ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE DENE PEOPLE OF CANADA
A Paper
Presented to
Dr. David M. Sills
The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for WWW 30960
By
Terry A. Leap II
Box 355
pastorleap@yahoo.com
859-223-5223
December 16, 2005
1
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE DENE PEOPLE OF NORTHWEST CANADA
If the term panta ta ethne (translated “all nations” in Matthew 28:19) does indeed
mean that it is God’s desire that he be known among all the individual (ethnic) family groups of
the world, regardless of how large or small1, then it is certain that even the Dene peoples of
Northwest Canada are significant in the eyes of God. Furthermore, if the vision of John in
Revelation 5:9 is to be believed, the redeemed in heaven will consist of those from every tribe,
language, people, and nation (ESV). Included among the peoples of the earth will be the small
and seemingly insignificant Dene people. These are a people for whom Christ died, and thus it is
the obligation of the evangelical church today to learn about the Dene so that they may be
effectively reached with the gospel of Jesus Christ.
The Dene People
The term Dene (from the Athapaskan word Dinee, “people”) is the self-designated title
of a group of aboriginal or native North American peoples (called “first nations” peoples in
Canada and “Indians” in America) located primarily in the vast and desolate Northwest region of
Canada. The term Dene Nation is actually used to describe a number of separate tribal groups
that are closely related by language, culture, and geography. Though each group developed its
own distinct dialect, the groups all spoke languages that were of the Northern Athapaskan
family.2 The principle tribes that form the Dene people group are the South Slavey3 (pronounced
1
John Piper, Let The Nations Be Glad (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2003), 169.
Though the numbers are dwindling, the native dialects of the tribes still survive and are regularly
spoken both in the communities and in the homes. Some studies indicate that the native languages are slowly dying
out, while others show signs of a revival of the use of the native languages, especially through the aggressive efforts
of the Canadian government, which has made a priority of subsidizing the tribes and encouraging the teaching of
native language and culture. See www.ethnologue.com for details.
3
The South Slavey are the group with which the author is most familiar, having worked among them
and been involved in an outreach team to reach the South Slavey in the greater Slavey Lake area for the last two
years. The website www.peoplegroups.org indicates that both Bible translations and The Jesus Film are available in
2
2
slay-vay), North Slavey (Hare), Dogrib, and Gwich’in (Kutchin). Though there are other smaller
groups, these form the bulk of the Dene people and these groups still exist in aboriginal (though
modernized) communities throughout the Northwest region of Canada. Generous estimates
would place the total population of the Dene peoples at no more than 15-20,000 according to
recent Canadian Census figures.4
The Dene People’s Geographic Location
The Dene peoples are located primarily in Northern Alberta and in the Mackenzie
River Valley of the Northwest Territory, Canada. Their territory is bordered on the east by the
Great Slave Lake and extends westward to the eastern edge of the Mackenzie Mountains.5 Dene
peoples are found as far north as Fort Norman, on the Mackenzie River, and as far south as Fort
Nelson, BC and Fort Vermillion, AB. Though often overlooked because of its Anglo (and
presumably Christian heritage), Canada itself is one of the most un-reached and un-churched
regions of the world. Though viewed as prosperous and “modern,” Canada (the third largest
geographic country in the world) has a population that is vastly un-reached. Only seven percent
of Canada’s population claims any affiliation with an evangelical church (as compared to 30% in
the United States).6 This shortage of evangelical witness is abundantly evident in the most
desolate regions of Canada, where aboriginal people groups like the Dene, though “evangelized”
by the Catholic Church in the past, are today spiritually un-reached by any evangelical witness.
In the context of the largely un-reached Canadian population, sub-groups like the Dene tend to
go virtually unnoticed.
the South Slavey dialect. www.rosettaproject.org has a wonderful translation (both English and Dene) of one of the
Dene’s more enduring myths “The Children Raised on Fat.”
4
See also Barry M. Pritzker, Native American Cultures: An Encyclopedia of History, Cultures, and
Peoples, Vol. II (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1998), 715, 734.
5
The Canadian Encyclopedia (Edmonton, AB: Hurtig Publishers, 1985), 482.
6
Richard H. Harris, Reaching a Nation Through Church Planting (Alpharetta, GA: North American
Mission Board, 2002), 126.
3
The environment of Northern Alberta and the Northwest Territory (NWT) could be
one of the reasons that the Dene are largely un-reached today. Their aboriginal land is classified
as being in the “Western Subarctic” and is a vast and isolated region characterized by thousands
of small lakes, rivers and other waterways that cut through low-lying, soggy plains. The area
experiences long, viciously cold winters and short, mild summers, separated by brief transitional
seasons known as breakup (spring) and freeze-up (fall). The waterways provide abundant
supplies of fish, while the only big-game animals in plentiful supply are the moose and the
caribou, which have traditionally played (and still play) an important part in providing
sustenance for the peoples of this region.7 The particular environmental and geographic
situation of the Dene may explain to a large degree why there has traditionally been such neglect
from evangelicals. There are few roads in the region, and very little commercial development.
Many Dene camps are only reachable by plane or difficult overland travel (in the winter over the
ice-roads). The area is desperately isolated and the living conditions are brutal. Furthermore, the
difficult conditions have historically led the Dene to live in small, mobile communities of
perhaps only 20-50 people. Although there are still occasional ventures into the “bush” to live in
such small camps, the modern situation has changed, with most Dene living the majority of their
lives in small centralized communities of a few hundred people.8 This changing situation would
be much more conducive for a church-planting movement to take place among the now
centralized and sedentary bands.9
7
Michael I. Asch, “Slavey” and June Helm, “Dogrib” in Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6,
Subarctic (Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1981), 291, 338.
8
Some of the more prominent communities include Hay River, Fort Providence, Rae-Edzo, and Fort
Simpson, NWT. Asch, 339.
9
Asch, 347, and “Slavey,” in Encyclopedia of World Cultures, Vol. I, North America, Chief Editor
David Levinson (Boston, MA: GK Hall and Company, 1991), 318-319.
4
The geography of the Dene people also tells much about the historical interaction that
they have had with Christianity. The Dene and similar native North American people groups
were first encountered by whites during the 16th and 17th century as the whites explored and
ultimately “conquered” virtually every square inch of the North American continent. The Dene’s
interaction with Christianity follows much the same (negative) pattern as that which took place
among the more prominent Native American tribes. This pattern included exploitation of the
people and their resources, forced conversion to “Christianity” (usually at the hands of Catholic
Missionaries, or in the case of the Dene, also at the hands of Anglican Missionaries), the forced
relinquishing of their lands and ultimately the loss of their culture. Most first nations peoples of
Canada and Indians of the United States have endured (more or less) this history and been left
with an understandably bitter view of whites and their religion. In this sense, modern Dene (and
other Native Americans) view their isolation as a blessing and are very resistant and even
resentful of any missionary activity.10
The Dene People’s Culture
There are many different and distinct elements to the various cultures of the Dene
peoples. Attention in this paper will be given specifically to the cultural distinctions of the
Slavey family of Dene culture. Other closely related tribes will have very similar cultural traits
(though not necessarily identical) which are shared by Dene peoples. Furthermore, when
speaking of the culture of the Dene, a certain dichotomy must be admitted to beforehand, for
there has been much assimilation to modern, western ways of life by the now sedentary Dene
10
Here, read any number of dozens of histories of post-contact Native American histories, such as Vine
Deloria Jr.’s For This Land, New York: Routledge, 1999., especially his ultra-cynical view of missionary activity on
pages 284-294. More specifically, for a history of white missionary interaction with Dene Natives in Canada, see
the excellent book by John Webster Grant, Moon of Wintertime (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 96118. For a more flowery Anglo-perspective, see Muriel Beaton Patterson, Messenger of the Great Spirit: Robert
Terrill Rundle (New York: Friendship Press, 1947), 19-23.
5
people. However, there is still recognition of and great adherence to the Dene culture.
Surprisingly, in the fertile environment provided by the Canadian government, there is actually a
resurgence of traditional Dene culture among the various tribes.
Daily Life
Traditionally, the Dene peoples were a hunter-gatherer culture, with daily survival
being dependent upon the food gathered by hunting and fishing. Small mobile groups of 10-20
interrelated family members lived in the bush and followed the migration of caribou most of the
year. The men were traditionally hunters and occasionally warriors, while the women were
responsible for gathering berries (when available), preparing the wild game, and maintaining the
living quarters. Though this has changed somewhat in modern times, the Dene still keep many
“fish camps” and “hunt camps” and venture into the bush regularly for food gathering. They are
still very much dependent upon food gathered in the wild even in the modern era, and especially
during the long winters when travel to commercial centers is difficult or impossible. Though the
Dene had traditionally been known for their moose-hide (and other game hide) clothing, most
Dene today adhere to modern western dress. Again, when the Dene were nomadic, they lived in
movable, conical structures resembling tepees, or in log cabin-like structures built in the bush,
but in modern situations, most live in simple permanent homes or even mobile homes purchased
far away. Transportation was traditionally by canoe and foot (the Dene make excellent
snowshoes), but today most Dene drive modern vehicles in the warm months and depend almost
totally upon snow-mobiles during the winter months. Interestingly, in the NWT, as in other parts
of Canada, most travel in winter is done using the “ice-roads” which are roads that follow frozen
6
rivers and go great distances over frozen lakes and ponds on ice that is often several feet thick.
The Dene travel great distances over these ice-roads in the winter.11
Life Cycle Patterns
Among the traditional Dene, the birth of a child is a celebrated event and children
were highly valued. Birthing children was an event attended only by women and there were
many taboos surrounding childbirth such as discouraging any screaming during delivery, proper
disposal of the afterbirth, and even the isolation of the new mother from the camp until her full
recovery. Whether or not these taboos are still kept cannot be stated for certain. During infancy,
children were almost exclusively attached to the mother. Often, children were not even named
until later in childhood when a defining action or event occurred that revealed something about
the child’s character. For young women, the first menstrual cycle marked the passage into
adulthood. Young women during this time were isolated from the camp for ten days and were
expected as adults to part from the camp during their menstrual cycle. Young men passed into
adulthood upon killing their first large game animal, a deed which was often celebrated with a
great, public feast. Whether or not the menstrual taboos are kept is largely unknown and
certainly varies according to the family’s adherence to traditional ways. The young man’s kill
however, is still celebrated among the Dene to this day and seen as a rite-of-passage into
manhood.12 Children aided their like-sexed parent and eventually would assume identical or
similar roles as that parent.13
Concerning socialization patterns, Levinson notes concerning the Slavey that,
Like-sexed parents and the rest of the immediate family were fundamental to socialization,
which was accomplished with great leniency. The values of industriousness, individual
11
Asch, 340-342.
Ibid.
13
Levinson, 319.
12
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autonomy, generosity, emotional restraint, and control were encouraged. Because
noninterference, or “minding one’s own business,” was valued, intervening with another’s
children was rare. Disapproval of self-glorification, stinginess, bossiness, gossiping, anger,
laziness, fighting, and illicit sexual congress was expressed.14
The personal experience of the author along with interaction with other ministers
familiar with the Dene indicate that these values are still retained and cherished among modern
Dene, albeit sometimes in modified form.
Among the Dene both historically and in contemporary times, throughout the course
of life, sickness was attributed to either the witchcraft of an enemy, or evil spirits. Strong
medicine-men and/or shamans were required for healing, and traditionally the use of herbs and
natural remedies were a part of daily life and knowledge among the Dene. Practices such as
these are largely on the comeback in Dene culture. Along with this animistic15 view of sickness,
the Dene view of death had animistic overtones as well. The Dene feared death, and often
associated it with the work of evil spirits, sorcery, and even the “loss of a shadow.”16
Traditionally, death was somber and often the entire camp would stay awake to witness the death
of an individual. While near death, an individual was seen as possessing great power, and final
words were meticulously remembered by successive generations. Bodies were either buried in
the ground or placed upon scaffolds for decomposition. A dead individual’s belongings were
either place with him in death or burned along with his residence. Though modern Dene
14
Levinson, 320.
For a definition of and deeper understanding of Animistic religion, see Paul G. Hiebert, “The Flaw of
the Excluded Middle,” in Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, eds. Ralph Winter and Steven C.
Hawthorne (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1999), 414-421. Also, Alan R. Tippett, “The Evangelization of
Animists,” in Perspectives, as well as Gailyn Van Rheenyn’s excellent work on the subject, Communicating Christ
in Animistic Cultures.
16
Levinson, 320; Pritzker, 735; Asch, 344.
15
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conceptions of death have largely conformed to Christian conceptions, there still remain among
the traditionalists, many of these older beliefs.17
Supernatural World and Taboos
As has already been mentioned, the Dene people have traditionally been what would
be classified today as “animists” or “spiritists.” They saw no distinction between the ordinary
and the sacred and they viewed the presence of the supernatural in everything around them in the
created order, whether living or elemental. Understanding, controlling, or manipulating this
spiritual realm, while being in harmony with it, was of the utmost importance. Consider the
following author’s assessment of traditional Athapaskan (Dene) animism as it related to the hunt.
He writes,
Unlike Europeans, Northern Interior Natives thought all natural phenomena had life and
good or evil power. Hunters sought contact with the supernatural world through the vision
quest and dreams. They were very careful to show respect for the spirits of the animal
species on which they depended lest they offended these spirits, who would not give over
more animals to the hunter. The hunter showed his respect, usually by ritually disposing of
the bones of his fallen prey, and, after European contact, by making an offering of tobacco
at the subsequent feast. Sometimes religious beliefs led groups to avoid hunting certain
animals. Most Athapaskans, for instance, would not touch river otter because they
associated this animal with the spirits of the dead. Those who had special ability to
commune with the spirit world became shamans and performed rituals to aid in this
spiritual contact. These healed the sick and helped predict the location of game animals.
Shamans often employed scapulimancy, which involved scorching the shoulder blades of
large game animals and reading the map-like cracks that developed as evidence of where
game could be found.18
This insight tells us much about the traditional Dene view of the supernatural realm (a
subject which will be treated with more detail later). They held animistic tendencies, believed in
“Interview with Martha Rabesca (Slavey)”; Peter Kulchyski, Don McCaskill, and David Newhouse,
eds. In The Words of Elders: Aboriginal Cultures in Transition (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999), 363376. This fascinating interview, taken in 1994, reveals just how many of these “traditional” beliefs are still present
among living Dene/ Slavey people in modern times. Almost every cultural aspect that is described as existing in the
19th century by Ethnographers and Anthropologists are confirmed by this elderly woman as still being present in the
culture today.
18
Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn, eds. Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the
Americas; Vol. 1- North America (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 266.
17
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a creator, used myths and legends to explain the natural order and introduce communal ethics,
and spoke little of the afterlife, preferring instead to think of harmony in this life. Like most
aboriginal North American cultures, the Dene would have viewed time in a cyclical fashion
rather than chronologically like westerners. Furthermore, most of their worldview and religious
beliefs are difficult to retain because they were seldom recorded in any fashion.
Social Organization
Family units among the Dene have traditionally been nuclear and very strong.
Because the harsh conditions of the environment demanded strong teamwork, family unity was a
necessity. Children were valued for their contribution to industry, and the family group was
often extended to include the family members of newly married couples. The elderly were
revered and were taken care of until death and seldom abandoned. The choice of a marriage
partner was typically left up to individuals, though often influenced by the girl’s parents, and
young men were required to prove their worth by providing game and other gifts for the girl’s
family. Kinship was highly valued though there is no evidence of the existence of clans or
unilineal descent groups. There were seldom formal duties tied into kinship relationships, but
rather the principle of reciprocity was valued for the solidarity that it produced within the
nomadic group. On a more technical note, Levinson notes that “local group exogamy with
nonparallel relatives was preferred,” and that “close relatives were considered inappropriate
marriage partners.” Furthermore, he notes that “polygyny occurred frequently” and was usually
sororal and of socio-economic value. Asch notes that although modernization has made many
10
aspects of traditional Dene culture obsolete, many of these aspects of social organization are still
observed today.19
Beyond the family unit, Dene were known as a relatively peaceful people whose
relationships with other tribal groups were marked by friendship and warmth. This may explain
the tendency of the different Dene peoples even today to work together and co-exist for the
common good. Currently, although the individual communities are subject to most of the
Canadian and Provincial laws, the Dene enjoy a great deal of self-rule in their aboriginal
communities. In the wake of the 1970’s Indian Solidarity Movement (AIM), they have become
very active politically and have been recognized by the Canadian government as having
independent autonomous First Nations status. They work with other First Nations peoples
throughout Canada to attain First Nations solidarity and have a very active voice in Canadian
government and local and provincial policies and governance.20 The Dene have learned to adapt
with the times when it comes not only to social organization, but also in the area of selfgovernment.
Economic Considerations
In the arena of economic development, the Dene have not fared as well. As has
already been mentioned, in pre-contact times, the Dene were primarily hunter-gatherers who
provided for small, nomadic bands through hunting, fishing, and gathering. During the 19th
century, the Dene found great success as providers of furs for whites who sought to exploit the
vast resources of the Canadian interior when there was a tremendous market for furs. With the
passing of the trapping/ trading economy however, the Dene have been left with little economic
19
Levinson, 319; Asch, 347.
Barry M. Pritzker, Native America Today: A Guide to Community Politics and Culture (Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1999), 307-319, 341-343.
20
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opportunity. Because of their isolation, the only resource left for economic survival is their
precious land, which they both guard passionately, and occasionally profit from when the use of
it is not destructive or overly exploitative. In the vast Northwest, there is in the present day, vast
amounts of natural resources, including but not limited to, natural gas, oil, diamonds, and other
mineral deposits. Limited economic benefits come to the Dene when they occasionally allow
use of their lands to massive corporations, and often there is even the chance for sporadic shortterm work in the mines. With little development in their native territory though, economic
prosperity is limited to those who find government jobs or survive through local trade in the
small communities. There is a small tourism and travel industry during the warm months, but for
those living far from the main travel routes, there is little or no hope for economic prosperity.
This economic vacuum has led to massive subsidization by the Canadian government and most
Dene today live in poverty, receiving only a small pension from the Canadian government and
living hand to mouth from check to check. Poverty, lack of social services (such as medical care
and education), and lack of opportunity plague the Dene people in spite of the Canadian
government’s best efforts to subsidize the region. Many Dene feel that they are better off living
traditionally as their ancestors did rather than being forced to depend on the meager doling of the
government.21
Contemporary Social Struggles in the Dene Culture
For anyone seeking to reach the Dene with a message of good news in Christ today,
there must be an awareness of the many social and cultural struggles that they face as a people.
As has already been mentioned, poverty and lack of economic opportunity is crippling the Dene
See for example, pages 13-22 and 79-99 in Pritzker’s Native America Today for similar situations;
also Duane Champagne, ed. The Reference Library of Native North America; The Native North American Almanac,
Vol. II (Gale Research Inc., 1994), 598-600. Also, Volume 4, pages 958-973.
21
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people. Synonymous with this struggle are the parallel problems of substance abuse, depression,
high levels of abuse and divorce, and rising crime levels even in the small close-knit
communities of the Dene. There is a great deal of resentment toward whites because of the
problems suffered and racial tendencies run high in the communities of Canada’s First Nations
peoples. Furthermore, because of the isolation and rugged conditions, there is difficulty in
establishing a vibrant educational system, and many Dene children grow up not only isolated
from their own culture and traditions, but also uneducated and illiterate in the ways of the greater
Canadian society as a whole. One can only hope that a vibrant church-planting movement
among the Dene may help restore self-worth, and pride, and help to heal the generations-old
wounds that exist between the Dene and the culture at large.
The Dene Religious System
To attempt to define any Native American groups “religious” system is a difficult task
for a number of reasons. The first reason that this is so is because there is such a massive
number of various, distinct Native American people groups, each with their own history,
traditions, and culture. This makes it virtually impossible to systematize native religions. As
one scholar notes,
Each tribe is distinct, with its own language, its own history, its own religious institutions,
traditions, practices, and beliefs. This diversity and complexity makes it difficult to find a
starting point for considering Native American religions. If we choose the terminology and
categories of any one tradition or those of religious traditions as the base from which to
begin, we will likely prejudice all of the others.22
Secondly, the fact that most native traditions base their “knowledge” on subjective experience
rather than systematized truth makes it impossible to call any one tradition the norm. Finally,
virtually all Native traditions in North America are oral based, with very little actually recorded
22
Sam D. Gill, Native American Religions: An Introduction (Belmont, CA: The Wadsworth Publishing
Company, 1982), 15.
13
or written down, but rather, religious traditions, symbols, and rituals are passed down from one
generation to the next orally, leaving room for constant change, adaptation, and re-telling.23 All
of these factors come into play when examining the religious traditions of the Dene.
General Similarities
There are however, some similarities among almost all North American Native beliefs.
For example, almost all native groups held a belief in a “great spirit” figure, a creator or sustainer
over all creation.24 Almost all groups passed on their meta-narrative or worldview through the
use of mythological narrative.25 Most all groups held certain taboos and beliefs concerning
entrance into the afterlife. Most all held to a cyclical view of time as opposed to a linear view of
time.26 Finally, almost all were what modern Evangelicals refer to as animistic, meaning that
they were focused on the realm of spirits, powers, and manipulation of those powers. Though
these are broad statements, the similarities certainly exist widely. Ake Hultkrantz notes that
North American Indian religions hold four prominent features in common; namely their similar
worldview (by this, Hultkrantz means basically an animistic view of the “excluded middle, and
the existence of powers, spirits, and cosmic entities that are engaged daily, in every area of life),
a shared notion of cosmic harmony, an emphasis on experiencing directly powers and visions,
and a common (cyclical) view of the cycle of life and death.27 Seeing these general
commonalities, it is best to stick to vague descriptions when talking about any one group’s
Ruth Finnegan, “Oral Tradition,” in David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. Encyclopedia of
Cultural Anthropology, Vol. III (M-R). (NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1996), 887-891. For anthropological
analysis of the use and value of oral culture.
24
Vine Deloria Jr. God is Red: A Native View of Religion (Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1994), 7897.
25
“Native American Myths and Rituals of North America,” in Yves Bonnefoy, Mythologies, Vol. II
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 1152-1159.
26
Deloria, God is Red, 62-77, 98-134.
27
Ake Hultkrantz, Native Religions of North America (San Francisco: Harper and Row Publishers,
1987), 20. For full treatment of each feature, see 20-34.
23
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religious beliefs. Beyond these however, there are some practices and beliefs that are unique to
Dene peoples which must be encountered and understood before one can minister effectively to
the Dene people.
Specifics of Dene Religious Tradition
The Dene also base much of their spiritual heritage on the telling of many myths,
legends and stories. These are used not only to explain natural, everyday occurrences, but also to
give basis for certain ethical imperatives.28 Athapaskan/ Dene peoples have myths about
Asentma, Earth Mother, the Two Brothers, the Copper Woman, the Slave Woman, and the tribal
creation by the mating of a woman with a dog.29 Martha Rabesca recounts legends about
Adabeken and his mighty feats. Also very important to the Dene is their belief that every person
has a unique “spirit” relationship to the “spirit” of some animal, which animal will serve as a
guide and give power to his individual benefactor. Because of this, young Dene men and women
even today search in dreams or in nature for some indication of what guardian animal will be
theirs. Furthermore, among the Dene, there is a tremendous emphasis placed upon dreams and
visions, and the sure knowledge and guidance that comes through them.30 Furthermore, as
among most tribal groups, the Dene recognize certain special powers or spiritual guidance that is
present in certain individuals that might be called by the title of shaman, medicine man, dreamer,
prophet or elder.31 Finally, the Dene have certain rituals that are distinct to their particular tribal
28
A number of these myths of the Dene/ Athapaskan peoples are collected in Marius Barbeau and
Grace Melvin, The Indian Speaks (Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers Ltd., 1943), 87-92. These include stories about the
Thunderbird Adee, Earth Mother, Asentma, etc…
29
Helm, 302. There is also an excellent collection of religious myths, legends, and records of visions
found in: Patrick Moore and Angela Wheelock, Wolverine Myths and Visions: Dene Traditions from North Alberta
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
30
Nicole Beaudry, “The Language of Dreams: Songs of the Dene Indians (Canada),” World of Music 34
(1992):74-75.
31
Jean-Guy A. Goulet, “Ways of Knowing: Towards a Narrative Ethnography of Experiences Among
the Dene Tha,” Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 117.
15
group that they still practice today and look to as a source of religious power and manipulation of
cosmic forces.32 Besides these specific religious rituals, certain feasts and/or sacred dances are
often regularly or spontaneously held to commemorate special events such as holidays or
transitional periods in a child’s life.
Exposure to Christianity
The Dene people’s exposure to Christianity has been incomplete and usually
unpleasant, leaving a bitter legacy of betrayal and paternalism that most Dene are more than
eager to shake off. For the most part, the Dene have only been introduced to Catholicism (which
claims that 90% of Dene are “Christian” in the Catholic sense). They half-heartedly
accommodated the Catholic priests and system because of the benefits that it brought them. In
one book, numerous Catholic priests hail the fact not only that the Dene have received
Catholicism so well, but also the way that the Dene contextualized and indigenized the message
of Catholicism, particularly after the passing of the Vatican II document which opened the door
for rampant syncretism among the Dene, often encouraged by the universalist-leaning Catholic
priests.33 The fact is that they never abandoned most of their traditional animistic religion and
furthermore, in today’s pluralistic, multi-cultural Canadian experiment, the Dene are being
strongly encouraged to revive their native belief systems. This coupled with the fact that the
Dene’s past exposure to Christianity was unorthodox, non-biblical Catholicism makes the work
of Evangelicals in the future especially difficult. For future evangelical witness to be successful
among the Dene people therefore, the following five strategies are presented in brief form.
32
The Drum Dance and the Tea Dance are two such rituals that are uniquely Dene; Beaudry, 79-86.
Antonio R. Gualtieri, Christianity and Native Religions (Notre Dame, IN: Cross Cultural
Publications, Inc., 1984), 95-96.
33
16
Evangelical Strategies for Reaching the Dene Peoples
First, if the Dene peoples are ever again going to be reached with the gospel, the work
must begin on the simple human level of building fraternal relationships with the Dene people.
To do so, evangelicals must leave behind their paternalistic attitudes and tendencies. Native
American and Canadian peoples have felt the loss of empowerment for generations that comes
along with the paternalistic attitude of white missionaries. It is degrading, de-humanizing, and
un-biblical. If the Dene are to be reached, then relationships must be built with them as coequals, and as humans equally bearing the imago dei.34 Being always aware of the bitter past
between whites and Native Americans, the gospel must be “de-colonized” and re-set in a human
context, rather than in a “white versus red” context. Among the Dene, friendships will be made
when the missionary will take the time to enter the culture as a learner and a listener, and show
respect for the culture, land, and people. The Dene especially tend to like whites who are quiet
and listen rather than talking all the time.
Secondly, for evangelism to be effective among the Dene, the missionary must adapt
to a “storying” approach to teaching the scriptures. Pointing out this emphasis among Native
American cultures in general, Gill comments that, “Native Americans commonly view songs,
prayers, stories, and other oral events as spiritual forces whose effect and purpose extend far
beyond ordinary functions of conveying information or entertaining.”35 Instead of the
rationalistic, systematic, catechistic approach that westerners are so used to, the missionary to the
34
Marie Therese Archambault, “Native Americans and Evangelization,” in James Treat, ed., Native
and Christian: Indigenous Voices on Religious Identity in the United States and Canada (NY: Routledge, 1996),
147-148. Albeit from a Catholic background, Archambault offers many very effective evangelistic strategies for
effectiveness among Native Americans, including the use of humor, proverbs, sharing, generosity, avoiding
paternalism, avoiding Native co-dependency, etc…See pages 142-151.
35
Gill, 39. He notes again on p. 48 that “Story is an ideal form for…transmitting culture.”
17
Dene must learn that this culture is an oral culture that is steeped in myth, lore, and legend.36
Jesus himself was a master storyteller and the gospels are rife with examples of Jesus using
stories to communicate truth. Being aware of the Dene’s particular fondness for things like
dreams, visions, animals, proverbs, and humor in the religious realm, biblical genres and stories
that reflect these preferences should be chosen. For example, the Dene might more readily
identify with the story of Joseph (Gen. 37-50) or Daniel because of their allusion to dreams or
visions. The story of Baalam and the talking donkey may resonate well with the Dene, and lay a
foundation for further establishment of truth in time. Old Testament narratives seem to be
particularly effective in communicating with oral cultures.37
Third, music should be used as a powerful tool of communication with the Dene. The
music used should not be done in the missionary’s home style (i.e. southern gospel with a piano),
but rather the songs should be adapted to the Dene style and culture. With the emphasis on
drums in the Dene culture, perhaps a few songs could be done simply with a drum beat and a
cadence similar to what the Dene would recognize. Also, songs should be chosen that are either
very, very simple (the Dene prefer few words in their songs38) or songs that have narrative
content rather than standard western-style “praise and thanksgiving.”
Fourth, for any missionary to be effective in reaching the Dene with the gospel, the
experiential aspect of Christianity must be emphasized. As Goulet sharply points out in his
intense study, the epistemology of the Dene is such that they believe spiritual truths are only
transferred through and taught by experience. Therefore, the Southern-Baptist Sunday School
36
Tom A. Steffen, “Why Communicate the Gospel Through Stories?” in Ralph D. Winter and Steven
C. Hawthorne, eds., Perspectives On the World Christian Movement; A Reader (Pasadena, CA: William Carey
Library, 1999), 404-407.
37
See one author’s proposal that the story of Old Testament Israel as a nation offers many parallels
which the Native mind readily relates to. See Treat, 76.
38
Beaudry, 84.
18
methodology of teaching a child the “A,B,C’s of Salvation” will almost certainly fail among the
Dene. Christianity is something that is life-changing. It is dramatic. It is personal and in at least
this sense, it is subjective. Make much of sharing personal testimonies, and even emphasize
passages of scripture where individuals shared their personal life-changing encounter with Jesus
Christ, such as Paul sharing his testimony with Agrippa in Acts 25-26, or the blind man sharing
his testimony of healing in John 9. Personal experience is one of the greatest evangelistic tools
the Christian has, but even more so among a culture like the Dene, which so stresses experiential
knowledge over rational deduction.39
Finally, as a word of warning, the missionary to the Dene, if he is to be effective, must
be on his guard against the errors of accommodation, syncretism, and over-contextualizing the
gospel.40 If evangelism is not built upon the solid rock of relationship, then the Dene will tell the
missionary just what he/she wants to hear so that they will leave. Because of the slippery past
exposure to Catholicism, many Dene now blend their animistic beliefs and practices with
vestiges of Catholic Christianity and see no apparent contradiction in the process. Often the
error is the fault of the missionary, when he/she attempts to build bridges to the gospel using
existing native belief structures. This will lead to over-contextualization and will result in a
compromised gospel. The Dene have had this already. What they are in desperate need of is a
prophet to rise up and speak the words of truth and life in Christ to them. The missionary must
settle for nothing less.
Goulet’s entire article is built upon this premise of experiential knowledge.
Grant in Moon of Wintertime, devotes an entire chapter (11) entitled “A Yes That Means No?” in
which he discusses this issue from a non-theologian’s perspective and discusses the way in which the Dene have
admittedly used and accommodated missionaries for generations, only to retain vestiges of their message which
could easily transfer into their animistic context. He puts forth a surprisingly insightful discussion about the levels
of accommodation and contextualization/ syncretism that has transpired as a by-product of the Indian/ white
religious encounter. See pages 239-263.
39
40
19
Conclusion
The Dene of Northwest Canada are a people who are in desperate need of the Gospel
of Jesus Christ. They are a proud, unique, and important people whose past has left them
disappointed and without much hope. Their unique culture must be learned, appreciated, and
respected before any outsider will ever break into their social context. By understanding their
history, culture, struggles, religious beliefs and worldview, one will be able to both appreciate
them as a distinct ethnic group, and perhaps even break through the cultural barrier that will
allow the transfer of spiritual truth to take place and thereby allow God to begin a great work
among this people. Though their culture is difficult and their geographic situation brutal, Jesus
promised that He would be with us always, even until the end of the age. Thus, by His power,
this task can be accomplished. Someday, there will be many Dene around the throne of God,
giving him glory and praise for his revelation of Himself to the Dene people.
20
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Asch, Michael I. “Slavey.” In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6; The Subarctic, ed.
William Stutevant, 338-349. Washington: Smithsonian Institute, 1981.
Barbeau, Marius, and Grace Melvin. The Indian Speaks. Caldwell, ID: Caxton Printers Ltd.
1943.
Blackaby, Richard. “Reaching Canada Through Church Planting.” In Reaching a Nation
Through Church Planting, ed. Richard Harris, 125-133. Alpharetta, GA: North American
Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 2002.
The Canadian Encyclopedia. Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers, 1985.
Champagne, Duane, ed. Reference Library of Native North America; The Native North American
Almanac. 4 vols. Gale Research, 1994.
Deloria, Vine Jr. For This Land: Writings on Religion in America. NY: Routledge, 1999.
Deloria, Vine Jr. God is Red: A Native View of Religion. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 1994.
Finnegan, Ruth. “Oral Tradition.” In The Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, Vol. III (M-R),
eds. David Levinson and Melvin Ember, 887-891. NY: Henry Holt and Company,1996.
Gill, Sam D. Native American Religions, An Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1982.
Grant, John Webster. Moon of Wintertime: Missionaries and the Indians of Canada in Encounter
Since 1534. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984.
Gualtieri, Antonio R. Christianity and Native Traditions. Notre Dame, IN: Cross Cultural
Publications, 1984.
Helm, June. “Dogrib.” In Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 6; The Subarctic, ed.
William Stutevant, 291-309. Washington: Smithsonian Institute, 1981.
Hiebert, Paul G. “The Flaw of the Excluded Middle.” In Perspectives on the World Christian
Movement; A Reader, eds. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 414-421. Pasadena,
CA: William Carey Library, 1999.
21
Hultkrantz, Ake. Native Religions of North America. San Francisco: Harper and Rowe, 1987.
Hultkrantz, Ake. The Religions of the American Indians. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1979.
Kulchyski, Peter, Don McCaskill, and David Newhouse, eds. In the Words of Elders: Aboriginal
Cultures in Transition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
Levinson, David, ed. in chief. Encyclopedia of World Cultures, vol. 1: North America. Boston:
GK Hall and Company, 1991.
Moore, Patrick and Angela Wheelock. Wolverine Myths and Visions: Dene Traditions from
Northern Alberta. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
“Native American Myths and Rituals of North America.” In Mythologies, vol. 2, compiled by
Yves Bonnefoy, prepared under Wendy Doniger, 1152-1159. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1991.
Patterson, Muriel Beaton. Messenger of the Great Spirit: Robert Terrill Rundle. NY: Friendship
Press, 1947.
Piper, John. Let The Nations Be Glad! Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2003.
Pritzker, Barry M. Native America Today: A Guide to Community, Politics and Culture. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1999.
Pritzker, Barry M. “The Subarctic.” In Native Americans: An Encyclopedia of History, Cultures,
and Peoples. Vol. 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1998.
Steffen, Tom A. “Why Communicate The Gospel Through Stories?” In Perspectives on the
World Christian Movement; A Reader, eds. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne,
404-407. Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1999.
Tippett, Alan R. “The Evangelization of Animists.” In Perspectives on the World Christian
Movement; A Reader, eds. Ralph D. Winter and Steven C. Hawthorne, 623-631.
Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1999.
Treat, James, ed. Native and Christian: Indigenous Voices on Religious Identity in the U.S. and
Canada. NY: Routledge, 1996.
Trigger, Bruce G., and Wilcomb E. Washburn. Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the
Americas, Vol. 1 (North America), pt. 2. NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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22
Journal Articles
Beaudry, Nicole. “The Language of Dreams: Songs of the Dene Indians (Canada).” World of
Music 34 (1992): 72-90.
Goulet, Jean-Guy A. “Ways of Knowing: Towards a Narrative Ethnography of Experiences
Among the Dene Tha.” Journal of Anthropological Research 50 (1994): 113-139.
Largent, Floyd. “Windigo.” Parabola 23 (1998): 22-25.
Web Resources
www.peoplegroups.org has helpful information on both the Slave and the Dogrib, among other
aboriginal peoples of Canada.
www.languagegeek.com has technical, in-depth data on the Dene languages
www.ethnologue.com allows visitors to choose from almost all the aboriginal peoples of North
America and find helpful information about the tribe, culture, language, and other helpful
data.
http://www.nwt.literacy.ca/aborig/land/page19.htm This page gives current statistical data
concerning the number of Dene speaking peoples in Canada and the strategies that are in
place to keep the language alive.
www.rosettaproject.org A language-emphasis website that has an interesting transliteration of a
Dene myth. The story allows the reader the get a feel for the language and syntax of Dene/
Athapaskan languages.
www.denenation.com The website of the Dene Nation, complete with updated photos, events,
and cultural revival information.
www.deneculture.org The website of the Dene Cultural Institute, dedicated to preserving and
disseminating the artistic culture of the Dene.
www.indiancountry.com An interesting magazine that covers cultural stories about Native
American/ Canadian culture. At
www.indiancountry.com/content.cfm?id=1066401055&print=yes there is an interesting
story about a Dene woman who has prepared a cookbook of Dene recipes in both English
and Dene, in part in an effort to revive the language among younger Dene women.
www.carc.org/pubs/v20no1/dene.htm An interesting article on ways in which Dene
epistemology interacts with Western epistemology and the ways in which both are being
used in modern resource management and environmental science.