ETRUSCAN ART
The Etruscan culture was centered in Tuscany (Etrusci/Tusci, Etruria),
the area from the Arno to the Tiber rivers in north-western Italy.
Livy and Virgil say that the Etruscans immigrated from Troy following it's fall.
They may be indigenous or made up of migrating people who moved into the
area.
By 200 BCE the culture was a legend to the Romans.
Etrusca was a confederacy of 12 states. They traded with the Greeks and
Greek art
and design was incorporated into their culture with interesting variations.
Black figure and red figure pottery were very popular and tombs are found with
hundreds
of pieces of imported Black and Red Figure ware.
Apollo of Veii
c. 515 - 490 BCE, painted terracotta, 5'11 h
Terracotta was used extensively for sculpture.
This Apollo originally decorated the roof of a
temple a
type of architectural sculpture called an
acroterion
It was part of a sculptural group depicting one of
the labors of Hercules, he was struggling with
Hercules for possession of the Cerynian Stag.
The sculpture shows strong Archaic Greek
influence, compare with kouros figures.
Apollo very actively steps forward, but he has a
great Archaic smile and facial features similar to
the kouroi.
However Apollo is clothed and made of
terracotta, not marble.
Also he is very energetic as he strides forward
compared to the more static kouroi
Necropolis at Cerveteri
7th - 2nd c. BC
The Etruscans built large necropolis'
with sometimes hundreds of tombs.
These were located outside of the
cities of the living.
The tombs are beneath a mound of
earth called a Tumulus and were
carved from the tufa (soft, volcanic
rock) that underlies much of the
region, many are large and complex.
They are arranged in a very orderly
manner
Sarcophagus fr. Cerveteri
c. 520 BCE, terracotta, 6'7" long
These figures, a loving, married couple are similar to Greek figures, but there
is no counterpart to this type of sculpture of sarcophagus in Greece. They lie
together on banquet couch.
They look as if they will carry on their party into the afterlife in the company of
their friends and family who may share their tomb, or be in a nearby tomb.
Tomb of the Relief's
c. 300, BCE, rock cut
Cut from the soft volcanic rock - tufa - of the region
- Tombs are subterranean - covered with earth - tummulus
- The raised platforms are for sarcophogi such as the one above
- The interiors are highly painted and decorated depicting scenes of everyday
life and banquets and partying. There are also depictions of tools and objects
from everyday life. They give us a good look at Etruscan life.
- The Etruscans seem to have made little little distinction between life and
death. In the ancient Greek world (and the Etruscans had very close
relationships with the Greek colonies in southern Italy) the gods of Death and
Sleep were twin brothers, Morpheus and Hypnos. They are always depicted
together similar to the masks of Comedy and Tragedy.
Painting fr. The
Tomb of Hunting and
Fishing
Tombs were for the
whole family and
servants. A single
tomb may have served
many generations of a
family. The sarcophogi
would have lined the
raised platforms. The
gathered generations
eating and drinking
together forever.
Look at how lively and
animated this scene is.
Painting fr. The Tomb of the Lioness
Aulus Mettelus
early 1st c., bronze, 71" h
Although his name is Etruscan (Aulus
Mettelus) the sculpture is very Roman
in its naturalistic style.
The Romans date the founding of their
city at 753 bc
SCULPTURE and ARCHITECTURE of the REPUBLICAN PERIOD
509 - 27 BC
The Republican Period began with the dominance of the growing city
state of Rome over the Etruscans
It ends with the ascendancy of Octavian Caesar (Augustus) after 13 years of
civil war and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra.
Head of a Roman
c. 80 BCE, marble, 14" h
Unlike the idealization of Greek sculpture Roman sculpture is very
observational, trying to capture the essence of the subject
- based in the tradition of making busts from death masks
- Etruscan funerary sculpture
The portraits are almost painfully accurate, described
as veristic
- or super-realistic.
Busts such as this would be kept in the home in a
special alcove called the tablinum. Just as in the
Etruscan tombs the contemporary generation would
always be in close touch with those of earlier ones.
Patrician w/ Busts of His ancestors
c. 30 BC
Patricians were land owning members
of the Roman upper class
Portrait bust and full figures such as this one illustrate
the Roman reverence for age and wisdom.
Architecture of the Republican Period
Roman architecture takes elements of Greek and Etruscan architecture and uses them in
new and unique ways.
Concrete was heavily used by Roman architects and engineers allowing for large, open,
interior spaces.
Rather than creating masses, such as the Parthenon, Roman architecture encloses space,
large spaces for public use.
PAINTING and MOSAIC
Middle to upper class Roman homes provided large areas of wall for painting.
Some of the best preserved paintings are from the area in and around Pompeii - the houses
and walls were well preserved after being buried by volcanic flows from Mt. Vesuvius in
79 CE. T current system of classifying Roman wall painting was devised by the German
art historian, August Mau at the end of the nineteenth century. Mau described four styles
discussed below.
that are
First Style (or Masonry)
First Style wall painting fr. the Samnite House
Herculaneum late 2nd c. BCE
The surface of the walls used for painting are
concrete covered with plaster.
Paintings of the First Style enhance the flatness of
the wall with painted panels that imitate masonry.
Walls are divided into flat panels. Surfaces are
painted to imitate marble and other expensive stone
veneers that might actually be applied in upper
classes homes.
Roman artists and patrons may have adopted the
style from Greek wall paintings. This is one of many
ways that Roman artists and patrons indicated their
love for Greek art and architecture.
Second Style (Architectural)
Second Style paintings are illusionistic and naturalistic
The paintings create the illusion of space - as if the viewer were looking
through a window outdoors or through an opening into another room.
Scenes may be life-size and make very effective use of light and shade.
Painters developed a form of linear perspective, but, it is not as consistent as
the mathematical model for perspective developed by Brunelleschi in the 15th
c.
"Sacral - Idyllic Landscape"
From Pompeii, c. 62- 79 CE.
Sacral-idyllic (sacred and ideal)
landscapes depict allegorical scenes in
Nature.
_images such as these are found in
upper class and imperial homes and
villas.
They typically include sacred
structures which you can see four of in this painting.
The central figure is the god Terminus who is associated with borders and
definition.
The goats make reference to Dionysus and the temple is a temple of Diana.
Landscapes such as these are rich in allegory. They not only reaffirm the
Roman love of nature and country life but they also may serve to reaffirm the
Augustan program of peace, abundance and upper class fecundity.
The Roman love for nature and the pastoral life is also reflected in the
development of the villa or a house dedicated to suburban or country living.
In Second Style paintings the image serves as an opening, or view, into
another landscape or scene, sometimes separated and/or framed by columns.
Subjects may be buildings, stilll lifes, landscapes or figures in an architectural
or landscape setting.
Odysseus in the Underworld
Rome, c. 50-40 B.C.
The patron sought not only to
decorate their home but also to
demonstrate their knowledge of
classical literature as this painting, illustrating a scene from the Odyssey,
would have.
Note how the painted panel is framed by painted columns.
"Gardenscape"
Villa of Livia, Primaporta
(Rome),
c. 30 - 20 B.C.E.
Here in the house of Livia,
Augustus' wife, the painter
has done away with any
framing devices, the wall
opens out completely into
the orchard scene.
The skillful painter
includes another device for
suggesting
three-dimensional depth,
atmospheric perspective.
We see this in the less
detailed, more generalized
forms of the further trees in
the picture.
"Scenes of a Dionysiac Mystery
Cult"
Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, c.
60 - 50 B.C.E.
This room in the "Villa of the
Mysteries" with it's expansive
fresco program may have been used for private celebrations of the rites of the
Greek god Dionysus.
The scene is very clearly organized
and framed with architectural elements.
The space is shallow but is as if we are looking into a
theatrical setting.
The figures appear sculptural through the painter's
very effective use of light and shade.
Third Style (Ornate)
Detail of a Third Style wall painting fr.
Cubiculum 15,
Villa of Agrippa Postumus, Boscotrecase, c. 10
B.C.E., 7'8" h
In Third Style wall paintings the wall is no longer
a view into an illusionistic setting.
It serves to support smaller paintings.
The wall is divided into smaller panels which
support framed paintings - as in an art gallery.
This gives both the painter and the patron more
flexibility in design and presentation. Paintings
may be removed and/or repainted easily without
the need to repaint a whole wall
Fourth Style
(intricate)
"Peaches and Jar"
c. 62-79 B.C.E., Detail of a Fourth Style painting from Herculaneum
This detail of a larger fourth style painting is a nice example of Roman artists'
intense desire to accurately describe their world. The painting shows a keen
sense of the observation of the different qualities of light and how they affect
forms.
The Fourth Style of wall painting incorporates elements of the earlier styles.
The wall is divided into smaller panels and architectural elements including
small ornate style paintings.
It may resemble a gallery wall.
However unlike the clarity of Third Style "galleries" Fourth Style rooms may
appear chaotic and filled to excess.
IMAGES of THE EMPEROR
Augustus
portrait bust
Julius Caesar
portrait bust
Julius Caesar had named named his nephew, Octavian, his successor.
Note how both of these portraits follow the Roman tradition of veristic
portraiture.
Following Caesar's assassination in 44 BCE Octavian had to defend
his right (what there was of it) to the leadership of the Republic.
Augustus gained control after almost 13 years of civil war fought
against Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and Pompey. In 31 BCE he
defeated Marc Antony and Cleopatra at the sea battle of Actium.
Rather than use the title Dictator, as had Julius Caeser, Octavian
assumed the title of Princeps, or "first citizen". Four years later, in 27
BCE the Senate conferred upon him the title of "Augustus". (august great, the month of August is named after him)
The first century of the Christian era was a time of great expansion of
the empire and Augustus set precedents for following emperors in
terms of building monuments and structures expressing the glory of
Rome and its ruler, as well as great public works. Augustus
established the first civil service.
Augustus of Primaporta
20 BCE, marble copy of bronze
original, 6'8" h.
(CLICK ON THE IMAGE FOR A
DETAIL)
Primaporta is 5 miles north of
Rome, site of the villa of
Augustus' wife, Livia.
This youthful, vibrant,
description of the emperor
indicates a new style for
depicting Roman rulers. It is
quite different from the
contemporary veristic depictions
of elders that sought to elicit
respect for age and wisdom. In
fact, portraits of Augustus and
Livia show no signs of their
aging over the course of their
lifetimes. Compare with
Doryphorus
The youthful image of Augustus
is very much based upon
Classical Greek sculpture.
Augustus is shown as a military commander - the lance gives the
image of military authority as he addresses a crowd
- he appears athletic (although he was actually somewhat sickly his
whole life)
- he's barefoot like heroes or deities are depicted
- his face is somewhat idealized, though it is a likeness
The figure of Cupid(or Eros) sitting on the dolphin is a reference to his
divine ancestry. Roman rulers were purported to be descendants of
Aeneas, a refugee who escaped the destruction of the city of Troy.
Aeneas, in turn, was a son of Venus(or Aphrodite). In the "Aeneid",
written by the Roman poet Virgil, and commissioned by Augustus, the
story is told of how Aeneas after many adventures sailing around the
Mediterranean like Odysseus comes to the future site of the city of
Rome and founds the city.
As Venus was born from the sea the dolphin is one of her attributes or
symbols.
Review the Iconographic Representation of Power
Unlike earlier Roman portrait
tradition that honors age and
painful realism portraits of
Augustus (and his lovely wife Livia
- to the right here) always portray
them as in the peak of youth and
health.
Augustus's first marriage ended in
divorce. He had one daughter,
Julia, from that marriage and
never was able to have a male
heir.
In 38 BCE he took Livia as his
second wife. She was one of the
most powerful women in the
history of Rome and served as an
advisor to Augustus.
Livia
Architecture of the Early Empire
(27 BC - AD 98)
Pont du Gard Aqueduct c. 16 BC
Roman aqueducts still stand in
southern Europe, at least one of which
still supplies water to it's city
Pont du Gard is one element of an aqueduct which carried water 30 miles to
the city of Nimes
Public works such as the aqueduct were not only practical they were
propaganda symbols
Romans built extensive public works
- esp. water supply systems
- gravity fed, some are as long as 57 miles
- this one over 30 miles
- provided over 100 gallons/day/person
- no cement or mortar
- water channel was covered
Roman engineers took the basic round arch and
developed a range of structural systems from it.
These structural systems all allowed for larger,
stronger structures able to carry far more mass than
earlier structures based on the post and lintel system.
- barrel vault - barrel vaults are essentially extended
arches
- groin vaults are barrel vaults that intersect at a right
angle
- groin vaults used in series and supported by
buttresses allow for immense interior spaces as we'll
see
The Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) AD 70 stone and concrete
Called the "Colosseum" because it was built near the former site of a colossal
statue of Nero
It's like any contemporary sports arena - like the NAU Skydome - It seated
50,000!
The seats are terraced on arches
- had 76 numbered entrances
- heavier outer rings buttress outward thrust
Below the floor was a large service area, cages for
animals, plumbing and drainage system for mock
naval battles, lifts for getting contestants and
equipment up to the stage floor.
Gladiatorial events:
- professional fighters
- slaves/prisoners/Christians/animals
- entertain the public - keep them subdued ---TV?!
It's made primarily of concrete, faced with stone.
160 feet high, covered with an awning to provide shade!
- like a sail, braces on ground outside, manned by sailors
The facade is made up of three superimposed orders:
- Doric - Ionic - Corinthian - Corinthian pilasters
View down hallway
This view nicely shows the groin vaulting that makes up the basic structure of
the Colosseum
Architecture of the High Empire AD 98 - 192
Trajan's Column
A.D. 113, marble, 125' h
Originally it was topped by a heroic, nude statue of Trajan, a representation
that would have been analogous with statues of warriors or athletes.
Commemorates Trajan's victories in Rumania and Hungary and celebrates
the technology of the Roman Army and the civilizing benefits of being
included in the empire.
- the narrative is told in 150 separate panels which increase in size as they
near the top of the column - very much like an unrolled scroll - or comic book
panels
- the sculptural relief is low to increase readability and the description of
three-dimensional space is more symbolic than naturalistic
- space is created more by vertical placement and overlapping
- narrative fact is more important than visual fact
- as a result the space is compressed and somewhat chaotic
Trajan's Column, detail
Click on the image for a closer view of the god of the River Danube and the
Roman troops
The Pantheon 118 - 125
Pantheon (interior)
The Pantheon was a temple dedicated to all of the Roman deities. We use the
term pantheon to refer to the whole body of a culture's deities.
Built by Hadrian - Trajan's successor
The inscription dedicates the temple to Marcus Agrippa - friend of Augustus,
who had built an earlier temple on the site.
It is the single most influential Roman building and one of the most influential
buildings of history. It serves as a model for all later buildings incorporating a
dome - St. Peter's, Monticello, many state and national capitals, etc.
It is made almost entirely of cast concrete. Structurally, it is a cylinder
intersected by a hemisphere
- a dome sitting on a drum
- with a portico front giving it a traditional temple type of entrance. A portico is
formal porch or covered entrance supported by columns. The portico gives the
visitor an experience they would have been familiar with on entering a temple.
Once inside however, the large volume of open space would have been
overwhelming.
The apex of the dome is open to the sky.
The 27' diameter opening is called the occulus - or "eye".
Cross section
- Height of the drum is 1/2 of the 142' diameter
- the dome is 1/2 of sphere
- set into the drum
The dome and the drum are cast concrete
- The dome tapers from 20' thick at the base to 4' at the occulus
- greater thickness where needed - thinner and lighter at the top
- denser aggregate was used in the lower portions - lighter at the top
- basalt was used for the aggregate in the bottom -> pumice was the lightest of
the aggregates used at the top of the dome
Interior
The drum has 8 massive piers with
alternating niches
- the piers, framed by Corinthian
pilasters, are massive but not
oppressive
- the niches are each dedicated to one of
the planetary gods
- Corinthian columns between niches
Coffers in the dome (the recessed
square panels) lighten the load and
create a decorative pattern
This set of alternating levels on the
surface and the niches below create an
interesting space which advances and
recedes
Play between the horizontal bands and
vertical elements
The oculus is the only source of light
-27' dia. - merges interior and exterior,
heaven and earth
- light moves around the interior during
the day like stars move through the night
sky
THE LATE EMPIRE AD 284 - 476
The Good Shepherd
The Late Empire is the time of the blossoming of
Christianity.
Early Christian art is really " Roman" art.
It differs from the earlier art of Rome only in subject matter.
All early Christians were Romans, or Roman subjects.
Head of Constantine c. 330 marble 8'
30' seated statue of Constantine in the apse of the Basilica
of Constantine
- modeled after the god Jupiter
Constantine's mother, Helena, was a christian
In 312, as he was marching to Rome to fight for his office of Emperor (to which
he had been elected by his father's troops) he had a vision of a cross
emblazoned on the sun with the words "In this sign you shall conquer"
Following this he had his men put the monogram chi - rho (Greek first two
letters of Christ) on their uniforms
He won a victory over his rival, Maxentius, at the Milvian Bridge, outside
Rome.
In 313 Constantine issued the Edict of Milan legalizing Christianity.
He heavily promoted it and gave the many financial benefits
- although he wasn't actually baptized until shortly before his death (337)
In 325 Christianity became the official Roman religion
In 330 the city of Byzantium was re-dedicated with a new name given by
Constantine - "Constantinople"
The Arch of Constantine 315
This triumphal arch celebrates the reign of Constantine and his victory over
Maxentius