Empowering Students with Asperger’s Syndrome to Succeed at
University –Good Practice Guidelines for Staff.
Nicola Martin.
N.Martin@shu.ac.uk
Abstract
The author has recently undertaken an in depth study of support
available for learners with Asperger’s Syndrome (AS) in higher
education with a view to creating staff development opportunities
designed to extend good practice. The following paper describes
some of the findings to date. It is based on responses from over 170
HE staff that have direct contact with students who have AS in over
15 universities. In addition 8 people with AS currently studying in
UK universities have provided information about the sort of support
they feel would be helpful.
It is likely that university staff will meet students with AS ,
particularly in science based courses including ICT, where numbers
are higher (the majority of students in this study were young male
science undergraduates with good science A levels ).
AS has received a lot of media attention and staff often feel nervous
and ill equipped to deal with someone who may, in their
imagination, conform to the Rain Man stereotype. The reality is
somewhat different and people have found that students known to
have AS cope well if adequately supported. (Many others may well
be participating in university without formalised interaction with
support services).
Reliability is the key to successful backup. Achievement is most
likely if systems can be in place from before the state of the course,
and organised in such a way that parameters are communicated
explicitly and sufficient flexibility is planned in to avoid over
reliance on one person.
A student with a clear timetable and an understanding that they will
be notified in advance if changes are about to occur is likely to
develop a sense of security which will result in diminishing anxiety
levels.
A holistic view which understands that academic endeavour is only
part of university life is essential so planning to enable the learner
with AS to manage practically and socially is required. Therefore
staff involved in these aspects of the HE experience need a level of
awareness of the possible requirements of a person with AS.
Individuality needs to run as a recurring theme through all
considerations about how best to support people with AS. Not
everyone is comfortable with their diagnosis, and the effects of the
condition vary significantly, and interact with other factors such as
personality, ability and life experience. AS must not be viewed
1
negatively. Some excellent students have the condition. However it
is also important to avoid developing the sort of stereotype which
results in 'genius pressure'.
Family backup plays a crucial role in enabling many people with
AS . Studying from home is not uncommon. University staff have
to balance the understanding that a high level of parental
involvement is likely, with respect for the feelings, wishes and
aspirations of the student with AS who may be trying to develop a
greater degree of independence.
The guidance presented here offers a Social Model approach to
disability. By making the environment less disabling for individuals
with AS, the impact of the impairments which could present
difficulties in a less enabling context, may be minimised. Rather
than concentrating on a Medical Model approach to perceived
impairments as barriers, the Social Model emphasises finding ways
over, through and around potential obstacles. Celebrating
difference and diversity rather than perceiving people with AS as
other, or impaired is the positive position which is advocated here.
This is congruent with the view held by many (but not all) people
with AS who do not classify themselves as disabled.
Findings of this research have been presented at NADO and
SKILL conference in the past year, and at various universities
across the UK. A Power Point presentation summarising the main
points of this research is available electronically from the author
who can also provide a full or half day workshop on request via
Sheffield Hallam University.
Background
AS is a form of autism associated with more able people, but is not
necessarily synonymous with 'able autism'. Autism is probably not
the first thing that would come to mind on first encountering
students with AS, who may speak well, appear very able in certain
areas and project a positive image. It is possible that some may be
hiding anxiety, trying to appear to be in control and doing their best
to 'fit in'.
Difficulties with communication, social interaction, coping with
change and employing flexibility of imagination are core
characteristics of the condition, which are exhibited to a greater or
lesser degree. These may not be immediately obvious, but may
become more apparent when the student is stressed.
AS is not rare and diagnosis is not always unambiguous and does
not exclusively occur in childhood. It is likely that HE staff will
come across people for whom AS has been recently identified, and
those who received a diagnosis as a child. Individuals react
2
emotionally to the label in varying ways and with various degrees
of comprehension, and reactions may well change over time. Some
students are uncomfortable with the idea that they are perceived as
different. 'AS Pride' may be the reaction of others. The difference
versus disability debate is relevant here.
AS is more common in males, and science based courses
(including computer science) tend to attract more people with the
condition.
Most learners in the study arrived at university via the A level
route. Increasingly students with AS are accessing HE, so staff can
expect to encounter affected students. Participants also commented
that they suspected some students had AS without a formal
diagnosis having been shared. With increased knowledge and media
attention this is likely to occur. Caution is urged as the person may
not have AS, or may have chosen to disclose. In either case they
may be insulted by an insensitive approach based on assumptions
arising from stereotyping.
The Disability Discrimination Act part 4 (2002) is very clear that
‘informed consent’ must be obtained from a disabled student before
any information about them can be shared with a third party. This is
absolutely non negotiable. Therefore, any idea about discussing the
requirements or behaviours of a student with AS with their peers,
parents, or other staff or agencies can not be indulged.
It is possible to be supportive without necessarily labelling an
individual. While some students will talk about their AS, others
may be less willing, or may not perceive themselves as having a
disability. Sensitivity to the individual’s feelings is essential as it is
possible to cause stress by offering assistance, which is viewed as
unnecessary or intrusive.
It is necessary to be open to the possibility that additional
disabilities, including dyslexia and epilepsy can be present, and
problems with depression and anxiety may occur chronically or
intermittently.
Seeing the individual rather than the syndrome is essential,
therefore advice given here comes with a health warning. No two
people with AS are the same.
Staff are required under DDA Part 4 to make reasonable
adjustments to accommodate behaviours arising from a disability.
This is not always easy, particularly if staff are unaware of how AS
can affect behaviour.
3
Potential Strengths
While being aware of the requirement to view everyone as an
individual, feedback from staff and students with AS reflect
that learner style may well be idiosyncratic but highly effective.
Commitment to working hard, and a genuine deep interest in
an area of study will often be an advantage.
Reliability is something which students with AS not only value
in others but also often display in their own behaviour.
An unusual and highly entertaining sense of humour is not
uncommon.
Looking at ideas from a refreshingly different angle is a
common almost defining characteristic.
Potential Difficulties
Feedback from staff ,and students with AS ,suggests that affected
learner are likely to experience their individual version of the sort
of challenges described below, to some degree, at some stages. It is
important to note again that some students with AS are not very
accepting of the picture of themselves that the following descriptor
paints. The role of HE staff is to empower learners, not to classify
them in a way which may be disabling, so caution in interpretation
is urged.
Individuals change over time and some students present with a
diagnosis of AS which was made in childhood and a history of
having exceeded expectation. Parental perceptions may be coloured
by their son or daughter’s early experience and their own anxieties
about the ability of someone who seemed very much more disabled
in their earlier years, to cope without the high degree of backup
they have received at home. Parental support is absolutely critical to
many people with AS and it is important for HE staff not to
underestimate this. Many students with AS live at home, or go back
to spend time with their family periodically to alleviate stress. HE
staff have to find a balance between helpful interaction with
parents, not breeching confidentiality and not accepting the world
view and expectations of a third party, rather than that held by the
individual concerned.
Social Interaction
One of the main disadvantage most students with AS experience in
the university context is difficulty with social interactions. They
may have no friends, or be vulnerable to exploitation by peers they
4
perceive to be friends (e.g. who constantly expect drinks bought for
them without reciprocating). Other students may perceive some
people with AS as ‘odd’ in some ways, and they may have
problems with ‘fitting in’ partly because of other people's reactions.
Body language and eye contact can appear awkward. Empathising
with others is something a student with AS can find extremely hard
so they may not realise how their behaviour is perceived, (for
example, when they are boring people). Peers may ignore, isolate,
include, tolerate, like or admire an unusual character, particularly
someone with an interesting take on life or an area of impressive
ability. Media stereotypes of AS may impact positively or
negatively on the way other students behave.
The ability of other people to empathise with those with AS is
rarely discussed, as literature focuses almost exclusively on lack of
empathy as an autistic trait. Encouraging values of tolerance and
acceptance and the development of empathy in other students is
something which merits consideration. It is possible to develop a
climate which fosters mutual support without the need to label
anybody. Bullying is something which students with AS described
as lessening after their school days were over. Although this is very
positive, it is important for staff to remain vigilant to the possibility,
in a low key-non intrusive way.
Communication
Communication may be more impaired than it first appears. Even if
the student has superficially good language, they may have
difficulty with some aspects of comprehension and a tendency to
take things literally. Expressions like ‘Take a leaf out of his book’
for example, are confusing. The language required for articulating
feelings may be limited and the student may not think to ask for
help. (On the other hand, s/he may make extraordinary demands on
the support service because of an inability to work out what is
reasonable. ‘Call in to Student Services any time’ for example
could result in daily visits).
Clear, straightforward, unambiguous language is essential to avoid
confusion. Jokes and sarcasm may possibly be misunderstood.
Understanding of instructions for exam and assignment questions
should be checked so that help can be given before time is wasted.
In class, the student may need to be brought into group discussions
by being asked direct questions and /or clear guidelines during
discussion sessions. It may be difficult for them to stick to the point
if they have become fixated with a minor detail for example.
Providing a reminder of the topic and asking the student specific
questions can help to bring them back on task. Social conventions,
such as not dominating discussions, shouting out or interrupting,
may need reinforcing in some instances. Emphasising, sensitively
the message that the language used in the pub is not necessarily
appropriate in the lecture theatre may also be necessary.
5
If it is necessary to tell an affected person something about their
behaviour directly, obviously, this should not be done in front of
peers because of the potential humiliation this could cause. A
popular myth prevails that people with AS do not experience
embarrassment. This is usually not the case. As logic would
suggest, if someone is doing their best to fit in, and their failings are
pointed out publicly, this is very unlikely to be helpful.
Occasional reports of other students complaining about the person
with AS, for example shouting out in class, were evident in this
study. Reassuring from staff that this will be discussed,
confidentially, is adequate.. There is no need to explain that the
behaviour is due to AS. On the other hand, if the affected student
has negotiated a way they would like information shared with peers,
this could be helpful. Some people chose to generate a short
statement about themselves, during the DSA process, which they
could choose to give out –or not. Importantly, this remained within
the control of the student, rather than staff, parents or others.
Areas of Intense Interest
The student may have, or develop, areas of intense interest (and
this can become the sole topic of conversation). If their fascination
is directly related to their course it may be very motivating.
Alternatively, it could be a barrier to learning. If, for example, a
student does not see the point of completing a particular element of
a course, which is required, and spends disproportionate time on a
more interesting element, the resulting potential for failure may
well need to be made explicit. It is possible to point out that it is not
necessary for the student to enjoy or feel particularly stimulated by
a problematic aspect of the course. It is however essential that work
in the given area is completed to a specified standard in order to
achieve the desired qualification. Appealing to a desire not to
disappoint a third party is probably pointless as intrinsic motivation
is likely to be a more effective driver.
Application of knowledge can create challenges for some learners
with AS. Analysis, comparison, interpretation, synthesising
information from a range of sources, and interpreting require a
range of skills including the ability to generalise and empathise.
Some learners with AS are highly successful at GCSE level and
then struggle when expected to work more analytically. Social
Science subjects attract fewer students with AS than do the areas of
physical sciences, mathematics, ICT and engineering-subjects
which de-emphasise the social context of learning to an extent.
As an individual progresses in his or her academic career,
opportunities for narrow specialisation will increase and the
products of in depth investigation valued. (Wittgenstein, Newton
6
and Einstein are sometimes quoted as examples of AS associated
with genius and achievement).
Anecdotal evidence suggests that some people with AS have a very
unusual learner style, It may be impossible for HE staff to
understand the processes behind the learning in every instance.
Strong visual perception is sometimes evident and it may be
possible to help the student to make use of visual strategies if this is
the preferred mode. Multi sensory approaches and activities to
facilitate personal organisation can be helpful. Some students
reported making use of the sort of study skills sessions popular with
some dyslexic people.
Affect
Low self-esteem, depression and high levels of anxiety are common
states of mind, particularly in young adults with AS. This may well
be exacerbated by moving away from home. Social isolation is hard
to accept by a person with AS who will often have a strong desire
for friendship and relationships. (Conversely, individuals with 'able
autism', rather than AS may be more content with their own
company and less troubled by the need for interaction). Students
may find it very hard to break into any sort of social scene at
university. Structured opportunities, such as attending regular
aerobics classes, may be more successful, particularly if they are
timetabled in and therefore become part of the routine. The
minefield that is Fresher’s week requires careful navigation by the
student with AS and support to join clubs and societies can be very
helpful, and someone with AS is likely to become a valued and
highly committed member. Regular recreational opportunities can
provide much needed structure to a week which can otherwise
contain a lot of empty time which someone with AS may struggle to
fill.
E mail can be quite an important lifeline to assist with alleviating
anxiety and feelings of isolation. A system to ensure that reliable
responses to email communications are possible will be necessary.
Some guidance on the length of emails and how to frame questions
may be useful.
Adherence to the Familiar
Unpredictable changes in planned activity can result in confusion
and upset and this may give rise to behaviour which others find
challenging, which could in turn increase isolation from peers.
Anticipated stressful events may have similar consequences. For
example, some students with AS are likely to experience extreme
levels of stress around exam time. Advising a student of a change in
routine can be as simple as putting a post it note on a door to advise
that a lesson has moved. Without this sort of thoughtfulness, the
learner with AS may find themselves at a loss to know what to do.
7
Anything more than this may be unnecessary and leave the student
feeling overprotected or singled out in an embarrassing way.
Difficult Behaviour
The term difficult behaviour represents a value judgement on the
part of a third party. Actions someone else does not like are not
limited to people with AS of course. However, some conflicts may
arise because of the student with AS having limited understanding
of social norms, and others being less than easy going. (E.g. that it
is not OK to take a motorbike to pieces in the middle of a
communal living space). Problems may occur because of lack of
social experience and an impaired ability to understand other
people’s motivation. Straightforward explanation about why it is
not acceptable to use a shared front room in this manner is far more
likely to be understood and result in behavioural change, than more
subtle attempts to get the message across through sarcastic remarks
or despairing looks.
The reactions of others can exacerbate difficulties, and negative
responses often arise through the inability of a third party to
empathise with an individual with AS, or a tendency to make
assumptions about behaviour, for example being the result of
rudeness. A label may also prompt others to ascribe all behaviours
to manifestations of AS.
Sometimes’ difficult behaviour’ is perceived as such by other
people because of their lack of understanding, for example of a
requirement to carry out some low-key ritualised activity. If a
person with AS insists on lining up their pens before starting work
for example, then it could be argued that it is unreasonable for
someone else to define this as problematic. In other words-why
shouldn’t they do this, especially if it has a calming effect?
Increasingly universities emphasise the importance of valuing
diversity. If an individual behaves in an unusual way, classifying
the behaviour as difficult does not sit comfortably alongside valuing
diversity. If a particular unusual behaviour has no negative effect on
the student with AS or on others then it is reasonable to expect
people not to interfere.
Sensory Overload
Heightened sensory perception may make some ordinary situations,
like using the refectory, seem unbearably stimulating. This in itself
could result in ritualistic behaviours in an attempt to gain some
environmental control, and the behaviour could enhance the
impression that the individual with AS is 'odd' in some way.
Avoidance of the refectory can be problematic, especially if the
8
student is not used to cooking, and therefore not likely to be eating
properly. Helping the student to work out where to sit in this sort of
environment may well be helpful. One person described their need
to sit in a corner so that sensory stimulus was limited because no
one could walk behind them.
Sympathetic Environment
With a clear structure, an understanding of where to turn to for
support and a sympathetic environment, students with AS can do
very well. Examples of students with AS who have been successful
indicate that high quality support early on can enable the learner to
cope with less intervention later, when everything is becoming
more familiar. On the other hand, people have floundered because
seemingly trivial problems, which are often social and practical
rather than academic, have become insurmountable to them.
It is important to note that help with coping with the day to day
practicalities of life, such as shopping, cooking, eating etc, can be
an essential requirement, so consideration to the sort of backup
required in halls of residence for example is vital.
The following considerations should help in the process of
providing a useful DSA assessment and planning an effective
service which includes anticipatory reasonable adjustments as
required by DDA Part 4. An understanding and acceptance of the
nature of the condition will help service providers to negotiate
appropriate support with the individual, and some quite simple
strategies can make an enormous difference. It is essential,
however, to focus on the individual and remember that students
with AS are not all the same. It is not enough to simply apply the
guidance suggested here, without thinking carefully about the
individual in question and the context in which they operate.
Overtly over supporting someone can disempower and disable.
Subtly backing them up is a more sensitive response.
Considerations
The following questions may help the DSA Assessor with their
recommendations, the Disability Officer with service planning, and
be useful to other staff who come into contact with students with
AS:
Pre-Entry.
1. How does the institution market itself? Is it known for having
an understanding of the potential requirements of a person with
AS? If so, is the information about the sort of backup which can
be offered truthful? Organisations which over promise and
9
under deliver are not effective in supporting students with AS
who rely heavily on people being reliable.
2. Before entry to HE, is some sort of transitional planning
possible so that the student has time to familiarise him or herself
with the environment they are moving into (e.g. pre-entry
Summer School or a chance to look at their room in residence
before moving in)? It is desirable for the learner to try things out
because of their potentially having difficulty with imagining
new situations in the abstract. Could a structured and
constructive gap year be really helpful for some individuals who
may then apply to university on the basis of known A level
grades and with A DSA sorted well in advance.
3. Is there an opportunity to carry out a DSA needs assessment
early so that support can be put in place from the beginning of
the course? (Recent changes to DSA regulations mean that it is
possible in theory to do this from the April of the year of entry.
The challenge is to secure appropriate diagnostic information to
satisfy the student’s LEA, and to find an Assessment Centre
with a short enough waiting list and a sufficiently detailed
understanding of AS).
4. Does the person carrying out the DSA assessment liase closely
(with the students permission) with the DO in the university
when making support recommendations? (Increasingly the
expectation is that a good quality needs assessment will include
this). It is necessary to ensure that the DSA assessment is
realistic about the sort of support which is feasible and that
arrangements are expressed clearly so that boundaries are made
explicit. A notetaker may be recommended for example who
can also help the student to organise his or her work. A buddy
may be made available to assist with social activities. In each
instance, roles, times and boundaries must be clear to avoid
ambiguity. How is communication with parents organised in the
DSA assessment, in order to make sure that the student has the
opportunity to put their view across? Ensuring that permission
is gained to talk to parents and time without them in the room
during the assessment is recommended.
5. Does the DO subsequently work with the student to negotiate
how best any information sharing should be organised to assist
people to understand the sort of support which is likely to be
required? If advocacy backup is needed for this to be effective,
what sort of strategies can be employed to make sure that the
student is putting their views across, rather than being
influenced heavily by the perceptions of a third part, such as a
parent?
10
6. Is the university experience considered holistically (as DDA
Part 4 requires) when the DSA assessment is carried out, so that
access to university life is not restricted to academic activity?
(The potential for social isolation and possible lack of
independent living skills, such as cooking and managing money,
are important considerations and support with these aspects of
life can mean the difference between success and failure).
7. Are the named people in the university managing the transition
process in liaison with each other and in consultation with the
student? (Parents are likely to have played a very large role in
enabling their son or daughter practically and socially as well as
emotionally, and can be an excellent source of advice, with
appropriate permission from the student of course. Sensitivity is
required to the possibility that parents views may differ from
those of their son or daughter).
8. Is staff development adequate, timely (anticipatory) and
available to all relevant (not just academic) staff? Residential
services’ personnel, for example, are likely to need advice. It is
easy to assume that an articulate, well-presented young person
has more ability to look after him or herself than they actually
possess. They may well have relied heavily on parents and find
it difficult to cope with practicalities, without fairly low key but
reliable backup (eg an early morning call, being shown how to
use the washing machine).
9. Do staff have the opportunity to consider their responsibilities
under DDA Part 4 in relation to what is required when working
with a student with AS? (This could cover how behaviours
associated with AS may manifest themselves in the individual,
appropriate responses from staff, course / environmental
requirements, and an understanding of confidentiality, and
issues around enabling a learner who may be very sensitive
about their disability). Is practical advice for staff presented
tactfully enough so they feel confident in their ability to enable
the student by providing reliable backup, rather than confused
and worried by the ambiguity around the disability.
10. Are arrangements set up so that the student can make contact
with the university, and receive an appropriate informed
response if necessary during the summer holiday after leaving
school /college and before starting as a university student?
(Anxiety may build up during this phase because of the
uncertainty).
11. Is it possible for a named person at the university make contact
with the student during the pre entry summer holiday to make
sure they know what is going to happen on the first day?A brief
11
phone call can make the difference between worry escalating
and diminishing.
Is the student's first contact with university planned (in liaison with
parents/ appropriate provider) and evaluated afterwards so that any
problems, which arise, can be addressed swiftly? (Is this the
responsibility of a named individual)? Simple planning like
ensuring that the student is met by someone who is able to show
them around can make a big difference, as working out what to do
in an ambiguous situation can pose a great challenge to someone
with AS in an unfamiliar environment.
On programme
12. Is there a method of helping the student to generate a clear
comprehensible timetable as early as possible so they can
develop a sense of security about where they are supposed to be,
when and what for ? Are staff clear that unpredictable changes
to this timetable will be very confusing to students with AS who
may struggle to work out how to deal with the unexpected. A
culture of informing of known changes in advance, with an
email or a note on the door or similar, will help all students, not
just those with AS.
13. Social experience may be limited when the student begins HE,
and they may have relied quite heavily on family support for
social contact. Is it possible to put some sort of regular
recreational activity in place and provide appropriate backup to
facilitate attendance? (The student may have never travelled
independently on public transport for example and may need
practical help with this). Can Fresher’s week be planned really
carefully to assist the student to develop a social timetable by
joining clubs and societies?
14. Help to arrange health care, dentistry, bank accounts etc may
also be required. What sort of strategies can be employed to
ensure that this is provided and monitored, and that the student
is taking care of their health, e.g. by eating regularly?
15. If a student is adamant that they do not require assistance and do
not want people to know they have AS, what can be done to
ensure that their right to confidentiality is not compromised?
(The situation is most complex when a learner is unable to
relate to the effect of their behaviour on other people because of
their own lack of empathy, or does not understand why aspects
of course work are falling below standard. Often, very direct
advice which describes the impact of an action on the student
and does not contain a great deal of emotional content is
12
required, e.g. ‘you have to go on the field trip because if you
don’t you will fail the course’. This response presents factual
information without unnecessary emotional overload.
16. Is it possible to support students without labelling them?
Arguably, if staff suspect that someone has AS, a low key
approach to enabling the person to access reliable support
services is likely to be more empowering in some instances than
an approach which requires a diagnosis. Very careful
consideration is vital before any interaction which involves
mentioning AS to a student who has not disclosed. They may
have a diagnosis which they do not wish to share and view a
clumsy approach as highlighting their failure to blend in.
17. Do the staff feel supported and know where to go if they need
help, and how to do this in a way which will not compromise
student confidentiality? (A one-off staff development event will
not be enough as people can be left feeling that they have to
cope because they have had ' the training’. Getting the message
across that support services need to be reliable and orientated
towards problem solving is helpful).
18. Is DSA organised so that personal support is provided,
including assistance or monitoring in halls of residence, - does
this take place from the start of the course? (DSA was not
available from the start of a course until last year because of the
way the system was organised. This was often a real problem
for students with AS who require front loaded support at the
beginning in order to manage the transition).
19. Are support arrangements made absolutely clear to the student,
reviewed regularly and amended if necessary. (A single named
person throughout the course may not be the best idea as over
identification may lead to a dependency relationship, but the
student needs to know what to do / where to go for support if
they get into difficulties. A small team of people able to offer
backup at a regular time each week is probably best as this is
likely to be the most reliable system). A timetable which
describes episodes of time limited support which occur at
regular times through the week can be beneficial as this can be
integrated into the routine.
20. Are transitions and changes which take place throughout the
course managed in a way that minimises stress? (E.g. changing
modules, around exam time). Wherever possible, can a student
be notified of changes, eg to the timetable, in advance. Can
some worry-inducing changes be avoided, e.g. could staying in
halls for the duration of the course be an option?
13
21. Are systems for communicating with the student made clear so
that they know for eg to expect email instructions, electronic
versions of handouts in advance of lectures, a text to warn of a
room change or similar. Sometimes electronic communication is
less stressful and has clearer boundaries than face-to-face
interaction.
22. Are mechanisms in place to help the student to work through
ideas in order to see connections between aspects of the course
and to generalise and apply learning across contexts? Lack of
flexible imagination is a characteristic of AS so support to do
this is a legitimate, disability related reasonable adjustment.
23. Does help with personal organisation, if required extend to
practical self help skills, such as shopping, as well as academic
backup, like filing work properly?
Transitions and pre-exit support.
24. Is careful consideration given to the requirements an individual
may have in relation to field trips, visits and work experience? It
may be that the academic side of this activity is relatively
straightforward, but advice on how to interact socially, what to
wear, where to catch the bus etc is required.
25. Is there enough flexibility in the system to facilitate exam
arrangements, which minimise stress? Extra time or a separate
room may be needed. The student may benefit from some
control of the space to minimise sensory overload, eg they may
choose to work with the blinds down. Exam instructions and
questions should be expressed in unambiguous language and the
format of the paper should be clear and familiar. The student
may need prompting to go onto the next question and to
understand time constraints. Rest breaks may be required. If the
student has dyslexia in addition to AS or uses unusual, possibly
pedantic language they should not be penalised for this. Practice
with a reader or scribe will be essential if this is to be used, and
changing personnel at the last minute would not be an option.
The exam routine itself may be very stressful and should be
made as clear as possible. Can alternatives to exams be
explored in some instances?
26. Are systems flexible enough to ensure that the student is given
every opportunity to succeed? (Credit accumulation and
transfer, modular courses, flexible modes of delivery, timescale
etc, and combined studies). Is a change of course within the
same institution possible where necessary? Is time out an option
and if so, is it possible to support the student in making sure this
time is not wasted-eg by studying for an Open University
module from home for a period of time.
14
27. Are end of course transitional arrangements for moving on
supportive and sustained e.g. with the support of specialist
careers and other agencies e.g. the NAS ‘Prospects’ service?
Finally
28. Is the approach positive so that the student is seen as someone
who can contribute and do well with appropriate support, rather
than a potential problem? Is this done without applying
subliminal or overt pressure on the person with AS to be ‘the
next Einstein’?
29. Is there a thriving culture of valuing diversity within the
organisation?
30. Is the responsibility for supporting disabled students owned and
shared by people at all levels?
Summary
Students known to have AS have achieved in HE with enormous
personal determination and the backup of sensitive support services
and often family members. Others have managed without disclosing
AS or seeking backup. Careful planning to ensure that reliable help
is in place from as early as possible is most likely to facilitate
success.
When staff are prepared and open to the idea that AS, an ambiguous
hidden disability, is real, and that seemingly trivial things can create
real problems, they feel more able to offer appropriate support.
Often small adjustments designed to make routines predictable can
alleviate potential difficulties quite easily. An attitude of valuing
diversity and not making value judgements about what may be
perceived as unusual behaviour is very helpful.
Staff feel more confident if they can access information which puts
across the message that straightforward, unambiguous reliable
backup is required by students with AS and they can play a valuable
part in ensuring that this occurs. It is not necessary or desirable to
hold the students hand all the time but it is essential to be clear
about the services the student can expect, and reliable in their
delivery . Help with practical and social activities is often as
important as academic support, therefore personnel from all parts
of the university would benefit from an awareness of their role in
supporting students with AS.
All staff development activities need to caution against stereotyping
and emphasise that no two individuals with AS are the same.
15
A culture which values diversity and is committed to empowering
people, the legislative requirements of the DDA, and an increasing
familiarity with people with AS in the HE sector, are factors which
are likely to make university more user friendly over time.
The Disability Equality Duty requires that disabled people are
consulted and involved in the formation of disability equality
schemes. Learners with AS may well be very vocal on the subject,
if encouraged and supported . Practitioners are urged to talk to the
students. The expertise lies with people with AS.
16
Bibliography -Further Reading
‘All Party Parliamentary Group on Autism. Manifesto’
(2003)HMSO.
Alverez. A. Reid. Z (2003) Autism and Personality. Findings from
the Tavistock Autism Working Group.Jessica Kingsley. London.
Archer. M. (1997). ‘Welcome to my world.’ Special Children. Nov.
/ Dec. 1997. P.21-23.
Arnold. L (2004) ‘Self Harm in Schools. Just a Craze?’ in
Donnellan. C. ed. Self inflicted Violence. Volume 77. p30-31
Independence Educational Publishers. Cambridge.
Ashton-Smith. J. (1997) ‘Living and Learning with Autism :
Perspectives from the Individual, the Family and the Professional’.
8th Annual International Research Conference of the Autism
Research Unit, Sunderland and the NAS, 7-9 April 1997, University
of Durham. Autism. The International Journal of Research and
Practice. 1(2), p.239-242.
Attwood. T. (1993) Why does Chris do that? London. National
Autistic Society.
Attwood. T. (1998) Asperger’s Syndrome. A guide for parents and
professionals.
London. Jessica Kingsley.
Attwood. T. (2000)' Strategies for improving social interaction of
children with Asperger syndrome'. AutismThe International Journal
of Research and Practice. 4(1)p.85-101.
Baillie. J. Tunnock. J (2004) ‘Establishing an Inclusive Student
Peer Mentoring Programme at Napier University’ The Skill Journal.
78 p7-10
Baron-Cohen. S. and Bolton .P. (1993) Autism. The Facts. Oxford
University Press.
Bishop. D. (1989) ‘ Autism, Asperger’s syndrome and semanticpragmatic disorder: Where are the boundaries? British journal of
disorders in communication. 24. P.107-121.
Boelte. S. Poustka. F. (2000) 'Diagnosis of autism; the connection
between current and historic information'. AutismThe International
Journal of Research and Practice. 4(4)p.382-390.
17
Broach. S (2002) ‘Autism in the Public Eye’ Communication. The
Magazine of the National Autistic Society 36(2) Summer 2002p3233
Bryson. B. (2003) ‘A Short History of Everything’ New York.
Random House.
Cann. P. (1997) ‘ Increased recognition boosts autism numbers’.
Special Children. Apr. 1997. P. 3.
Cann. P. (1998) ‘All or nothing’. Special Children. April 1998.
P.18-19.
Carlton. S. (1993) The Other Side of Autism. Worcester. Self
Publishing Association .
Carpenter. B. Addenbrooke. M. Attfield. E. Conway S. (2004)
‘Celebrating Families’:an inclusive model of family-centred
training’
British Journal of Special Education. 31(2)p75-80
Celani.G. (2002) 'Human beings, animals and inaminate
objects:What do people with autism like?' AutismThe International
Journal of Research and Practice. 6(1)p.93-103.
Coates. S. (1996) ‘Issues relating to the further education and
support of students with autism’. The Skill Journal. The journal
about education, training and employment for people with learning
difficulties and / or disabilities. 54. P.11-14.
Cottrell. S. (2003) ‘Students with Dyslexia and Other Specific
Learning Disabilities’ in Powell. S. ed Special Teaching in Higher
Education. Successful Strategies for Inclusion’(2003) Kogan page.
London. Stirling. VA.
Crewe. C. (2002) 'About a boy'. The Times Magazine. 10-08-02
p.33-36.
Croucher K.(2004) ‘What Happens Next? A Report on the First
Destinations of 2002 Graduates with Disabilities’. ‘The Skill
Journal. The journal about education , training and employment for
people with learning difficulties and/or disabilities 79 July2004 p13
18
Csoti. M. (2004) ‘Learn to Relax’ Special. Supporting and
Developing Good Practice. The Official Magazine of the National
Association of Special Educational Needs. Summer 2004 p 17-19
Cumine. V. Leach. J. Stevenson. G. (1998). Asperger Syndrome. A
practical guide for teachers. London. David Fulton.
Curtis. P. (2004) ‘Guiding Light’ in Donnellan. C. ed. Self inflicted
Violence. Volume 77. p15-16 Independence Educational
Publishers. Cambridge.
Datlow- Smith. M. Belcher. R. Juhrs. P. (1995) 'A guide to
succesful employment for individuals with autism'. Baltimore.
London. Paul Brooks.
Debbault. D. (2002) 'Autism, Advocates, and Law Enforcement
Professionals. Recognising and reducing risk situations for people
with autistic spectrum disorders'. London. Philadelphia. Jessica
Kingsley.
Deimel. L. (2004) ‘How Diagnosis Can Change An Outlook On
Employment For Asperger Syndrome People. A Personal Account’
Good Autism Practice. 5(1) p25-31
DfES (2002) ‘Autistic Spectrum Disorders. Good Practice
Guidance’
DfES (2004) 'Bridging the Gap. A guide to disabled student's
allowances (DSAs) in higher education in 2004-5. Department for
Education and Skills. London.
DOH (2000) ‘No secrets. Guidance on Developing and
Implementing Multi –Agency Policies and Procedures to Protect
Vulnerable Adults from Abuse ‘. London HMSO
Drake. R. (1999) 'Understanding disability policies' Macmillan
Press. London.
Dyson. A. (2001) 'Special needs in the twenty-first century. Where
we have been and where we are going'. British journal of special
education. 28(1)24-29
Dyson. A. Millward. A. (2000). 'Schools and Special Needs'
London. Thomas Oaks. Paul Chapman. Sage.
19
Equality Challenge Unit (2004) ‘Employing Disabled People in
Higher Education. Guidance’ ECU London.
Eriksson. B. Johnstone. D. (2004)’Disabled Students in Higher
Education-a Pilot Study in Two European Universities’ The Skill
Journal Research Supplement. 78 p.1-9
Farrell. P. (2001) 'Special education in the last twenty years. have
things really got better?' British journal of special education.
28(1)p3-9.
Fitzgerald. M. and Matthews. P. (1998) ‘Increased mortality in
persons with autism’. Autism. The International Journal of
Research and Practice. 2 (4), p.429-430.
Fleisher M. (2002) ‘Making Sense of the Unfeasible. My Life
Journey with Asperger Syndrome’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Further Education Funding Council. (1997) Identifying and
Addressing Need. A practical guide. Coventry. FEFC.
Further Education Funding Council. (1996) Inclusive Learning.
(The Tomlinson Report). Coventry. FEFC.
Fling E.R (2000) ‘Eating an Artichoke. A mothers perspective on
Asperger’s syndrome’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Frith. U. (ed.) (1991) Autism and Asperger Syndrome. Cambridge
University Press.
Frith. U. (1989) Autism. Explaining the Enigma. Oxford.
Blackwell.
Goddard. K. 92004) ‘Draft Disability Discrimination Bill. An
update’‘The Skill Journal. The journal about education , training
and employment for people with learning difficulties and/or
disabilities 79 July2004 p10-12
Goleman. D(1996) Emotional Intelligence’. London. Bloomsbury.
Graham. G. (1994) ‘The INTERACT centre. An applied
communication and vocational skills course for people with
autism’. London. Hanwell community centre.
Gray. C (2002) ‘ The New Social Story Book’ Future Horizons.
Winslow.
20
Grooden. J. Cauletta. J. Prince. S. and Berryman. J. (1994) ‘The
impact of stress and anxiety on individuals with autism and
developmental disabilities’. In Schopler and Mesibov (1994) (eds)
op cit, p.177-194.
Gross. J. (1994) ‘ Asperger syndrome: A label worth having?
Educational Psychology in Practice. 10 (2). P.104-110.
Haddon. M.(2003) The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night’
David Fickling Books. Oxford. New York.
Hare. D. (1997) ‘The use of cognitive-behavioural therapy with
people with Asperger syndrome: A case study’. . Autism. The
International Journal of Research and Practice. 1(2), p.215-227.
Hare.D. (2004) ‘Developing Cognitive Behavioural Work With
People With ASD’ Good Autism Practice. 5(1)p18-22
Harpur. J. Lawlor. M. Fitzgerald M (2004) ‘Succeeding in College
with Asperger Syndrome’. Jessica Kingsley. London. NY
Harris. S. (1994) ‘Treatment of family problems in autism’. In
Schopler and Mesibov (1994) (eds) op cit, p.161-173.
Hawkins. G. (2004) ‘How to Find Work that Works for People with
Asperger Syndrome’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Helps. S. Newson-Davis I. C. Callias. M. (1999) 'Autism. The
teachers' view'. . Autism. The International Journal of Research and
Practice. 3(3)p.287-298.
Hermelin. B. (2003) ‘Bright Splinters of the Mind: a personal story
of research with autistic savants’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Hesmondhalgh. M. Beakley. C. (2001) 'Access and inclusion for
children with autistic spectrum disorders. Let me in'. London.
Philladelphia. Jessica Kingsley. London
Hocking. B. (1990) Little Boy Lost. London. Bloombury.
Holliday-Willey (2003). ‘Asperger’s Syndrome in Adolescence.
Living with the Ups and Downs and Things in Between’ Jessica
Kingsley. London.
21
Howlin. P. (1994) ‘Supported employment’. Communication.
28(2)p.3-4.
Howlin. P. (1997) .Autism. Preparing for Adulthood. London.
Routeledge.
Howlin. P. and Moore. A. (1997) ‘ Diagnosis in autism: A survey of
over 1200 patients in the UK'. Autism. The International Journal of
Research and Practice. 1(2), p.135-163.
Howlin. P. and Yates. P. (1999)'The potential effectiveness of
social skills groups for adults with autism'. Autism. The
International Journal of Research and Practice. 3(3) p299-307
.
Howlin. P. (2000) 'Outcome in adult life for more able individuals
with autism or Asperger syndrome' Autism. The International
Journal of Research and Practice. 4(1) p.63-85
Howlin. P. Baron-Cohen. S. Hadwin. J. (2000) Teaching Children
with Autism to Mind Read’ John Wiley and Sons. Chichester. New
York.
Hutchins. M. and Renzaglia. A. (1998) ‘Interviewing families for
effective transition to employment’. Teaching Exceptional
Children. Mar/Apr. 1998. P. 72-77.
Jameson. J.(2002) 'Learning from disability services in similar
American universities' NADO News. The official newsletter of the
National Association of Disability Officers (5) September 02 p.711.
Johnson. R. (2005) ‘A Genius Explains’. Guardian Weekend. Feb
12 2005 pp 34-37
Jones. G. (2001) 'Giving the diagnosis to the young person with
Asperger syndrome or high functioning autism: Issues and
strategies. Good Autism Practice 2(2)p.65-75.
Jordan. R. (1998). ‘AiA International Conference on the Medical
Basis of Autism, 3-4 October 1997, Solihull, UK.’ Autism. The
International Journal of Research and Practice. 2 (1), p.107-108.
Jordan. R.(2001) 'The effect of culture on service provision for
people with an autistic spectrum disorder' Good Autism Practice.
2(2)p.2-13.
22
Koegel. R. and Surrat. A. (1994) ‘Self management of problematic
social behaviour’. In Schopler and Mesibov (1994) (eds) op cit, p.
81-97.
Kugler. B. (1998). ‘The differentiation between autism and
Asperger syndrome’. Autism. The International Journal of Research
and Practice. 2 (1), p.11-33.
Le Coutier. A. Rutter. M. Lord. C. Rios.P. Robertson. S.
Holdgrafer. M. McLennan. J. (1989)'Autism diagnostic interview:
A semi -structured interview for parents and caregivers of autistic
persons'. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 19(3)
p363-87
Lee-O’Neill. J. (1998) . ‘Autism. Isolation not desolation. A
personal account’. Autism. The International Journal of Research
and Practice. 2 (2), p. 199-204.
Leekham. S. Libby. S. Wing. L. Gould. J. Gillberg. C.
(2000)'Comparison of ICD10 and Gillberg's criteria for Asperger's
syndrome'. Autism. The International Journal of Research and
Practice. 4(1) 11-28
Lovecky. D (2004) ‘Different Minds. Gifted Children with AD/HD,
Asperger Syndrome and Other Learning Deficits’ Jessica Kingsley.
London.
Luckett T. Powell S. ‘Students with Autism and Asperger’s
Syndrome’ inPowell. S Ed.(2003) Special Teaching in Higher
Education. Kogan Page. London. P159-177
Maclean-Wood (2003) ‘Challenging Behaviour. Understanding and
Prevention’ Good Autism Practice. 4(2) p.21-26
Maslow A.J.(1970) ‘Motivation and Personality’ New York. Harpur
and Row.
Mawhood. L. Holin. P. (1999) 'The outcome of a supported
employment scheme for high functioning adults with autism or
Asperger's syndrome'. Autism. The International Journal of
Research and Practice. 3(3), p.229-254.
Martin. N. (1996) ‘Asperger’s syndrome – a challenge for the
family’. The Skill Journal. The journal about education, training
and employment for people with learning difficulties and / or
disabilities. 54. P. 14 -17.
23
Meikle. J.(2004) ‘One in Ten Teenagers Self- Harm’ in Donnellan.
C. ed. Self inflicted Violence. Volume 77. p29 Independence
Educational Publishers. Cambridge.
Mercier. C. Mottron. L. Belleville. S. (2000) 'A psychosocial study
on restricted interests in high functioning persons with pervasive
developmental disorders' Autism. The International Journal of
Research and Practice. 4(4), p.406-425.
Mesibov. G. Howley. M. (2003) ‘Accessing the Curriculum for
Pupils with Autistic Spectrum Disorders-Using the TEACCH
Programme to Help inclusion’ David Fulton. London.
Mesibov. G. Schopler. E. and Heasey. K. (1994) ‘Structured
teaching.’ In Schopler and Mesibov (1994) (eds) op cit, p.195-207.
Meyer. R. (2001) 'Asperger Syndrome Employment Workbook. An
employment workbook for adults with Asperger syndrome'.
London. Philadelphia.Jessica Kingsley.
Molloy. H. Vasil. L. (2004) ‘Asperger’s Syndrome, Adolescents
and Identity. Looking Beyond the Label’ London.
Philadelphia.Jessica Kingsley.
Morton. O. (2001)'Think Different ? Inside the mind of autism
researcher Simon Baron-Cohen ' Wired. 9(12) p.184-188
Moyes. M (2002) ‘Addressing the Challenging Behaviour of
Children with High Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome in
the Classroom’ London. Philledelphia. Jessica Kingsley.
National Autistic Society. (1996). Beyond Rain Man. Experiences
and attitudes towards autism. A survey of the general public, people
with autism and carers. London. NAS.
Newson. E. Dawson. M. and Everard. P. (1982) ‘The natural
history of able autistic people: Their management and functioning
in social contexts. Summary of the report to the DHSS including
recommendations.’ London. Dept. of Health and Social Security.
Nottingham University. CDRU.
Newson. E. (2000) ‘Using Humour to Enable Flexibility and Social
Empathy in Children with Asperger’s Syndrome. Some Practical
Strategies’ in Powell. S. ed. ‘Helping Children with Autism to
Learn’ p94-107
24
NFAC Access Centre Manager (2002) 'A regional NFAC access
centre quality assurance survey'. NADO News. The official
newsletter of the National Association of Disability Officers (5)
September 02 p.18-23.
Osmond. A. (1996) ‘Broken Lines’. Special Children. Oct. 1996.
P. 15-18.
Ozonoff. S. South. M. Miller. J. (2000)'DSMIV defined Asperger
syndrome: Cognitive, behavioural and early history differentiation
from high functioning autism'. Autism. The International Journal of
Research and Practice. 4(1) 29-47.
Peers. J. (2003) ‘Asparagus Dreams’ London. Philladelphia. Jessica
Kingsley
Peeters. T. (1997)Autism. From theoretical understanding to
educational intervention. London. Whurr.
Peeters. T. Gillberg. C. (1999).'Autism:Medical and educational
aspects'. London. Whurr.
Phillips. W. Baron- Cohen. S. and Rutter. M. (1998)
‘Understanding intention in normal development and in autism’.
British Journal of Developmental Psychology. 16. P. 337-348.
Pinney. A. (2002) 'In need of review? The Audit Commission's
report on statutory assessment and Statements of Special
Educational Needs' British Journal of Special Education.
29(3)p118-122
Powell. S. (1994) ‘Curriculum approaches and Asperger’s
syndrome’. Paper to conference: Asperger’s syndrome – approaches
to intervention. Chorley. 6-10-94.
Pozner. A. and Hammond. J. (1993) ‘An evaluation of supported
employment initiatives for disabled people.’ Sheffield. Dept. for
Employment.
Pring. L. Hermelin. B. Buhler. M. and Walker. I. (1997) ‘Native
savant talents and acquired skill’. Autism. The International Journal
of Research and Practice. 1(2), p.199-215.
Prior. M. (Ed) (2003) ‘ Learning and Behaviour Problems in
Asperger Syndrome’ New York. Guilford.
25
Pukki. H (2003) ‘Developing Expressions of Sexuality. The
Perspective and Experience of Able Autistic People’. Good Autism
Practice. 4(2)p.60-65.
Quality Assurance Agency (QAA)for Higher Education (the)
(1999)'Code of practice for the assurance of academic quality and
standards in higher education. Section 3. Students with disabilities'.
QAA. London.
Ravenhill. J (2002) ‘Social Stories for Difficult Situations’
Communication. The Magazine of the National Autistic Society.
36(2) Summer 2002 p37-38
Rimland. B. (1994) ‘Recovery from autism is possible’. Autism
Research Review International. 8 (2) p. 2.
Roberts. J. (1995) Dear Psychiatrist… Do childcare specialists
understand? Cambridge. Lutterworth.
Robinson. S. (2001) 'Using tutorial time effectively with students
with an ASD in further and higher education' Good Autism
Practice. 2 (1) p.2-7
Robinson. S. (2004) ‘Accredited Courses in Autism’ Good Autism
Practice 5 (1) p.87-90
Sacks. O. (1995). An Anthropologist on Mars. London. Picadore.
Schopler. E. and Mesibov. G. (eds) (1994) Behavioural issues in
autism. New York. Plenum.
Schopler. E. and Mesibov. G. Kunce. L. (eds) (1998)' Asperger
syndrome or High -Functioning Autism? Plenum. New York.
Schlober. E. Mesibov. G. Kunce. L. (1998) Current Issues in
Autism’ Klumer Academic. Plenum Publishing. New York
Scriven. M. (1986) ‘Evaluation as a paradigm for educational
research’. In House. E. (ed.). (1986) op cit, p. 53-68.
Sicilie-Kira. C (2003) ‘Autistic Spectrum Disorders. The Complete
Guide’ Vermillion
Silberman. S. (2001) 'The geek disease' Wired. 9(12) p. 174-184
Shakespeare.T. (2002) (Ed) ‘The Disability Reader. Social Science
Perspectives’ Continuum. London. New York.
26
Slater-Walker G and C (2002) ‘An Asperger Marriage’ Jessica
Kingsley. London.
Smith. P. (1998) ‘Stretched to the limit’. Special Children. June /
July 1998. P. 9-12.
Smith. P (2004) ‘Outside In’ (Video) NAS
Smith-Myles. B. Simpson. R. (1998) 'Asperger syndrome. A guide
for educators and parents.' Austin. Texas. Pro-Ed.
Snowden. M. (2004) ‘Mind the Gap-conference report’. ‘The Skill
Journal. The journal about education , training and employment for
people with learning difficulties and/or disabilities 79 July2004
p13-14
Stanford. A. (2003) ‘Asperger’s Syndrome and Long Term
Relationships’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Stoddart. K. (1999) 'Adolescents with Asperger's syndrome. Three
case studies of individual family therapy'. Autism. The International
Journal of Research and Practice. 3(3) p.255-271.
Sutton. P. (2002) ‘The Health Care Needs of Adults with autism or
Asperger’s Syndrome’ Communication. The Magazine of the
National Autistic Society 36(2) Summer 2002 p24
Tantum. D. (1992) A Mind of One’s Own. A guide to the special
difficulties and needs of the more able person with autism or
Asperger syndrome. London. NAS.
Tantum. D.(2000) ' Psychological disorders in adolescents and
adults with Asperger syndrome'. Autism. The International Journal
of Research and Practice. 4(1) 47-63.
Thomas. L. ‘ Seeking and Negotiating Academic Support in Higher
Education. A Qualitative Analysis of the Experiences of Students
with Mental Health problems’ The Skill Journal. 78 p3-6
Thompson. B. (2004) ‘Counselling Couples Where a Partner has
Asperger Syndrome’. Good Autism Practice. 5(2)p3-8.
Vermenulen. P. (2001). ‘Autistic Thinking. This is the Title’ Jessica
Kingsley. London.
27
Volkmar. F. (1998). ‘Categorical approaches to the diagnosis of
autism: an overview of DSM-IV and ICD-10’. Autism. The
International Journal of Research and Practice. 2 (1), p.45-61.
Walken. R. (1986) ‘Three good reasons for not doing case studies
in curriculum research’. In House. E. (ed.). (1986) op cit, p. 103117.
Walker Sperry. V. (1998) ‘From the Inside Looking Out – a view of
the world as seen by one with Asperger syndrome.’ Autism. The
International Journal of Research and Practice’. 2 (1), p. 81-87.
Walker Sperry. V. (1995). Fragile Success: Nine Autistic Children
–Childhood to Adulthood. Conneticut. Anchor.
Waring. R. and Ngong. J. (1995) Sulphate metabolism in allergy
induced autism: Relevance to disease aetiology. University of
Birmingham. Dept. of Biochemistry.
Waring. R.(1997) ‘ Biochemical Parameters in Autism’. Autism.
The International Journal of Research and Practice. 1 (2) p.235.
Wedell. K. (2002) 'All teachers should be teachers for special
needs- but is it yet possible?' British Journal of Special Education.
29(3)p151
Weiss. C. (1986) ‘’Towards the future of stakeholder approaches
in evaluation. . In House. E. (ed.). (1986) op cit, p. 186-201.
Williams. D. (1998) ‘Autism and Sensing. The Unlost Instinct’
Jessica Kingsley. London.
Williams. D (2004) ‘Everyday Heaven. Beyond the Stereotype of
Autism’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Williams. C. Wright. B. (2004) ‘How to Live with Autism and
Asperger’s Syndrome. Practical Strategies for Parents and
Professionals’ Jessica Kingsley. London.
Windibank. N. (2002) 'The problem is understanding'. NADO
News. The official newsletter of the National Association of
Disability Officers (5) September 02 p.11-12.
Wing. L. (1998). ‘Letters to the editor. Prevalence of Autistic
Spectrum Disorder in the UK: E. Frombonne. Autism, 1997, 1 (2),
227-9’. Autism. The International Journal of Research and Practice.
2(1). 87-104.
28
Wing. L. (1996) The Autistic Spectrum. A guide for parents and
professionals.
London. Constable.
Wing. L. (2002) ‘Forty Years On-memories of an NAS founder
member’. Communication. The Magazine of the National Autistic
Society. 36(2) Summer 2002 p25-27
Wolff. S. (1995) Loners. The Life Path of Unusual Children.
London. Routledge.
Wolff. S. (1998) ‘ Letters to the editor. Is there a link between
engineering and autism? S. Baron Cohen et al. Autism. 97 . 1. (1).’
Autism. The International Journal of Research and Practice.
2(1).96-97.
29