CHAPTER 4
Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
The purpose of this chapter is to provide the reader with an understanding of basic leadership behavior
and attitudes, as well as styles. Some of the information goes back to classic studies conducted in the
1950s and 1960s, and some is recent. Several other topics are featured: servant leadership, and how
leaders use 360-degree feedback to fine-tune their behaviors, entrepreneurial leadership styles, and
gender differences in leadership.
CHAPTER OUTLINE AND LECTURE NOTES
This chapter covers pioneering information about leadership behaviors and attitudes that served as the
basis for studies of leadership styles and contingency theories of leadership. A sampling of these styles
is presented as well as current information about behaviors, attitudes, and styles. An effective leader is
one who facilitates group members’ attaining productivity, quality, and satisfaction.
I.
THE CLASSIC DIMENSIONS OF CONSIDERATION AND INITIATING STRUCTURE
The Ohio State studies developed questionnaires about leaders that included self-assessments and
assessments by subordinates. This research became the foundation for most of the future research
about leadership behavior, attitudes, and styles. Two dimensions (as identified by factor analysis)
accounted for 85 percent of the variance in descriptions of leadership behavior. Consideration is
the degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness,
and trust. Leaders who score high on the consideration factor typically are friendly, trustful, earn
respect, and have a warm relationship. Making connections with people is part of consideration.
Initiating structure is the degree to which the leader organizes and defines relationships in the
group by activities such as assigning specific tasks, specifying procedures to be followed,
scheduling work, and clarifying expectations with team members.
An important output of the research on initiating structure and consideration and initiating
structure was to categorize leaders with respect to how much emphasis they place on the two
dimensions. As implied by Figure 4–1, the two dimensions are not mutually exclusive.
A current examination of the validity of consideration and initiating structure indicates that these
classic dimensions do indeed contribute to an understanding of leadership because they are related
to leadership outcome such as satisfaction and performance.
II.
TASK-RELATED ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR
Task-related means that the behavior, attitude, or skill focuses more on the task to be performed
than on the interpersonal aspects of leadership.
A.
B.
C.
Adaptability to the situation. Effective leaders adapt to the situation by choosing a tactic
based on the unique circumstances at hand (the contingency approach).
Direction setting. The leader must set the direction of change. According to Kotter, leaders
gather voluminous data and search for patterns, relationships, and linkages that help create
events. Direction setting creates vision and strategies.
High performance standards. Effective leaders consistently hold group members to high
standards of performance. Setting such standards increases productivity, partly because of
the Pygmalion effect.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
D.
Concentrating on the strengths of group members. Making good use of the strengths of
group members rather than concentrating effort on patching up areas for improvement is an
effective tactic. The effective leader helps people improve, yet still capitalizes on strengths.
E. Risk taking and execution of plans. To bring about constructive change, the leader must take
risks and be willing to implement these risky decisions.
F. Hands-on guidance and feedback. The leader who provides hands-on guidance helps the
group accomplish important tasks, and at the same time group members learn important
skills. Too much guidance, however, can lead to poor delegation and micromanagement.
The leader can rarely influence the actions of group members without appropriate
performance feedback.
G. Ability to ask tough questions. Many times leaders can be effective by asking tough
questions rather than providing answers. A tough question is one that makes a person or
group stop and think about why they are doing or not doing something.
III. RELATIONSHIP-ORIENTED ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIORS
Leadership involves influencing people, so it follows that many effective leadership attitudes,
behaviors, and practices deal with interpersonal relationships.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Aligning people. Many people have to be aligned (a state of pulling together) to create
significant change toward a higher purpose. Alignment enables people to have a clear sense
of direction because they are pursuing a vision. Alignment of people also incorporates
getting the group to work together smoothly. Mobilization is easier with an agreed-upon
mission.
Openness to worker opinion. Management openness is a set of leader behavior behaviors
particularly relevant to subordinates’ motivation to voice their opinion. Being open to
worker opinions is part of the consideration dimension, and also central to participative
leadership.
Crating inspiration and visibility. Inspiring others is an essential leadership practice. An
example of an inspiring practice is building enthusiasm about projects and assignments.
Being visible and available facilitates inspiration.
Satisfying higher-level needs. Motivation and inspiration energize people by satisfying needs
for achievement, a sense of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, and a feeling of control over
one’s life.
Giving emotional support and encouragement. Supportive behavior toward team members
usually increases leadership effectiveness. A supportive leader gives frequent
encouragement and praise, and also displays caring and kindness even about non-work
related matters such as the health of a worker’s ill family member.
Promoting principles and values. A major part of a top leader’s role is to help promote
values and principles that contribute to the welfare of individuals and the organization.
Covey advises that an organization’s mission statement must be for all good causes. What
constitutes the right values depends on the leader’s core beliefs.
Being a servant leader. Wanting to serve others as a leader is a relationship behavior that
encompasses several other key behaviors. A servant leader serves constituents by working
on their behalf to help them achieve their goals, not the leader’s own goals. A servant leader
is a moral leader. Key aspects of servant leadership include the following:
1. Place service before self-interest.
2. Listen first to express confidence in others.
3. Inspire trust by being trustworthy.
4. Focus on what is feasible to accomplish.
5. Lend a hand.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
27
IV. 360-DEGREE FEEDBACK FOR FINE-TUNING A LEADERSHIP APPROACH
Many leaders solicit systematic feedback to improve their leadership behavior and attitudes. 360degree feedback is a formal evaluation of superiors based on input from people who work for and
with them, sometimes including customers and suppliers. 360-degree feedback is more frequently
used for leadership and management development than for performance evaluation. When used
for development, 360-degree feedback should emphasize qualitative comments rather than strictly
quantitative ratings. Professional counseling can sometimes help a person benefit from critical
feedback and place it in perspective.
V.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
A leader’s combination of attitudes and behaviors leads to a certain regularity and predictability in
dealing with group members. Leadership style is the relatively consistent pattern of behavior that
characterizes a leader. Most classifications of leadership style are based on the dimensions of
initiating structure and consideration.
A.
Participative Leadership
Sharing decision making with group members, and working with them side-by-side, has
become the generally accepted leadership approach. Participative leaders share decision
making with group members. The style encompasses three subtypes: (1) consultative
leaders confer with group members before making a decision, but retain the final authority;
(2) consensus leaders strive for consensus; and (3) democratic leaders confer final
authority on the group. The participative style is based on management openness because the
leader accepts suggestions from group members for managing the operation. The same style
encompasses the teamwork approach.
The participative style is well suited to managing competent people who want to get
involved in making decisions and giving feedback to management. However, the style often
results in extensive and time-consuming team meetings and committee work.
If democratic leadership goes one step further, it results in extreme macromanagement,
referred to as the laissez-faire leadership style. A study with Norwegian workers found that
laissez-faire leadership created role ambiguity.
B.
Autocratic Leadership
In contrast to participative leaders, autocratic leaders retain most of the authority.
Autocratic leaders are considered task-oriented because they place heavy emphasis on
getting tasks accomplished.
C.
Leadership Grid® Styles
The Leadership Grid is a framework for simultaneously specifying concern for production
and concern for the people dimensions of leadership. The Grid changes frequently, and we
present the latest version. Grid styles are based on the extent of a person’s concern for
production and people: Controlling (Direct & Dominate) (9,1); Accommodating (Yield &
Comply) (1,9); Status Quo (Balance & Compromise) (5,5); Indifferent (Evade & Elude)
(1,1) and Sound (Contribute & Commit) (9,9). Two other styles are Paternalistic (Prescribe
& Guide), and Opportunistic (Exploit & Manipulate). In both styles, the leader attempts to
take advantage of people.
The ideal position is the 9,9 orientation, which integrates concern for production and
concern for people. This sound management style usually results in improved performance,
low absenteeism and turnover, and high employee satisfaction. The manager should use
principles of human behavior to size up the situation.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
D.
E.
Entrepreneurial Leadership
Many entrepreneurs use a similar leadership style that stems from their key personality
characteristics and circumstances. A general picture emerges of a task-oriented and
charismatic leader. Even if it is not a true leadership style, at least there are some traits and
behaviors characteristic of entrepreneurs:
1. Strong achievement drive and sensible risk taking.
2. High degree of enthusiasm and creativity.
3. Tendency to act quickly when opportunity arises.
4. Constant hurry combined with impatience.
5. Visionary perspective combined with tenacity..
6. Dislike of hierarchy and bureaucracy.
7. Preference for dealing with external customers.
8. Eye on the future.
Gender Differences in Leadership Style
Several researchers and observers argue that women have certain acquired traits and
behaviors that suit them for relations-oriented leadership. Consequently, women leaders
frequently exhibit a cooperative, empowering style that includes the nurturing of team
members. The other facet of this stereotype is that men are inclined toward a command-andcontrol, militaristic leadership style.
1.
The Argument for Male-Female Differences in Leadership Style
Based on self-reports, Rosener found that men tended toward a command-and-control
style. In contrast, women tended toward a transformational style, relying heavily on
interpersonal skills. Bass found that women are less likely to practice management-byexception and are slightly more likely to be described as charismatic.
Another perspective on gender differences in leadership is whether men or women are
more effective leaders. Eighteen hundred men and women managers from the U.S. and
Canada were matched on organization level, job function, and management experience.
Managers were evaluated by an average of one boss, four peers and four direct reports.
Among the findings were that (a) women scored higher on scales measuring
orientation toward production and obtaining results, (b) men scored higher on strategic
planning and organizational vision, (c) women scored higher on relationship-oriented
leadership skills, and men score higher on task-oriented leadership skills, and (d), men
and women were perceived as equal on overall effectiveness.
Fundamental differences in the biological and psychological makeup of men and
women have been used as evidence that the two sexes are likely to manifest different
leadership styles. Women might feel more natural in using a relationship-oriented
style.
2.
The Argument Against Gender Differences in Leadership Style
Based on a literature review, Grant concluded that there are apparently few, if any,
personality differences between men and women managers. As women move up the
corporate ladder, they identify more with the male model of managerial success. An
important point is that both men and women differ among themselves in leadership
style. As researchers put it, “The within-group variance is greater than the across-group
variance.”
Also of importance, many women believe that women managers can be more hostile
and vindictive than male managers.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
29
More important than searching for differences is to capitalize on both male and female
leadership tendencies. To compete in the global marketplace, companies need a diverse
leadership team including men and women. Not recognizing that both male and female
styles are needed can leader to confusion for women managers.
F.
Selecting the Best Leadership Style
A study with 3,000 executives revealed that leaders who get the best results do not rely on
one style. Instead, they use several different styles in one week, such as being autocratic in
some situations and democratic in others. The cultural setting must also be considered, such
as using a strong task orientation with German workers. The organizational culture also
influences which leadership style will be effective, such as a collaborative culture calling for
a more consensus style of leadership.
Stogdill made a statement about selecting a leadership style that still holds today: “The most
effective leaders appear to exhibit a degree of versatility and flexibility that enable them to
adapt their behavior to the changing and contradictory demands made on them.”
VI. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
In choosing between a task orientation and a relationship orientation, several additional factors are
also relevant. Among them are (a) the structure of the organization and the nature of the leader’s
work, (b) the leader’s personality, (c) the boss’s style and the organization culture, and (d) the
potential for conflict. A nondirective style is safer.
COMMENTS ON EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 4-1: Feedback Skills
An important feature of this exercise is that it provides an opportunity to practice giving feedback about
performance rather than feedback about personal characteristics. A possible positive byproduct of this
exercise is that the feedback results might encourage participants to perform better.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 4-1 Task-Oriented Attitudes and
Behaviors
An interesting twist to this scale is that it does not assume that a low task orientation is equivalent to a
high relationship orientation. The scale treats task orientation as an independent dimension of
leadership behavior.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 4-2: Clarifying Your Work Values
The importance of this instrument centers around its focus on values. Many observers of leadership
heavily emphasize the contribution of values to leader effectiveness.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 4-3: Applying RelationshipOriented and Task-Oriented Attitudes and Behaviors
An extreme environment is chosen for this skill-building exercise it dramatizes the importance of
choosing the right leadership attitudes and behaviors to get work accomplished when the work is
difficult. This exercise is also helpful in translating into practice several of the leadership attitudes and
behaviors. The clarity of what the workers are attempting to accomplish (dig a hole) will make it easier
for the role players to understand what they should be doing.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 4-2: What Style of Leader Are You
or Would You Be?
This leadership style quiz focuses on behaviors particularly relevant in the modern workplace. The quiz
can also be used as a skill-development exercise if the statements are interpreted as implied suggestions
for engaging in a participative style.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 4-3: What Is Your Propensity for
Taking Risks?
Reflecting on risk-taking tendencies is an important activity for leaders and prospective leaders. Most
organizations today value a sensible degree of risk taking. A fruitful class discussion is why some of
these items might reflect risk taking, such as Question 10 about flying a single-engine airplane.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 4-4: Entrepreneurial Leadership
The key feature of this exercise is that it gets the role players involved in a high-impact business
activity—selling others on the merits of their business. Our informal research has shown that at least
one-third of business students aspire to entrepreneurship or self-employment at some point in their
careers, thus increasing the relevance of this exercise.
A suggestion for this exercise is to caution the role players (or “skill builders”) to project passion and
enthusiasm into the exercise.
Leadership Self-Assessment Quiz 4-4: How Flexible Are You?
Self-reflection about flexibility is helpful because a leader needs flexibility to adapt to situations and to
change. An important goal of this exercise is to highlight the importance of flexibility.
Leadership Skill-Building Exercise 4-4: Contrasting Leadership
Styles
Field testing indicates that this role-play is effective in illustrating basic leadership styles. Many
students who understand these styles intellectually have difficulty translating them into behavior.
Feedback by class members not participating in the role-play is quite beneficial.
COMMENTS ON DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
1.
How is initiating structure related to the cognitive skills of a leader?
Initiating structure relates to a variety of actions geared toward helping group members
accomplish the actual work, and could involve such details as a helping a worker resolve a
concern about currency exchange. The ability to provide specific directions about the details of
the work depends heavily on the intellect or cognitive skills of the person giving in instruction. In
the example at hand, you need to be smart enough to know how to understand differences in
currency exchange.
2.
Give an example of high consideration behavior that a supervisor of yours showed on your behalf.
What was your reaction to his or her behavior?
Examples of high consideration behavior include giving a worker time off to deal with a personal
problem, or giving the worker encouragement. Most people react very positively to high
consideration behavior on the part of the supervisor.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
3.
31
Why is direction setting still an important leadership behavior in an era of empowerment?
Empowered teams still need direction regarding what activities they should be pursuing. They
might then be empowered to figure out how to achieve these goals. Few teams or individual
employees are empowered to pursue whatever direction they think is appropriate.
4.
Why is an effective leader supposed to provide emotional support to team members, even when
they are mature adults?
The incorrect supposition here is that mature adults do not need emotional support. Even selfreliant, high-functioning adults require some degree of emotional support. Giving such support is
therefore an important part of a leader’s role.
5.
In what way might a personalized charismatic leader have quite different motives from a servant
leader?
The personalized charismatic is seeking power and glory to enhance his or her career. In contrast,
the primary motive of the servant leader is to help other people by helping them achieve
worthwhile goals.
6.
How might a manager use email to help carry out both task-oriented and relationship-oriented
behaviors?
Task-oriented behaviors can be executed via email by sending messages containing directions,
work schedules, and goals. Relationship-oriented behaviors can be executed through email by
such means as sending notes of encouragement and giving compliments. The leader can give
recognition by praising the worker and include a long distribution list.
7.
What might the manager of an H & R Block or Hewlett Jackson branch do to provide hands-on
leadership to tax preparers?
The manager of a tax-preparation service has regular opportunity to provide hands on leadership
to workers. The manager can sit down with the preparer to review individual returns, and be
available to help with questions including using tax-preparation software. It would be difficult for
a tax-preparation manager to be credible without providing hands on leadership.
8.
How would you characterize the leadership style of your favorite executive, athletic coach, or
television character who plays a boss?
To answer this question effectively, the student must choose a style categorization presented in
this chapter. The student should also provide meaningful documentation, such as “When Coach
Summitt sees that one of the players is feeling bad about a major mistake, Summitt puts her arm
around the player. That shows she’s relationship-oriented.”
9.
Why is the consensus leadership style widely recommended for providing leadership to workers
under age 35?
Workers under age 35 have a preference for being consulted extensively about key decisions. Part
of the explanation is that many young people have studied team leadership in school, and they
have also worked as teams for many school projects.
10. What can a man do to overcome the stereotype that people expect him to be a command-andcontrol style leader?
If the man does use the command-and-control leadership style, he has two effective ways of
overcoming the stereotype of being such a leader. First, he should minimize command-andcontrol behavior so the stereotype will soften, Second, he can discuss his leadership style with his
group, and why he uses a relationship-oriented style.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
PLAUSIBLE RESPONSES TO CASE QUESTIONS
Leadership Case Problem A: Is Margo too Macro?
The theme of this case is that not providing enough guidance, direction, and support to group members
can be interpreted negatively by group.
1.
To what extent has Margo Santelli chosen the right approach to leading the manager in her unit of
the financial services firm?
The interviews conducted by Laura suggest that Margo’s approach to leadership was meeting with
mixed success. Three out of the four professionals interviewed had strong reservations about
Margo’s laissez-faire leadership style.
2.
What advice can you offer Margo to be a more effective leader?
Margo needs to be more observant about the impact of her approach to leadership. She needs to
ferret out how much guidance and support she should be giving the various members of her group.
Margo is not adapting her style to the needs of each member of her group.
3.
What advice can you offer Laura to help Margo be a more effective leader?
Laura might discuss the feedback she received with Margo, with the perspective of wanting to be
helpful rather than accusatory. She might ask Margo if she (Margo) has gone too far in giving
latitude to subordinates.
4.
Explain whether or not you think Laura was justified in asking Margo’s direct reports about
Margo’s approach to leadership.
Laura asked Margo’s permission before conducting her investigation of Margo’s effectiveness as
a leader, an act which may have made her investigation more justified. Nevertheless, Laura did
take an extreme measure which will weaken Margo’s credibility within the group. Perhaps an
approach like a 360-degree survey would have seemed like less of an investigation into Margo’s
effectiveness.
Leadership Case Problem B: Failure Pumps Up Dick Enrico
Among the many points this case illustrates is the perseverance of an entrepreneurial leader/business
owner.
1.
What recommendations can you offer Dick Enrico to improve his chances of staying successful
for the rest of his career?
It appears that Enrico needs to stay focused. He is a dreamer who has moved from one new idea to
another because of his impatience with operational work. He needs to stick with this athletic
equipment enterprise and work toward growing the business. At last report, Enrico has found
stability and success in his business and his career.
2.
What does Enrico’s story illustrate about the difference between leadership and management?
Some of Enrico’s failures were attributed to not properly managing the businesses that he started.
So he hired a professional manager to run 2nd Wind Exercise Equipment. The point is that Enrico
provides the conceptual leadership to the business while his manager runs the operation. The
combination of management and leadership ultimately worked well for 2nd Wind Exercise
Equipment.
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Chapter 4: Leadership Behaviors, Attitudes, and Styles
3.
33
Identify several entrepreneurial traits and characteristics that Dick Enrico possesses, and justify
your answer. Base part of your answer on the pitch he delivers on his video shown on
www.2ndwindesercise.com. Comment on Enrico’s communication skills.
A major entrepreneurial characteristic is his persistence in trying to find success. Enrico definitely
has his eye on the future as he keeps searching the next deal. He shows a strong preference for
dealing with external customers as indicated by his dislike to day-to-day operations. Although
some of his business schemes are not very effective visions such as his clinics for overcoming
smoking, Enrico is visionary. Many students will observe that Enrico’s communication skills are
appropriate in his role as the operator of an exercise-equipment company. He appears quite
credible rather than artificial.
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