Education
FD Supporting Learning
FD Theology and Ministry
Individual Modules for Credit (Supporting Learning)
Individual Modules for Credit(Theology & Ministry)
Univ Dip Facilitating Learning in Christ Contexts
Certificate in Sport Coaching
Certificate in Sport Development
FD Rehabilitation
FD Visual Impairment
Foundation Certificate in Fieldwork Education
Support for Learning in Practice
HLS Total
Grand Total
HEADCOUNT
12/2007 12/2008 Difference
2
-100%
4
5
25%
3
18
20
11%
17
18
6%
41
46
12%
20
16
-20%
3
2
-33%
23
32
39%
9
45
16
-64%
28
19
-32%
72
-100%
12
-100%
224
199
-11%
13
66
101
53%
1
493
408
-17%
2
46
22
-52%
90
98
9%
204
263
29%
10
17
70%
21
-100%
5
-100%
376
402
7%
16
-100%
1
-100%
27
24
-11%
1
12
1100%
3
-100%
34
24
-29%
82
60
-27%
992
916
-8%
FTEs
12/2007 12/2008 Difference
0
-100%
4
5
25%
3
16
17
10%
14
17
21%
34
42
24%
19
15
-21%
0
0
0%
7
10
41%
2
0
0
36
36
100
4
69
92
3
5
2
175
3
25
1
0
9
38
346
33
50
1
111
1
2
78
118
4
203
23
10
3
36
391
-100%
-10%
39%
12%
-50%
12%
28%
33%
-100%
-100%
16%
-100%
-7%
900%
-100%
-68%
-5%
13%
B&C figures do not include the international short course students.
Page 12 of 14
12
Understanding learning in the online environment | December 2008
Table 3
Faculty
Arts
Arts Total
B&C
B&C Total
E&T
E&T Total
HLS
Postgraduate
Programme
GDip / PGDip / MA Literature Studies
PGDip / MA Fine Arts
PGDip / MA in Contemporary Art Practice
PGDip / MA Performance
PhD Arts
PhD English
PhD History
MA by Research in Linguistics
MA English Language Teaching
MA Leadership and Management
MA Leading Innovation and Change
PGCert Counsellor Supervision
PGDip / MA Counselling
PGDip / MA International Studies
PhD Counselling
PhD English Language & Linguistics
PhD Management Studies
College Certificate (CAES) INSET
GCert in Education Lower Primary
GDip / PGDip / MA in Theology
Graduate Cert. in Education Flexible Route
Graduate Cert. in Education Primary
MA in Educational Improvement, Development & Change
PGCE Lower Primary
PGCE PT Flexible Route
PGCE Secondary RE
PGCE Upper Primary
PGCert in Academic Practice
PhD Education
PhD Theology
MA by Research Psychology
MSc by Research Psychology
MSc in Mobility and Independent Functioning
PhD Professional Health Studies
PhD Sports Studies
Post-experience Professional Health Studies
PGDip / MSc Sport Psychology
HLS Total
Grand Total
HEADCOUNT
12/2007 12/2008 Difference
31
21
-32%
6
3
1
-67%
4
2
2
0%
2
3
50%
1
1
0%
39
38
-3%
1
22
15
-32%
11
24
118%
12
19
58%
6
24
32
33%
24
19
-21%
1
2
100%
1
2
100%
1
2
100%
96
122
27%
30
1
-97%
29
-100%
128
77
-40%
7
-100%
28
-100%
28
59
111%
52
69
33%
10
15
19
27%
76
117
54%
69
63
-9%
1
1
0%
4
4
0%
467
420
-10%
1
-100%
1
-100%
1
8
9
13%
2
3
50%
82
121
48%
4
6
50%
98
140
43%
700
720
3%
FTEs
12/2007 12/2008 Difference
8
6
-22%
7
1
-100%
5
9
18
109%
23
10
4
-28%
218%
-75%
14
7
17
32
1
3
25
4
58
82
41%
22
3
24
9
52
30
20
48
33%
-100%
-100%
135%
-8%
15
76
26
18
89
0
20%
17%
-99%
226
205
-9%
77%
-38%
0
16
1
17
310
19
7
26
331
18%
800%
55%
7%
HLS figures do not include the non-credit bearing CPD short courses for health professionals.
Page 13 of 14
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Understanding learning in the online environment | December 2008
Bibliography
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(Menlo Parl, Calif., Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.)
Iyengar, Sheena S and Lepper, Mark R. (1999). Rethinking the Value of Choice: A cultural
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Kitayama, S., and Markus H.R. (Ed). (1994). Emotion and Culture.
(Washington DC: American Psychological Association)
Monereo, C. (2004). The virtual construction of the mind: the role of educational psychology.
(Interactive Educational Multimedia, number 9, November 2004)
Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants.
(NCB University Press, Vol 9, No 5 October, 2001)
Rosack, T. (1994). The Cult of Information: a neo-Luddite treatise on high-tec artificial intelligence,
and the true art of thinking.
(University of California Press, Berkley and Los Angeles, California)
Wadsworth, Barry J. (1971). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective development.
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Websites
HEFCE website: http://www.hefce.ac.uk/learning/elearning/strategy/ 11.12.2008
Changing Minds.Org: http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/cognitive_dissonance.htm
11.12.2008
Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_development 18.12.2008
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