Sound Devices
Sound devices may draw attention to words a writer wants to emphasize, connect words, or create special moods.
Onomatopoeia: the use of a word that suggests the sound it makes; creates clear sound images and helps a writer
draw attention to certain words; examples include buzz, pop, hiss, moo, hum, murmur, crackle, crunch, and gurgle
Alliteration: the repetition of initial (first) consonant letters or sounds in word groups; term comes from the Latin
word allitera, meaning "adding letters"; examples include wild and wooly, sweet sixteen, through thick and thin,
dime a dozen, and big blue balloon; recognized by sound, not by spelling (know and nail alliterate, and know and key
do not)
Assonance (partial rhyme, near rhyme): the similarity or repetition of similar vowel sounds in word groups;
examples include right-hive and pane-make; lake and stake rhyme, while lake and fate contain assonance
Consonance: the repetition of inner or end consonant sounds in word groups, without a similar correspondence of
vowel sounds; similar to alliteration, except consonance does not limit the repeated sound to the first syllable
(Margaret got a velvet hat)
Euphony: pleasant combination of sounds; smooth-flowing meter and sentence rhythm give lines euphony; generally,
lines with a high percentage of vowel sounds in proportion to consonant sounds tend to be more melodious, or
"euphonic"
Cacophony: "bad-sounding"; refers to the unpleasant discordant (cacophonous) effect of sounds or words;
sometimes used by writers to give their writing a special effect; dissonance is the arrangement of cacophonous
sounds in words or rhythmical patterns
Figurative Language
Literal language, straightforward and matter-of-fact, means exactly what it says. A writer using literal language
states an idea directly. Figurative language, on the other hand, uses figures of speech to go beyond literal
meanings. Authors using figurative language make comparisons and indirect statements to help us see things in
vivid, imaginative ways. A figure of speech is any way of saying something other than the literal, ordinary way.
Some commonly-used figures of speech are given below.
Metaphor: a figure of speech comparing things that are basically unalike to make the reader see them as similar in
some way; metaphor is Greek for "transfer" (meta means "across," and phor/pher means "carry")
stated (direct) metaphor: stated directly (The thief was a fox. She is a doll.); metaphors may
follow linking verbs such as become or remain (The boy remained a rock for his family during the
tragedy. The offensive line became an effective wall to run behind during the game.)
implied metaphor: the connection between two things is suggested rather than stated (He
strutted across the room.)
Simile: a comparison of things that are basically unalike by using the words like, as, as if, than, such as, or
resembles; technically, a simile is a type of stated metaphor; most similes begin with like or as
The unkind words struck like a knife in the girl's heart.
His hands are like leather.
He is skinny as a rail.
The cave was as dark as a tomb.
It is important to know that not all phrases beginning with like or as are similes. Look at the
following sentence and notice that two unalike items are not compared: He got some shoes like
Bill's. In that sentence, the author is speaking literally, not figuratively.
Symbol: a person, place, thing, or event that means more than it is; a dove is a symbol of peace, a heart is a symbol
of love, an eagle is a symbol of the United States, a skull and crossbones is a symbol of poison, etc.; symbolism is
the use of something to stand for more than it is; a work of literature may have a symbolic meaning
Personification: technique in which an author gives human characteristics to nonhuman things (animals, natural
forces, objects, ideas, etc.); examples are Jack Frost, Old Man Winter, Mother Nature, etc.; sentences with
personification are as follows:
The angry sky thundered overhead.
The land was glad rain finally came.
The waves danced upon the beach.
Pun: a figure of speech involving a play on words; a word used to express two meanings at the same time; a joke
based on words with several meanings or words that sound the same but have different meanings.
The gorilla went ape when he saw the bananas.
On the side of the diaper delivery truck was written "Rock a Dry Baby."
A plumber's advertisement said, "A flush is better than a full house."
Hyperbole: overstatement; a deliberate exaggeration used for an ironic or humorous effect to emphasize a point;
from the Greek word for "overcasting"
I'm starved.
I'll die if I don't pass English.
He calls a million times a day.
He's older than dirt.
Basic Elements of Poetry: Rhyme, Rhythm, and Meter
Poetry as a literary form may be defined simply as a patterned expression of ideas in concentrated or imaginative
terms, usually (but not necessarily) containing rhyme and a specific meter.
Form: a poem's design as a whole; its shape or structure
closed form: the poet follows some sort of pattern
open form: the poet does not follow a pattern; instead, the poem is shaped as is moves along,
often adding emphasis as it goes
Subject: the central topic of a poem
Speaker: the voice telling the poem; a poem may have more than one speaker; the speaker and the poet are not
necessarily the same
Persona: a "mask" the poet creates to provide the speaker of a poem; when analyzing poetry, be sure to distinguish
between the poet and the speaker (if there is a difference)
Satiric Poetry: poetry that makes fun of human corruption, wickedness, or foolishness
Repetition: the recurrence of sounds, words, phrases, or lines in poetry
Rhyme: the similarity or likeness of sound existing between two words; the repetition of sounds that are similar or
identical; expresses strong feelings and enhances the meaning and impact of poetry
internal rhyme: the repetition of similar sounds within lines
end rhyme: the repetition of similar sounds at the end of lines
perfect/exact/true rhyme: different initial consonant sounds are followed by similar vowel
sounds (tie/lie, meet/feet)
approximate/slant/off rhyme: only the final consonant sounds are identical (comb/tomb,
cat/cot, hope/cup); see consonance
rhyme scheme: the pattern of rhymes formed by the end rhyme in a poem; first sound is a,
second sound is b, third sound is c, etc.
Rhythm: the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables (beats) we hear in poetry; stress is simply the
greater amount of emphasis we give to a syllable in speaking; stressed syllable is accented (long); unstressed
syllable is unaccented (short)
Meter: the pattern of rhythm in a line of poetry; from the Greek word meaning "measure"; the type of meter
depends upon the placement of stress within each poetical foot (see chart below)
Poetical foot: unit used to measure rhythm in a line of poetry; consists of two or three syllables; lines of poetry
consist of a series of feet; poetic lines are classified according to the number of feet per line (clues in prefixes)
monometer: 1 foot
trimeter: 3 feet
pentameter: 5 feet
heptameter: 7 feet
dimeter: 2 feet
tetrameter: 4 feet
hexameter: 6 feet
octameter: 8 feet
Types of Meter
Foot
Description
iamb (iambic meter)
trochée (trochaic meter)
anapest (anapestic meter)
dactyl (dactylic meter)
spondée (spondaic meter)
pyhhric
Example
Henry
2 syllables: unstressed - stressed
Wadsworth
"rising meter" (pro-CEED, be-LOW)
Longfellow,
the most common foot in English
"Nature"
2 syllables: stressed - unstressed
Edgar Allan Poe,
"falling meter" (FIF-ty, NEV-er)
"The Raven"
James Russell
Lowell, A Fable
for Critics
3 syllables: 2 unstressed - 1 stressed
"rising meter" (o-ver-COME)
Byron, "The
Destruction of
Sennecherib"
Henry
3 syllables: 1 stressed - 2 unstressed
Wadsworth
"falling meter" (PAR-a-graph)
Longfellow,
"Evangeline"
usually compound
2 stressed syllables; often used to slow rhythm of line; words (FOOTtwo spondées combined into one unit is a dispondée
BALL, CHILDHOOD)
usually found
2 unstressed syllables; also called a dibrach, the
interspersed with
shortest metrical foot in Classical verse
other poetical
feet
Verse Forms Based on Meter and Rhyme
1. Rhymed Verse: contains end rhyme and usually has a regular meter and rhyme scheme; rhyming
couplets means that every two lines rhyme; an example of "closed form"
2. Blank Verse: contains a fixed rhythm and regular line length - unrhymed iambic pentameter (10
syllables per line and no rhyme); an example of "closed form"; often found in poetry dealing with complex
subjects; commonly used in narrative and dramatic poetry; because of its regular rhythm, it may become
monotonous and "sing-songy" (many poets vary the rhythm to add emphasis and avoid monotony); originated
in England with Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey; other examples are Shakespeare's dramatic poetry (plays),
John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667), William Cullen Bryant's "Thanatopsis," and Alfred, Lord Tennyson's
"Ulysses"
3. Free Verse: poetry free of traditional metrical and stanzaic patterns; no fixed rhythm or rhyme scheme;
uses everyday (colloquial) language, natural speech rhythms, and differing line lengths; key feature is
its departure from traditional meters; an example of "open form"; examples are Psalms and Song of
Solomon in the King James Bible, John Milton's Samson Agonistes and Lycidas, the poetry of Walt
Whitman, and the work of the nineteenth century French symbolists; other poets using free verse include
Stephen Crane, Carl Sandburg, Edgar Lee Masters, Ezra Pound, and e.e. cummings
Stanza Forms
A stanza (Italian for "station," "stopping place," or "room") is a unit of poetry longer than a line; it is a way of
arranging lines of poetry in a pattern based on thought or form, usually according to rhyme and meter. A stanza
serves the same function as a paragraph in prose: it allows the poet to organize his or her thoughts into a unit. A
refrain is a group of words, phrases, or lines repeated at regular intervals in a poem. Types are as follows:
couplet: 2-line stanza; 2 successive lines that rhyme (a-a)
triplet (tercet): 3-line stanza (usually a-b-a or a-a-a)
quatrain: 4-line stanza; most common form in English (a-a-a-a; a-b-a-b; a-b-b-a; a-a-b-b; a-b-a-c)
quintet: 5-line stanza (may be one of a number of rhyme schemes)
sestet: 6-line stanza (sometimes used to refer to last 6 lines of sonnet)
septet: 7-line stanza
octave: 8-line stanza (often used to refer to first 8 lines of sonnet)
Limerick: 5-line nonsense poem with anapestic meter; rhyme scheme usually a-a-b-b-a; first, second, and fifth lines
contain three stresses; third and and fourth lines contain two stresses; made popular by British painter and author
Edward Lear (1812-88)
Ballad Stanza: four lines with rhyme scheme of a-b-c-b; first and third lines in tetrameter; second and fourth
lines in trimeter
Haiku: about 17 syllables; usually three lines (5 syllables, 7 syllables, 5 syllables); means "beginning verse"; mostly
rhymeless imagery; originated in the sixteenth century in Japan
Tanka: 5 lines of 31 syllables (5, 7, 5, 7, 7)
Concrete Poetry: poem visibly resembling the object which it describes; key is the arrangement of words
Acrostic: initial letter of each line, read downward, spells out word or words
Types of Poetry
1. Lyric Poetry: expresses the personal thoughts and feelings of a single speaker (a single emotional
event); may or may not contain definite stanza forms and patterns of rhyme and rhythm; may be
"open" or "closed" form (rhymed verse, blank verse, or free verse); may tell a story, but shorter than a
narrative or dramatic poem; generally between 12 and 30 lines, and rarely over 60 lines; emphasizes sound
and imagery over dramatic and narrative content; often rich in musical devices; once had a narrow meaning:
it was "musical" poetry (name comes from the Greeks, who sang the poems to the music of the lyre; some
notable Greek lyric poets were Anacreon, Sappho, and Archiolochus
Sonnet: 14-line stanza, usually in iambic pentameter, following a specific rhyme scheme
Petrarchan (Italian) Sonnet: contains eight lines (octave) following the rhyme
scheme a-b-b-a a-b-b-a, followed by six lines (sestet) with a varying rhyme
scheme (c-d-e-c-d-e or c-d-c-d-c-d); turn between the octave and the sestet is
the volta; usually divided into comparison/contrast or question/resolution
according to the divisions of the octave and sestet; used in American literature
by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Shakespearean (English) Sonnet: contains three quatrains and one couplet
following the rhyme scheme a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f-g-g; each quatrain is usually
a variation of the basic theme of the poem, and the couplet is usually a
conclusion
Note: while both types follow a rhyme scheme and (usually) are written in iambic
pentameter, Shakespeare ended his sonnets with a couplet
A sonnet cannot be written in blank verse because a sonnet rhymes and
blank verse does not.
Ode: long lyric poem in stanzas of varied metrical patterns; often a serious poem on a dignified
theme; formal, lofty language and admiration for the subject; generally celebrates a subject of
public interest and involves the performance of a group of people; sung in honor of gods or heroes
in Greek and Roman literature
2. Narrative Poetry: tells a story; often has a strong dramatic element
Epic Poem: most famous type of narrative poem; a long narrative poem about a national or
legendary hero; examples are the Iliad, Odyssey, Aenead, Columbiad, Beowulf, Dante's Divine
Comedy, and Milton's Paradise Lost; a Homeric Simile, common in epic poetry, is an extended
comparison of two actions or objects that develops mounting excitement and usually ends in a
climax; a canto is a subdivision of an epic poem
Ballad: a narrative poem in short stanzas (often rhymed and in quatrains) sometimes set to music;
among the most common subjects are love, jealousy, revenge, death, adventure, mystery, and war;
frequently focuses on a dramatic or tragic incident and contains dialogue of characters; often
involves historical or legendary figures; commonly uses a refrain to add emphasis or suspense; the
French word for ballad once meant "to dance"; Bishop Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English
Poetry (1765) increased popular interest
Basic Elements of Drama
Narrator: a character in some plays who speaks directly to the audience, introducing the action and providing
commentary between scenes; may or may not be a character in the action
Monologue: a long speech by a character; allows characters to express complicated thoughts or develop extensive
arguments; in fiction, one person speaks in a monologue
Soliloquy: a type of monologue in which a character, alone on stage, addresses himself; "thinking
out loud" lets the audience know a character's true thoughts and feelings
Aside: a brief remark or speech; when a character on stage turns from the person he is
addressing to speak directly to the audience; audience alone hears his thoughts (rest of
characters cannot); lets the audience know what the character is really thinking and feeling, as
opposed to what he or she pretends; two characters addressing one another may speak in asides
to the audience
Chorus: a group of actors speaking or chanting in unison, often while going through steps of elaborate, formalized
dance; usually used to express views and emotions of the public; sometimes pose questions to characters or
audience; sometimes used as a narrator; a characteristic device of Greek drama for conveying communal or group
emotion
Realistic Drama: attempts, in context and presentation, to preserve the illusion of actual, everyday life;
characters are not "superhuman"; situations or plots are usually believable
Nonrealistic Drama: departs from presenting the outward, visible appearance of life; characters sometimes have
"superhuman qualities"; plots sometimes border on the absurd; good parallel is a soap opera
Tragedy: a type of drama in which the protagonist (someone of unusual moral or intellectual stature or ability)
suffers a fall in fortune because of some error of judgment, excessive virtue, or flaw in his nature (tragic flaw);
sometimes warns of excess in any one personality trait; most of the time, a reconciliation takes place in the end
Catharsis: a term (first used by Aristotle) that describes some sort of emotional release
experienced by the audience at the end of a successful tragedy; "wisdom gained from tragedy"
(waste of human life, waste of human greatness, etc.)
Melodrama: (related to tragedy); contains sensational incidents and emphasizes plot over
characters; conflicts are often "crude (virtuous protagonist versus villainous antagonist);
resolutions are emotionally satisfying and "happy" (good winning out over evil); issues are
oversimplified; adjective form is "melodramatic"
Comedy: a type of drama (opposed to tragedy) normally having a happy ending and emphasizing human limitation,
rather than human greatness; the main purpose of a scornful comedy is to expose and ridicule human corruption,
folly, vanity, and hypocrisy; in a romantic comedy, a likeable and sensible main character is placed in difficult
circumstances from which he or she is rescued at the end, either attaining his or her goals or having fortunes
reversed
Non-Fiction Literature
Non-fiction literature is a type of prose literature dealing with real people and real life situations. This is not
to say, however, that non-fiction literature is necessarily "fact" or "truth." Among the varieties of non-fiction
literature are biographies, autobiographies, speeches, histories, essays, diaries, journals, newspapers, and even
cookbooks or car repair manuals. An author's purpose may be to entertain, inform, persuade, or explain. The
chief uses of non-fiction literature are as follows:
Descriptive Literature (description): uses imagery to give us a picture about the subject
Narrative Literature (narration): tells about a series of events
Expository Literature (exposition): presents information or explains a subject
Persuasive Literature (persuasion): designed to change people's ideas or actions
Major Forms of Non-Fiction Literature
Essays. An essay is a piece of prose of various lengths dealing with a subject briefly and from a personal
point of view. An essay attempts to say something, but not everything, about a subject. The author of an essay
should have evidence for his or her ideas. A critical essay deals with a topic of literature or any of the arts.
The major styles of essays are formal and informal.
Formal Essay: serious in tone, tightly-organized, generally objective; frequently designed to
instruct (didactic); major parts (introduction, body, conclusion) work together to make up a
complete idea or thing; develops theme according to principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis
Informal Essay: may be relaxed, serious, or humorous; conversational style (colloquial),
digressions, humorous anecdotes; writer's personality and point of view are as important as the
subject; E. B. White and James Thurber are among the American "masters" of the informal essay
Speeches. Speeches are mostly intended for oral presentation, but some are meant to be read
silently. In either case, the key element is the author's ability to be persuasive (often use
rhetorical questions and parallelisms)
Biographies (including Autobiographies). The subject of a biography is someone's life. A
biographer may use a variety of source materials: diaries, letters, archives, memoirs, personal
knowledge, books, etc. For the distinction between primary and secondary source materials, see
below.
Types of Source Materials
The two major categories of source materials are primary sources and secondary sources.
Primary Sources: original documents written by someone who participates in or has direct knowledge of
something. Examples include speeches, diaries, letters, novels, legislative bills, laboratory studies, field
research reports, eyewitness reports, or newspaper articles.
Secondary Sources: commentaries on primary sources, often written by a non-participant in an event or
after the fact about someone or something else
Paraphrasing and Plagiarism
Paraphrasing is restating someone else's language in your own words; it makes ideas clearer and avoids
plagiarism.
Plagiarism is the stealing and passing off as your own someone else's ideas or words without crediting
(acknowledging, citing) the source. In other words, presenting as "your work" or "your idea" something
that came from someone else is plagiarism. Plagiarizing someone else's work can get you expelled from a
college or university.
Basic Guidelines for Avoiding Plagiarism
1. Give credit for facts that someone else discovered, someone's original theory or idea, or research that
proves a story.
2. Give credit for information gained from photographs, tables, or graphs.
3. Give credit for a direct or an indirect quotation from a book.
4. Do not give credit for things that are "common knowledge." (The sun rises in the East. Abraham Lincoln
was elected President in 1860.)
5. Do not give credit for sayings that are so much a part of our culture (clichés) that no one knows who said
them. ("You can't judge a book by its cover.")
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Tips for Reading and Analyzing Non-Fiction
Ask yourself, "What is the author's purpose?" Is the writer trying to entertain, to inform, to
persuade, or to explain something? Does it seem to be more than one of these purposes?
Is the tone formal or informal? Is it some of both? How do you know?
What impressions do you form of the writer and his or her personality? Why do you feel this way?
Examine what the author does with language. How does the language affect you as a reader?
Explain.
In your own words, what is the main idea that the author is trying to express?
How do elements of style (imagery, figurative language, irony, etc.) help express the author's
attitude toward the subject, as well as your response?
Read the work more than once. On the first reading, think about the main point (thesis) of the
essay and whether or not the author uses sufficient evidence to support his or her ideas. How
does the author support his or her claims? Is it with relevant and sufficient evidence or with just
a few anecdotes or emotional examples? Are any of the author's assumptions questionable? Does
the author consider opposing arguments and refute them persuasively? Are there any reasons to
be suspicious of the author's motives or to question his or her objectivity? As you read, also think
about the author's style and your personal response to the writing.
Be aware of what types of source materials provide the bases of the author's arguments.