Techniques of Oral and Written Academic Discussion.
Different Aspects of the Academic Writing Process
 Hints for Structuring a Text an Academic Essay or
a Scholarly Paper .
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Academic Essay Questions
Discussion-Thesis -Topic Sentence & Signposting
Argument & Counter –Argument
Discourse Markers
Critiques
1. Hints for Structuring a Text an Academic Essay or a scholarly paper.
Function in the Text
Example
1. beginning
I should like to preface my argument with a
true story (=to begin or introduce )
2. mapping out the text
I shall return to this issue later in this essay.
(= come back to)
3. connecting points
The question of monetary union brings us to
our next topic: the idea of a federal Europe.(
means we have arrived at )
4. focusing
I should now like to address the problem of
the arms race.(=attend to, consider)
5. ordering points
I shall discuss the politicians in assending
order, that is to say I shall comment on the
least important ones first. (≠ descending
oder )
6. quoting/referring
The ideas of several writers will be cited in
support of the argument.
(= to quote)
The text alludes to several themes that need
closer examination. ( =to mention something
briefly or indirectly)
7. including/excluding material
Discussion of the roots of the problem is
beyond the scope of this essay.(=outside of
the topic area)
It is impossible to deal with all the issues in
this short discussion essay.
(give all the necessary information about )
There will only be space to touch upon the
big question of political responsibility (= to
mention only briefly )
He just touches upon the subject of Internet
policing but does not go into it in depth.
8. drawing conclusions
In the final analysis, we are forced to
conclude that there is little hope of stamping
out illegal drugs altogether.( have no choice
bu to believe)
2. Academic Essay Questions
Academic Essay Questions are designed to provide students with the opportunity
to display
 their understanding of a topic
 their ability to think clearly, and
 their ability to communicate effectively in writing
Stages of the Writing Process when Answering Essay Questions
Stage One
Be familiar with the following direction
terms used in academic essay questions
Argue
Compare
Present your opinion and, through
reasoning, defend it with examples
Present similarities and differences
Contrast
Present only the differences
Criticise - Evaluate
Judge the strengths and weaknesses, pros and
cons, advantages and disadvantages, or
merits and demerits
Define
Explain the meaning and (often) provide an
appropriate example
Describe-Illustrate
Present the main points with clear examples
that enhance the discussion
Differentiate-Distinguish
Present the differences between two things
Discuss- Explain
Present the main points, facts, and details of a
topic; give reasons
Enumerate- List- Identify- Outline
Write a list of the main points with brief
explanations
Interpret
Present your analysis of the topic using facts
and reasoning
Justify- Prove
Present evidence and reasons that support the
topic
Summarise
Briefly state the main ideas in an organized
manner
Trace
State the main points in logical or
chronological order

Stage Two
Stage Three
Read and understand the question.
Read each question carefully, and
make sure that you understand them.
 Pay particular attention to the
direction word (or words) in the
question. You may find it helpful to
circle or underline them to help
clarify your thinking.
 Jot down notes.
When you have read the question and
understand what it requires,

Stage Four
take a minute to write a brief outline
of the answer.
 be sure to write down all the
pertinent information then
 put the information in a logical
order.
Restate the question.
To begin writing the answer to the question

rephrase the question in your
opening sentence

Stage Five
it is important to repeat many of the
words found in the question to show
your instructor that your answer is
clear and on target
As you proceed to write the rest of your
answer, help the instructor follow your
answer by providing clues to your pattern
of organization.
Use transitional words such as:
first, second, next, finally, on the other
hand, consequently, furthermore and in
conclusion.
Stage Six
Proofread your answer. Because an essay
test is also a test of your writing ability,
 be sure to spend time to review
and proofread your answer.
 look for mistakes in grammar and
punctuation
 check misspelled or missing
words, and
 omit needless words.
3. Discussion-Thesis -Topic Sentence & Signposting
“Without an argument your thesis is dead in the water.”
Maxime Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University,1999
Writing an academic essay means fashioning a coherent set of ideas into an argument.
Because essays offer one idea at a time, they must present their ideas in the order that
makes most sense to a reader. Successfully structuring an essay means attending to a
reader’s logic.
A: Discuss & analyse
Discuss1 is easy to misunderstand because the word calls to mind the oral/spoken
dimension of communication. “Discuss” suggests conversation, which often is casual and
undirected.
In the context of a course assignmnent or a discussion essay, however, discussion entails
fulfilling a defined and organised taks: to construct an argument that considers and
responds to an ample range of materials. To “discuss” in assignment language, means to
make a broad argument about a set of arguments you have studied.
The words “analyse” and “analysis” may seem to denote highly advanced skills,
however, the terms need decoding. Analysis involves both
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a set of observations about the composition or workings of your subject and
a critical approach that keeps you from noticing just anything-from excessive
listing or summarising-and instead leads you to construct an interpretation, using
textual evidence to support your ideas.
Narrowing the topic2: The topic of an academic essay must be sufficiently focused and
specific in order for a coherent argument to be made about it.
Focus your subject, find a topic, and narrow it by going through the following steps

Carefully read your primary source(s) and then, with the assignment in mind, go
through them again, searching for passages that related directly to the assignment and
to your own curiosities and interests.
 Annotate some of the most intriguing passages-write down ideas, opinions and notes
about particular words, phrases, sentences. “Annotating” means underlining or
highlighting key words and phrases-anything that strikes you as surprising or
significant, or that raises questions-as well as making notes in the margins. When we
respond to a text in this way, we not only force ourselves to pay close attention, but
we also begin to think with the author about the evidence –the first step in moving
from reader to writer.
Don’t censor your thoughts! Just write, even if you think that what you’re writing doesn’t
add up too much. For now, get your impressions on paper, later, you’ll begin to order and
unify them.
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Look at some relevant secondary sources-at what other scholars have said-in order to
get a sense of potential counter-arguments to your developing topic.
When you do close reading3
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1
You may focus on a particular passage or on the text as a whole
Your aim may be to notice all striking features of the text, including rhetorical
features, strucural elements, cultural references
Or your aim may be to notice only selected features of the text-for instance,
oppositions and correspondences, or particular historical references.
Copyright 1998, William C.Rice, for the Writing Center at Harvard University.
Copyright 1999. Maxime Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University
3
Copyright 1998, Patricia Kain, for the Writing Center at Harvard University
2
Try to approach the writing of an academic essay as a genuine opportunity
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to connect with the material
to think in a concentrated and stimulating way about the texts you’ve chosen,
to articulate your ideas
B: Thesis
The essay’s thesis is the main point you are trying to make, using the best evidence you can
marshall (= to gather or arrange it in a proper order) Your thesis will evolve during the course
of writing drafts, but everything that happens in your essay is directed toward establishing its
validity.
The heart of the academic essay is persuasion, and the structure of your argument plays a
vital role in this. To persuade, you must
 set the stage
 provide a context, and
 decide how to reveal your evidence.
In the body of the paper, merely listing evidence without any discernible logic of
presentation is a common mistake.
The most common argumentative structrue in English prose is the deductive- starting
off with a generalisation or assertion, and then providing support for it.This pattern can be
used to order a paragraph as well as an entire essay.
Another possible structrue is inductive-facts, instances or observations can be reviewed,
and the conclusion to be drawn from them follows.4
A common strucural flaw in university essays is the “walk-through” also labeled “summary”
or “description”. These essays follow the structure of their sources rather than establishing
their own. Such essays generally have a descriptive thesis rather than an argumentative one.
In a strong discussion essay, the thesis would go beyond a basic restatement of the
assignment question. You might
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
test the similarities and differences of the revolutionary aspects being discussed
draw on fresh or unexpected evidence, perhaps using as a source an intriguing
reading that was only briefly touched upon in lecture
At one point or other, the academic essay manages to intimidate most student
writers. Sometimes, we may even experience what is commonly called writer’s
block-that awful experience of staring at an assignment, reading it over and over, yet
being unable to proceed, to find a way into it. But the series of writing the academic
essay involves a series of manageable steps. If you find yourself “clueless” ( lacking
4
Copyright 1998, Kathy Duffin, for the Writing Center at Harvard University.
in ability) about beginning an essay, it may be because you have skipped an important
step. You may be trying to come up with a thesis before finding and narrowing
your topic.
A thesis is not a topic;nor is it a fact;nor is it an opinion.
Note the difference:
“Reasons for the fall of communism” is a topic.
“Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe” is a fact known by educated people.
“ The fall of Hitler is the best thing that ever happened in Europe” is an opinion.
A good thesis has two parts. It
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it should tell what you plan to argue, and
it should “telegraph” how you plan to argue-that is, what particular support for your
claim is going where in your essay.
Keep your thesis prominent in your introduction. A good, standard place for your thesis
statement is at the end of an introductory paragraph as readers are used to finding theses there,
so they automatically pay more attention when they read the last sentence of your
introduction. Although this is not required in all academic essays, it is a good rule of thumb.
Anticipate the counter- arguments.
Once you have a working thesis-that is good enough as a basis and may be improved lateryou should think about what might be said against it.
This will help you
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to refine your thesis, and
it will also make you think of the arguments that you’ll need to refute later on in your
essay.
It should be remembered that every argument has a counter-argument. If yours doesn’t,
then it’s not an argument-it may be a fact, or an opinion, but it is not an argument.
Consider the phrase below:
Michael Dukakis lost the 1988 presidential election because he failed to campaign vigorouly
after the Democratic National Convention.
Τhis statement is on its way to being a thesis. However, it is too easy to imagine possible
counter-arguments5. For example a political observer might believe that Dukakis lost because
5
Copyright 1999. Maxime Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University
he suffered from a “soft-on-crime” image. If you complicate your thesis by anticipating the
counter-argument, you’ll strengthen your argument, as shown in the sentence below.
While Dukakis’ “soft-on-crime” image hurt his chances in the 1988 election, his failure to
campaign vigorously after the Democratic National Convention bore a greater responsibility
for his defeat.
Some Caveats- (a warning that certain factors need to be considered befor sth is done,
accepted, etc.)
A thesis

is never a question- a question is not an argument, and without an argument, a thesis
is dead in the water
 is never a list- e.g
“ For political, economic, social and cultural reasons, communism collapsed in Eastern
Europe”. This sentence lacks tension and doesn’t advance an argument. Everyone knows that
politics, economics, and culture are important.


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should never be vague, combative or confrontational
to be effective should have a definable, arguable claim
should be as clear and specific as possible
C: Topic Sentence & Signposting
Topic sentences and signposts make an essay’s claims clear to a reader.
Good essays contain both.
Topic sentences
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reveal the main point of a paragraph
show the relationship of each paragraph to the essay’s thesis
telegraph the point of a paragraph and
tell your reader what to expect in the paragraph that follows
argue rather than report and
establish their relevance right away, making clear why the points they’re making are
important to the essay’s main ideas
Signposts
As their name suggests they
 prepare the reader for a change in the argument’s direction
 show how far the essay’s argument has progressed vis-ˆ-vis the claims of the thesis
Topic sentences and signposts occupy a middle ground in the writing process. They
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are neither the first thing a writer needs to addres (thesis and the broad strokes of an
essay’s structure are)
nor are they the last ( that’s when you attend to sentence-level editing and polishing)
deliver an essay’s structure and meaning to a reader, so
they are useful diagnostic tools to the writer-they let you know if your thesis is
arguable and essential guides to the reader.
4. Argument & Counter -Argument
When you write an academic essay you either

Make an argument- you propose a thesis and offer some reasoning, using
evidence, that suggests why the thesis is true or
 You counter- argue, you consider a possible argument against your thesis or some
aspect of your reasoning.
This is a good way to test your ideas when drafting, while you still have time to revise them.
And in the finished essay,
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
it can be a persuasive and ( in both senses of the word) disarming tactic
it allows you to anticipate doubts and pre-empt objections that a skeptical reader
might have
 it presents you as the kind of person who weighs alternatives before arguing for one
, who confronts difficulties instead of sweeping them under the rug, who is more
interested in discovering the truth than winning a point
It should be pointed out that not every objection is worth entertaining, and you shouldn’t
include one just to include one. But some imagining of other views, or of resistance to one’s
own, occurs in most good essays.
Instructors are usually glad to encounter counter-argument in student papers, even if they
haven’t specifically asked for it.
Counter-argument in an Academic Essay has two stages:
A: You turn against your argument to challenge it.
You first imagine a skeptical reader, or cite an actual source, who might resist your argument
by pointing out

a problem with your demonstration, e.g. that
i. .a different conclusion could be drawn from the same facts
ii. a key assumption is unwarranted
iii. a key term is used unfairly
iv. certain evidence is ignored or played down;


one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose;
an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.
You can introduce this turn against your argument
a. with phrases like
Öne might object here that ….
It might seem that …..
It’s true that …..
Admittedly, …..
Of course, …..
b. with an anticipated challenging question:
But how …?
But why …?
But isn’t this just …?
But if this is so, what about ….?
Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully as you can,
pointing to evidence where possible.
Remember that an obviously feeble/weak or perfunctory/unconsidered counter-argument
does more harm than good.
B: You turn back to your argument to re-affirm it.
You announce your return to your own argument with words like
But ….
Yet ….
However,
Nevertheless, …
Still ….
Your return must likewise involve careful reasoning, not a flippant or nervous dismissal. In
reasoning about the proposed counter-argument, you may

refute it-showing why it is mistaken-an apparent but not real problem;

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acknowledge its validity or plausibility, but suggest why on balance it’s relatively less
important or less likely than what you propose, and thus doesn’t overturn it;
concede its force and complicate your idea accordingly-restate your thesis in a more
exact, qualified, or nuanced way that takes account of the objection, or start a new
section in which you consider your topic in light of it. This will work if the counterargument concerns only an aspect of your argument; if it undermines your whole
case, you need a new thesis.
Where to put a counter-argument
Counter argument can appear anywhere in the essay, but it most commonly appears

as part of your introduction- before you propose your thesis-where the existence
of a different view is the motive for your essay, the reason it needs writing;
 as a section or paragraph just after your introduction, in which you lay out the
expected reaction or standard position before turning away to develop your own;
 as a quick move within a paragraph, where you imagine a counter-argument not to
your main idea but to the sub-idea that the paragraph is arguing or is about to argue;
 as a section or paragraph just before the conclusion of your essay, in which you
imagine what someone might object to what you have argued.
You should watch that you don’t overdo it. A turn into counter-argument here and there will
sharpen and energise your essay, but too many such returns will have the reverse effect by
obscuring your main idea or suggesting that you’re ambivalent.
Counter-Argument in Pre-Writing & Revising
Good thinking constantly questions itself, as Socrates observed long ago. But at some
point in the process of composing an essay, you need to switch off the questioning in your
head and make a case.
Having such an inner conversation during the drafting stage, however, can help you settle
on a case worth making. As you consider possible theses and begin to work on your draft, ask
yourself how an intelligent person might plausibly disagree with you or see matters
differently. When you can imagine an intelligent disagreement, you have an arguable idea.
And, of course, the disagreeing reader doesn’t need to be in your head: if, as you’re
starting work on an essay, you ask a few people around you what they think of topic
X-or of your idea about X-and keep alert for uncongenial remarks in class discussion
and in assigned readings, you’ll encounter a useful disagreement somewhere.
Awareness of this disagreement, however you use it in your essay, will force you to
sharpen your own thinking as you compose.
If you come to find the counter-argument truer than your thesis, consider making it
your thesis and turning your original thesis into a counter-argument.
If you manage to draft an essay without imagining a counter-argument, make yourself
imagine one before you revise and see if you can integrate it.
Copyright 1999, Gordon Harvey (adapted from The Academic Essay: A Brief
Anatomy), for the Writing Center at Harvard University.
4. Discourse Markers
Discourse markers are used
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
to connect sentences and
to indicate additional information
They can usually be placed in various positions within a sentence.
Discourse Markers can be used for a variety of specific purposes including to:

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
focus the reader on a particular issue
contrast issues or ideas
provide emphasis or
to structure information
The example sentences below illustrate the use of the Discourse Markers.
Cause and Effect: “As globalisation shrinks the world, lawyers are increasingly shopping
around ...”
Contrast: “Although her husband lived all his life in England, she tried to sue in the US...”
Addition: “In addition, US discovery rules give Claimants wider pre-trial disclosure...”
Typical Discourse Markers in Legal English.
For focusing and linking: with reference to; regarding; as regards
For structuring: firstly, to begin with, finally
For sequencing in a logical order: as a result, therefore, consequently
The example sentences below illustrate the use of the Discourse Markers.
a. He is a good barrister. He is not popular however with colleagues in chambers.
b. Damages awards are usually higher in US courts. On the other hand, it may be more
convenient to issue legal proceedings in England.
c. The Claimant is a wealthy man as a result of the damages awarded to him.
d. It will not be necessary therefore to take this matter any further.
e. To begin with/Firstly I would like to introduce the main speaker.
f. Furthermore it is hereby agreed that this amount will be in full and final settlement.
5. Critiques 6
When you are asked by university practitioners to write a critique of a text, they usually
expect you to analyse and evaluate, not just summarise.
A summary merely reports what the text said; that is, it answers only the
question “What did the author say?”.
A critique, on the other hand, analyses, interprets, and evaluates the text,
answering the questions, how? why? and how well?
It does not necessarily have to criticize the piece in a negative
sense. Your reaction to the text may be largely positive,
negative, or a combination of the two. It is important to
explain why you respond to the text in a certain way.
Step 1: Analyse the text:
Step 2: Evaluate the text
6
London Review of Books.
As you read the book or article you plan
to critique, the following questions will
help you analyse the text
 What is the author’s main point?
 What is the author’s purpose?
 Who is the author’s intended
audience?
 What arguments does the author
use to support the main point?
 Is there something which is
understated in the text?
 What evidence does the author
present to support the arguments?
 What are the author’s underlying
assumptions or biases?
You may find it useful to make notes
about the text based on these questions as
you read.
After you have read the text, you can
begin to evaluate the author’s ideas.
The following questions provide some
ideas to help you evaluate the text.
 Is the argument logical?
 Is the text well-organised, clear,
Step 3:Plan & write your critique
and easy to read?
 Are the author’s facts accurate?
 Have important terms been clearly
defined?
 Is there sufficient evidence for
the arguments?
 Do the arguments support the
main point?
 Is the text appropriate for the
intended audience?
 Does the text present and refute
opposing points of view?
 Does the text help you understand
the subject?
 Are there any words or sentences
that evoke a strong response
from you? What are those words
or sentences? What is your
reaction?
 What is the origin of your
reaction to this topic? When or
when did you first learn about
it? Can you think of people,
articles, or discussions that have
influenced your views?
 How might these be compared or
contrasted to this text?
 What questions or observations
does this article suggest? That is,
what does the article make you
think about?
Write your critique in standard essay
form. It is generally best not to follow
the author’s organization when
organizing your analysis, since this
approach lends itself to summary rather
than analysis.
Begin with an introduction that defines
 the subject of your critique and
 your point of view.
Defend your point of view by raising
specific issues or aspects of the
argument.
 Conclude your critique by
summarizing your argument
and
 re-emphasising your opinion.
a. You will first need to identify
and explain the author’s ideas.
Include specific passages that
support your description of the
author’s point of view
b. Offer your own opinion. Explain
what you think about the
argument. Describe several
points with which you agree or
disagree.
c. For each of the points you
mention, include specific
passages from the text (you
may summarise, quote, or
paraphrase) that provide
evidence for your point of
view.
d. Explain how the passages support
your opinion.
Source of information: Rosen, Leonard J.and Laurence Behrens, eds.
The Allyn & Bacon Handbook 1994.
Key Words & Phrases
for Producing and Putting Forward Ideas in Academic Speaking & Writing
Organising the Argument
A: Phrases of Fact- used when we need to focus attention in a text or show a contrast.
A: Study the functional use of the phrases in bold in the following sentences
a. Maria is still unemployed. In fact/as a matter of fact she has not had a job since she left
school. (A phrase that introduces a comment that modifies or contradicts the information in a
previous statement. A phrase which indicates that you are giving more detailed information
about something you have just said)
b. He found it difficult to obtain work in view of the fact that he
had a criminal record. (A phrase which is used to introduce a
clause of reason)
c. Apart from the fact that the pay is low, nursing can be an
excellent career choice.( A phrase that introduces a
clause indicating exception)
d. Although many criticisms and objections can be raised, the
fact is the new scheme has helped 300,000 young people find
work. (A phrase that draws attention to the most important
thing you have been saying)
e. I am not interested in what you think might have
happened.Just give me the bare facts.( A phrase used to refer
to information which is known to be true, as opposed to
speculation)
B: Sequencing words and phrases which show the stages of the argument- the structure
of the essay
Study the functional use of the phrases in bold in the following sentences
a. To begin with, many women find it difficult ----b. In the second place, the traditional view of -------c. Lastly, since families often need --------
C:Phrases which give examples and a cause/consequence relationship
a. For instance, not only is the view that ---------
b. An example of this is that few men ever ---c. So it could be said that --------
D: Phrases used to introduce arguments and reasons for opinions.
a. Nonetheless, in my opinion there is little --b. The main reason for this is that there is --c. For instance, not only is the view that women should stay at home
d. So, it could be said that a woman’s position ------e. Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women
f. Broadly speaking there is consensus ....../the standards are
falling
Direction Terms
Be familiar with the following direction terms used in academic writing/speaking to
display
 your understanding of a topic,
 your ability to think clearly, and
 your ability to communicate effectively in both writing and speaking
-
Argue: present your opinion and, through reasoning, defend it with
examples
Compare: present similarities and differences and perhaps reach a conclusion about
which is preferable
-
Contrast: present only the differences
-
Criticize / Evaluate: judge the strengths and weaknesses, pros and cons, or
advantages and disadvantages. Give your judgment about the merit of theories and
opinions, or about the truth of facts; back your judgment by a discussion of evidence
or of the reasoning involved.
Define: explain the meaning and (often) provide an appropriate example, set down
the precise meaning of a word or phrase; in some cases if may be necessary of
desirable to examine different possible or often-used definitions.
Describe / Illustrate: present the main points with clear examples that enhance
the discussion, give a detailed or graphic account
Differentiate / Distinguish: present the differences between two things
Discuss / Explain: present the main points, facts, and details of a topic; give reasons.
Investigate or examine by argument; give reasons for and against
Enumerate / List / Identify / Outline: write a list of the main points with brief
explanations
Evaluate- make an appraisal of the worth of something
Explain-make plain;interpret and account for; give reasons
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Interpret: present your analysis of the topic using facts and reasoning, expound
the meaning of;make clear and explicit, usually giving your judgment.
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Justify / Prove: present evidence and reasons that support the topic
Summarize: briefly state the main ideas in an organized manner
-
Trace: state the main points in logical or chronological order
Presenting arguments and commenting on others’ work
a. i. This article advocates a somewhat different approach to the problem than that
which has been put forward by others in the field. (argues in favour of it )
ii. In his speech he advocated capital punishment.
b. Look at the complete set of graphs and see if you can deduce the rules governing the
data from them. (to reach a conclusion by thinking carefully about the known facts)
c. A great deal can be inferred about the artist’s state of mind from the content and style
of his later works. ( to reach a conclusion indirectly)
d. Although my brother and I are researching in similar areas, our work, fortunately, does
not overlap.( it partially covers the same material) It has, however, often been said what I
do complements his work very well. ( it combines well with it so that each piece of work
becomes more effective.)
e. You might call someone’s work

empirical.( based on what is observed rather than theory) e.g a research based on
a survey of the population




ambiguous (open to different interpretations) e.g a poem which can be
understood in two quite different ways
coherent ( logically structured) e.g an argument which is well-expressed and
easy to follow
comprehensive ( covering all that is relevant) e.g a textbook which gives a broad
overview of an entire discipline
authoritative ( thorough and expert) e.g a textbook written by the most highly
regarded expert in the field