ARCP2011-06FP-Carter
Water and coral reef quality in the east Gulf of Thailand
RW (Bill) Carter 1 , Kath Kelly, Neil Tindale, Harriot Beazley, Suchai
Worachananant and Pasinee Worachananant
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Corresponding Author
University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland Australia
Email: bcarter@usc.edu.au
Abstract: Knowledge of the status of coral reefs in the east Gulf of
Thailand is incomplete, along with trends in fishery take and the status
and influence of water quality on reef productivity. Available evidence
suggests declining quality of reefs, unsustainable fisheries and increased
anthropogenic impacts on water quality, which cascades through trophic
levels resulting in reef degradation. This paper reports the rationale for
amassing both scientific and community data and understandings as input
to integrated marine resource management. The research process seeks to
engage policy makers and communities in clarifying reef status and
threats, and provide impetus to discussions of transnational management
of coral reefs and the threats across Thailand, Cambodia and Viet Nam.
Keywords: coral reef status, water quality, experiential knowledge, east
Gulf of Thailand, transnational management
Coral reef status and threats in the east Gulf of Thailand
The coastal waters of the eastern Gulf of Thailand (Trat Province, Thailand to Kien Giang
Province, Viet Nam1) include over 200 islands, ranging in size from small rocky outcrops to
Phu Quoc island, Viet Nam (57,400ha.)2. Fishing communities/families inhabit many of the
larger islands, and some include low-key tourist facilities as well as luxury accommodation.
Almost all of the islands are surrounded by fringing coral reefs with occasional offshore
patch reefs. The health of the coral reefs is reported to be generally poor, with low species
diversity with the average live coral cover for the whole coastline being 23% to 58% (see
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Trat Province, Thailand has around 184km of coastline, Cambodia, 435km, and Kien Giang Province, Viet
Nam, 200km.
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Ko Chang (42,900ha.) is the third largest island in Thailand, while the off-shore island of Koh Rong (7,800
ha.) is the second largest to the inshore island of Koh Kong in Cambodia.
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Rizvi & Singer 2011). Most corals are of the robust massive or encrusting life forms. Porites,
Diploastrea and Heliopora species dominate, and the lack of more sensitive life forms possibly
indicates the effects of sedimentation. Tabulate and branching life forms, important for many juvenile
fish species, are rarely observed (van-Bochove et al. 2012). Thus, many reef areas are
dominated by dead coral and under continuing degrading pressures, although quality reefs do
exist, largely away from the coast and around the smaller islands. However, the status of
these reefs has not been assessed.
Threats
The major threats to the reefs are from direct attrition of the biota from destructive and overfishing as well as diving (see Worachananant et al. 2008), and the less direct, but more
impacting effects of coastal development, pollution and sedimentation (van-Bochove et al.
2011). Coral reefs in the Gulf of Thailand are adapted to wet-season high turbidity levels;
however, the additional sediment and pollutant loads from rivers, the result of poor up-stream
land management, increase light attenuation; a major limitation for reef growth. In addition,
nutrients in untreated sewage in marine outfalls from domestic and tourism development adds
to the pressure on corals into the dry season, when tourist visitation is highest (see
Reopanichkul et al. 2010; Reopanichkul et al. 2009).
Protected areas
Few marine national parks have been established to protect the coral reefs, although a number
of proposals exist (e.g., van-Bochove et al. 2012). In most cases, a multiple use zoning
approach has been proposed. The marine national parks that do exist in the three countries
have all been assessed as having medium management effectiveness (UNEP 2008). The
dynamics of marine systems do not reflect national boundaries; neither does anthropogenic
activity that impacts the reefs. The east Gulf of Thailand is an integrated system that requires
a holistic and adaptive management approach that extends beyond national boundaries.
Best knowledge and towards a co-management model
In the absence of complete scientific knowledge, multiple lines of evidence, including
community experiential knowledge, are needed to inform management decisions. This
knowledge, which can be longitudinal, may be the best available for application to adaptive
management of marine areas. The process of acquisition also represents an opportunity to
engage stakeholders and foster greater community stewardship for marine resource
management (see Carter & Ross 2012).
The research
Project objectives
This project seeks to:
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(a) build on the existing scientific understanding of coral reef status in the east Gulf of
Thailand;
(b) complement these data with local community knowledge;
(c) clarify the influence of anthropogenic causes of marine pollution and fishing practices;
(d) encourage community reflection on their role in contributing to (declining) water and reef
quality; and
(e) define a more integrative approach to the management of marine resources that crosses
national boundaries (Figure 1).
Community perception of
status and quality
(primary qualitative data)
Community concern for
status and quality
(primary qualitative data)
Community capacity to adapt
(primary qualitative data
and analysis)
Water quality, reef and fishery
status
(secondary quantitative data)
Fresh water quality
(primary quantitative data)
Marine water quality
(primary quantitative data)
Anthropogenic
threats
(data analysis)
Coral reef status
(data analysis & comparisons)
Policy options
(Analysis and review)
Biosphere Reserve option
Figure 1. Research elements and their contribution to policy options
Relevance to the APN’s science and policy agendas
Goals: The research brings together academics, resource managers and government officers
from three ASEAN countries with the common problem of sustainable management of the
coastal zone. A tri-national Biosphere Reserve vision will be promulgated through the
project.
Science agenda: The research touches on all APN themes, but particularly the biodiversity
(Theme 2) and resource utilisation (Theme 4) themes; it is interdisciplinary and involves
capacity building, and close engagement with policy makers.
Policy process: The research builds on existing links of the team with policy makers in (a)
Cambodia and Thailand via the Ministries of Tourism and Environment and the coastal
provincial governors, and (b) Vietnam via Kien Giang Biosphere Reserve.
Work undertaken
Literature review and collection of fishery data have commenced, along with preparation of
research protocols for the first round of data collection in February-March 2013.
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References
Carter, R. W., and H. Ross. 2012. Are we ready to embrace stewardship? Australasian
Journal of Environmental Management 19:207-212.
Reopanichkul, P., R. W. Carter, C. J. Crossland, and S. Worachananant. 2010. Wastewater
discharge degrades coastal waters and reef communities. Marine Environmental
Research 69:287-296.
Reopanichkul, P., T. Schlacher, R. W. Carter, and S. Worachananant. 2009. Sewage impacts
coral reefs at multiple levels of ecological organization. Marine Pollution Bulletin
58:1356-1362.
Rizvi, A., and U. Singer. 2011. Cambodia Coastal Situation Analysis. Page 58. Building
Resilience to Climate Change Impacts, Coastal Southeast Asia no. 6. International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.
UNEP. 2008. Strategic Action Programme for the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical
Publication No. 16, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP, Global
Environment Facility (GEF), South China Sea (SCS) Project.
van-Bochove, J. W., N. Ioannou, M. McVee, and P. Raines. 2011. Evaluating the status of
Cambodia’s coral reefs through baseline surveys and scientific monitoring.
Cambodian Journal of Natural History 2 114-121.
van-Bochove, J. W., K. Longhurst, and A. Ferguson. 2012. Initial scientific findings to support
the designation of a MPA around Koh Rong Isl., Cambodia. Report to the Fisheries
Administration, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. available at
http://www.coralcay.org/science-research/scientific-reports/. Cambodia Coral Reef
Conservation Project, Coral Cay Conservation, Puttenham, Surrey, UK.
Worachananant, S., R. W. Carter, M. Hockings, and P. Reopanichkul. 2008. Managing the
impacts of SCUBA divers on Thailand’s coral reefs. Journal of Sustainable Tourism
16:645-663.
Project Title
Coral reef and water quality status and community
understanding of threats in the eastern Gulf of Thailand
Project Duration
2-years
APN Funding
$60,000
Project Leader
Associate Professor RW (Bill) Carter
Full address
Sustainability Research Centre
University of the Sunshine Coast
Maroochydore, DC, Qld, 4558
Australia
Tel
+61 7 5430 1140
Email
bcarter@usc.edu.au
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Website
http://www.usc.edu.au/research/researchconcentrations/sustainability-research-centre/
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