ADVANCED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
LECTURE 8
KM SYSTEMS, SOLUTIONS, AND INFRASTRUCTURE
1.
Describe the ways to facilitate KM, along with suitable examples.
KM is facilitated in a number of ways by means of KM solutions. These may be
divided into four broad levels, : (1) KM Processes; (2) KM Systems; (3) KM
Mechanisms and Technologies; and (4) KM infrastructure.
a. KM Processes -- are the broad processes that aid in discovering, capturing,
sharing, and applying knowledge. These include combination, socialization,
externalization, internalization, exchange, directions, and routines.. For example,
internalization processes benefit from simulations or experiments, which enable
individuals to learn through experience, as well as from face-to-face meetings,
on-the-job training, and demos.
b. KM Systems -- are the integration of technologies and mechanisms, developed
to support the above four KM processes. KM systems include expert-seeker
systems, which help locate individuals possessing knowledge in a particular
area, and rely on a combination of information technologies and mechanisms for
classifying knowledge areas.
c. KM Mechanisms and Technologies -- are used in KM systems, each of which
utilize a combination of multiple mechanisms and multiple technologies, which
again in turn could, under differing circumstances, support multiple KM
systems. Examples of KM mechanisms include on- the- job training and
apprenticeship, while examples of KM technologies include databases and
Internet.
d.
KM Infrastructure -- reflects the long-term foundation for KM. KM
mechanisms and technologies rely on the KM infrastructure for their success.
Examples of KM infrastructure include the data contained in an
organization’s databases and the quality of the organization’s employees (in
terms of their tacit knowledge).
2. Explain the importance of KM mechanisms and KM technologies to KM systems.
Give examples of each.
Both KM mechanisms and KM technologies support KM systems. Their differences
however are explained below:
KM mechanisms are organizational or structural means used to promote KM. They
enable KM systems, and are supported by KM infrastructure. KM mechanisms may
or may not utilize technology. They involve some kind of organizational
arrangement or social or structural means of facilitating KM. Examples of KM
Mechanisms include learning by doing, on-the-job training, learning by observation,
and face-to- face meetings. More long-term KM mechanisms include the hiring of a
chief knowledge officer, interdepartmental projects, traditional hierarchical
relationships, organizational policies, standards, initiation, and training process for
new employees, and employee rotation across departments.
KM technologies support KM systems and also benefit from the KM infrastructure,
especially the information technology infrastructure. KM technologies are a vital
component of KM systems. Technologies that support KM include artificial
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intelligence (AI) technologies including case-based reasoning systems, electronic
discussion groups, computer-based simulations, databases, decision support systems,
enterprise resource planning systems, expert systems, management information
systems, expertise locator systems, video-conferencing, and information repositories
including best practices databases and Lectures learned systems.
3. Examples of the use of KM technologies include World Bank’s use of a combination of
video interviews and hyperlinks to documents and reports to systematically record the
knowledge of employees that are close to retirement. Similarly, at BP, desktop videoconferencing has improved communication and enabled many problems at offshore oil
fields to be solved without extensive traveling. Briefly explain the four kinds of
classifications for KM systems based on the process supported.
Depending on the KM process most directly supported, KM systems can be
classified into four kinds:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Knowledge Discovery Systems support the process of developing new tacit
or explicit knowledge from data and information or from the synthesis of
prior knowledge. These systems support two KM sub processes associated
with knowledge discovery: combination, enabling the discovery of new
explicit knowledge, and socialization, enabling the discovery of new tacit
knowledge. Mechanisms and technologies can support knowledge discovery
systems by facilitating combination and/or socialization. Mechanisms that
facilitate combination include collaborative problem solving, joint decision
making, and collaborative creation of documents. Technologies facilitating
combination include knowledge discovery systems, databases, and Webbased access to data. Repositories of information, best practices, and
Lectures learned also facilitate combination. Technologies can also facilitate
socialization, but to a smaller extent than they can facilitate combination.
Knowledge Capture Systems support the process of retrieving either explicit
or tacit knowledge that resides within people, artifacts, or organizational
entities. These systems can aid in the capture of knowledge that resides
within or outside organizational boundaries, including within consultants,
competitors, customers, suppliers, and prior employers of the organization’s
new employees. Knowledge capture systems rely on mechanisms and
technologies that support externalization and internalization. KM
mechanisms can enable knowledge capture by facilitating externalization, or
internalization.
Knowledge Sharing Systems support the process through which explicit or
implicit knowledge is communicated to other individuals. They do so by
supporting exchange and socialization. Discussion groups or chat groups
facilitate knowledge sharing by enabling an individual to explain her
knowledge to the rest of the group. In addition, knowledge-sharing systems
also utilize mechanisms and technologies that facilitate exchange. Some of
the mechanisms that facilitate exchange are memos, manuals, progress
reports, letters, and presentations. Technologies facilitating exchange include
groupware and other team collaboration mechanisms, Web-based access to
data, and databases, and repositories of information, including best practice
databases, Lectures learned systems, and expertise-locator systems.
Knowledge Application Systems support the process through which some
individuals utilize knowledge possessed by other individuals without actually
acquiring, or learning, that knowledge. Mechanisms and technologies
support knowledge application systems by facilitating routines and direction.
ADVANCED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
4. State the roles of (a) organizational culture and (b) organizational structure for the
development of a good KM infrastructure.
KM infrastructure is the foundation on which KM resides. Organization culture and
organization structure are two of its main components. Organizational Culture
reflects the norms and beliefs that guide the behavior of the organization’s members.
It is an important enabler of KM in organizations. A supporting organization culture
helps motivate employees to understand the importance and benefits from KM and
to find time for it. Getting people to participate in knowledge sharing is considered
the hardest part of KM, and a vital part of implementing KM is in making it a part of
the organization’s culture. A KM enabling culture is one that understands the value
of KM practices, has support for KM at all managerial levels, provides incentives
that reward knowledge sharing, and encourages organizational interaction for the
creation and sharing of knowledge. In contrast, cultures that stress individual
performance and hoarding of information within units encourage limited employee
interaction, and lack of an involved top management creates inhibited knowledge
sharing and retention.
Organizational Structure is another vital aspect on which KM depends on. Several
aspects of organization structure are relevant. First, the hierarchical structure of the
organization affects the people with whom each individual frequently interacts, and
to or from whom he is consequently likely to transfer knowledge. Traditional
reporting relationships influence the flow of data and information, the nature of
groups who make decisions together, and consequently affect the sharing and
creation of knowledge. By decentralizing or flattening their organization structures,
companies aim to increase knowledge sharing with a larger group of individuals.
Organization structures can facilitate KM through communities of practice, which is
an organic and self-organized group of individuals who are dispersed geographically
or organizationally but communicate regularly to discuss issues of mutual interest.
They provide access to a larger group of individuals than possible within traditional
departmental boundaries. Consequently, there are more numerous potential helpers,
and this increases the probability that at least one of them will provide useful
knowledge. Further, they also provide access to external knowledge sources.
5. In what way does information technology infrastructure contribute to KM within
an organization?
An organization’s information technology infrastructure greatly contributes to KM.
While organizations could develop specialized IT infrastructure to pursue KM,
usually the existing IT infrastructure, developed to support the organization’s
information systems needs, also facilitates KM.
Information technology infrastructure includes data processing, storage, and
communication technologies and systems. It comprises the entire spectrum of an
organization’s information systems, including transaction processing systems and
management information systems. It includes databases and data warehouses, as
well as enterprise resource planning systems.
IT infrastructure provides capabilities in four important aspects: reach, depth,
richness, and aggregation.
Reach pertains to access and connection, and the efficiency of such access. Depth, in
contrast, focuses on the detail and amount of information that can be effectively
communicated over a medium. The richness of a medium is based on its ability to
provide multiple cues, quick feedback, personalize messages, and use natural
language to convey subtleties. Finally, aggregation involves the collection of large
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volumes of information from multiple sources for processing.
Knowledge Exercises
1.
How would you develop a KM system? What are the possible mechanisms and
technologies you could utilize?
In developing KM systems to support KM processes, I would utilize a
variety of KM mechanisms and technologies.
KM mechanisms involve some kind of organizational arrangement or social or
structural means of facilitating KM. The possible KM mechanisms that could be
utilized are learning by doing, on-the-job training, learning by observation, and faceto-face meetings. More long-term KM mechanisms include the hiring of a chief
knowledge officer, co-operative projects across departments, traditional hierarchical
relationships, organizational policies, standards, initiation process for new
employees, and employee rotation across department
2.
KM technologies benefit from the KM infrastructure, especially the information
technology infrastructure. Examples of KM technologies are the use of a
combination of video interviews and hyperlinks to documents and reports to
systematically record the knowledge of employees close to retirement, desktop
video- conferencing for communication and enabling problem solving at offshore
locations without the need for extensive traveling.
Organization that is spread across the globe? Does geographic distance hamper
the utilization of these systems?
In an organization spread across the globe, the use of knowledge discovery systems
and knowledge capture systems do tend to get hampered to some extent due to
geographic distances, but due to the increasing use of technology, these problems
are getting smaller and smaller.
Knowledge discovery systems support the process of developing new tacit or
explicit knowledge from data and information or from the synthesis of prior
knowledge. Mechanisms and technologies can support knowledge discovery
systems by facilitating combination and/or socialization.
·
Mechanisms that facilitate combination include collaborative problem solving,
joint decision making, and collaborative creation of documents. In a global
organization sharing documents among senior management results in the
creation of new explicit knowledge, resulting in a better understanding of
products and a corporate vision. Mechanisms that facilitate socialization include
apprenticeships, employee rotation across areas, conferences, brainstorming
retreats, cooperative projects across departments, and initiation process for new
employees. In a global organization, this could become expensive, however, as it
would involve the physical transfer of employees from one location to another.
·
Technologies facilitating combination include knowledge discovery systems,
databases, and Web-based access to data. Repositories of information, best
ADVANCED KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
practices and Lectures learned would also facilitate combination in global
organizations. Technologies can also facilitate socialization, but to a smaller
extent than they can facilitate combination. Some of the technologies for
facilitating socialization in a global organization include video-conferencing and
electronic support for communities of practice.
Knowledge capture systems support the process of retrieving either explicit
or tacit knowledge that resides within people, artifacts, or organizational
entities. Knowledge capture systems rely on mechanisms and technologies
that support externalization and internalization.
·
Mechanisms can enable knowledge capture by facilitating externalization, i.e.,
the conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit form, or internalization, i.e., the
conversion of explicit knowledge into tacit form. The development of models or
prototypes, and the articulation of best practices or Lectures learned are some
examples of mechanisms that might enable externalization in a global
organization. Learning by doing, on-the-job training, learning by observation
and face-to-face meetings are some of the mechanisms that might facilitate
internalization in a global organization.
Technologies can also support knowledge capture systems by facilitating
externalization and internalization. Externalization through knowledge
engineering is necessary for the implementation of intelligent technologies such
as expert systems, case-based reasoning systems, and knowledge acquisition
systems. Technologies that facilitate internalization include computer-based
training and communication technologies.