Exam 3
1. What evidence is there that some behavior is genetic, and that some behavior is learned?
a. Evidence for genetic behaviors – instinctual behaviors. Inbreeding creates lineages with specific
behaviors. Cross breeding dilutes these behaviors, sometimes along Mendelian ratios if relatively few
genes are involved. Specific genes are associated with behavior
b. Evidence for learned behaviors – learning where to forage, where, where to find water, or shelter at
specific times of year. Animals that spend a long childhood with a parent tend to learn more
2. What is ethology? Is the study of behavior
3. Describe sign stimuli and give examples. Environmental factors that evoke instinctual behavior. Sign stimuli
can be very specific and do not require a whole animal to elicit a response such as a red feather can trigger
fighting behavior in male robins, a rag soaked with secretions from a mare in heat can trigger an erection in a
stallion even if a mare is not present.
4. What are innate releasing mechanisms (irm’s)? genetically determined neural networks that when triggered by
a sign stimulus, produce a specific behavior called a fixed action pattern (FAP)
5. Describe and give examples of the following types of learning: habituation, conditioning, classical and
operant conditioning, generalized and discriminating conditioning, latent learning, insight learning,
imprinting.
a. Habituation – learning not to respond to a stimulus such as: a new scared and nervous pet getting
used to your presence. Horses habituate to the feel of a saddle and weight of the rider. Prey habituate
to the sight and smell of non predatory animals
b. Classical conditioning – passive conditioning. A stimulus is substituted for one that is already
associated with a reward. Over time the animal learns to associate the new stimulus with the reward.
The reward follows the stimulus. Over time a dog will begin to salivate at the sound of a can opener or
the sound of a food bowl being filled.
c. Operant conditioning – active conditioning. This is when an animal must perform and act in response
to a stimulus to get the reward. The reward follows the behavior (not the stimulus). Animal training
involves operant conditioning. A dog that shakes your hand or sits before receiving a biscuit is operant
conditioning.
d. Generalized conditioning – occurs when an animal responds to similar stimuli: a dog conditioned to
salivate with any colored light
e. Discriminating conditioning – occurs when an animal responds to a specific stimuli: a dog
conditioned to salivate to a specific color of light.
f. Latent learning – learning that occurs in the absence of an immediate reward. Latent learning
includes an animal learning the lay of its home range which helps it to know where to run for safety
and such.
g. Insight learning – occurs when an animal solves a problem without experience and without trial and error.
The animal solves the problem in its head. Insight learning is considered the domain of higher primates.
h. Imprinting – a rapid learning that occurs only at specific stages of development. Imprinting is
influenced by genetics, development, hormones and others. Many animals imprint parental
identification, habituation, and other factors at birth. There are other critical periods during which
animals imprint songs, sexuality, mates etc.
6. What is the relationship between memory, engram, retrieval, and long-term memory, short-term memory.
a. Engram – an engram is formed when a memory is transferred from short-term memory to long-term
memory. An engram is known as a consolidation.
b. Retrieval – substantial evidence shows that we store a tremendous amount of information, but
retrieval of that information seems to be the limiting factor
c. Long-term memory – leaves an engram. A memory is shifted from short-term memory to long-term
memory where an engram forms - - this is know as consolidation
d. Short-term memory – does not leave an engram. Thought to be created by reverberating circuits of
neurons. These circuits include positive feedback loops that increase the activity of certain stimuli.
These loops will break down without repeated outside stimuli.
i. certain events, especially those that emotionally stimulating, are much more likely to be
retained in short-term memory and consolidated into long-term memory
7. Describe the role of the following in communication: coloration, tags, posture, ee contact, sound, pheromones,
and chemicals.
a. Coloration – may communicate sex, health, identity, symmetry and age
b. Tags – tags of coloration, emphasize facial or other features important in communication. Tigers have white
tags on the back of their ears that may be important in communicating with their cubs.
c. Posture – is used by a variety of animals to convey emotional state, health, etc. includes movements, eye
contact and facial expressions.
d. Ee contact
e. Sound – extremely important in communication and is used to convey the following: emotional state, sexual
receptivity, warnings, identity, etc. many animals exhibit dialects in their language.
f. Pheromones – are chemicals produced by one animal that influence the sexual behavior of another. Female
moose in estrus produces a pheromone that causes urination and aggressive behavior in males.a pheromone in
his urine causes ovulation and receptivity in the female.
g. Chemicals – can also communicate emotional state and identity. Mexican free tail bats identify their own
offspring out of twenty million primarily by smell.
8. How is behavior related to the genetic isolation that forms a species? In the wild, animals mate with one
another and not with members of another species. Visual, auditory behavioral and chemical stimuli all
contribute to a species and individual recognition. An extension of individual recognition is kin recognition in
which special treatment is bestowed.
9. Describe the role of aggression between and among species. Aggression appears to be highly instinctual and is
influenced by a number of triggers such as development, hormones, seasonality, pheromones, and visual and auditory
stimuli.
a. Intraspecific aggression – combat between males is a ritualistic but can become very violent and dangerous.
Most intraspecific fighting adaptations such as antlers are designed to prevent injury to self and opponent. Tines
of the deer antlers lock together rather than puncture. Most vertebrates seem to possess some sense of selfawareness. Intraspecific triggers of aggression relate to territorial defense of food and/or mating resources
b. Interspecific triggers of aggression include predation, territorial defense of food and mating resources. Some
animals are frustrated after intraspecific aggression and take it out on other species.
10. Give examples of social behaviors. Social behaviors are those that permit animals to coexist in groups,
forming discrete functional entities.
a. Cooperative behaviors help both parties.
i. Intraspecific cooperation is widespread and generally revolves around one of the following:
helping one another obtain food, obtaining mates, protection, maintaining health (grooming)
ii. Interspecific cooperation also occurs but is not important in social behavior
b. Altruism – is a behavior that benefits another at cost to self. Altruism is an effective evolutionary
strategy in species with social hierarchy.
11. Describe and give examples of the following: intraspecific and interspecific cooperation, altruism. Q 10
12. What evidence is there that animals possess emotions and culture? Animals behave in a way that expresses
emotion. Researchers reason that evidence for evolutionary homology shared by vertebrates includes
emotions. Evidence of culture have been found in animals that have dialects specific to certain geographic
areas. Likewise, learned behaviors may exist in certain areas and be missing or modified in others.
13. Describe the parts of a neuron and how they function in impulse conduction. Neurons and muscle fibers are
excitable cells that conduct impulses. Parts of a neuron include:
a. Dendrites - are a process of the cell that receives impulses. There may be numerous dendrites
b. Soma – is the cell body that contains the nucleus and the bulk of the cytoplasm
c. Axon – a process of the cell that carries impulses away from the soma. Typically there’s a single axon,
although it may have many branches called collaterals. The end of the axon is call the axon terminals.
14. What are the excitable tissues and what makes them excitable tissues? Neurons and muscle fibers are
excitable cells that conduct impulses
15. Describe how a resting potential is established in an excitable tissue by the sodium-potassium pump and is
this an active or passive process? Before an impulse can be generated, a resting potential across the cell
membrane must be established.
a. Excitable membranes contain active transport systems known as Na+ / K+ pumps
b. Sodium is pumped across the cell membrane from the inside of the cell to the outside, and Potassium
from the outside to inside in an unequal ratio 3 Na+ to 2 K+
c. The Na/K pump establishes a concentration gradient and a charge gradient of the two ions across the
membrane. There are more Na ion on the outside than there are K ions on the inside. This makes the
inside negative compared to the outside. This charge gradient is know as the resting potential of the
cell, and measured at 65 mV, meaning the cell cytoplasm is 65mV more negative than the extracellular
solution.
d. The gradient stabilizes at -65mV because at this point the pumping of ions is offset by their diffusion
through ungated channels
16. At what voltage does the resting potential stabilize, and why does it stabilize? See Q 15
17. What ions and where are ions concentrated in a resting potential? Na+ ions are concentrated in the
extracellular solution. K+ is concentrated within the cytoplasm of the cell.
18. Describe the events of an action potential citing specific voltages and the following terms: ion gated channel
proteins (Na and K), voltage gated channel proteins (Na and K), resting potential, threshold potential,
depolarization, repolarization, after potential (effect). Events of an action potential:
a. A chemical or physical stimuli will alter Na ion gated channel proteins making them permeable to Na
b. Na leaks across the membrane into the cell effecting the resting potential making the cytoplasm more +
c. At -55mV a threshold potential is reached. The local voltage gated Na channel proteins open allowing
Na to flood into the cell at that spot.
d. This is the beginning of an action potential. Now an impulse will be generated
e. As Na rushes into the cell the charge of the cell changes from -55mV to +40mV in a millisecond
f. The Na voltage gated channel proteins close immediately. The influx of Na ions is know as depolarization
g. K voltage gated channels opens allowing K ions to flood out of the cell.
h. The out flux of K ions makes the cytoplasm negative again and drops from +40mV to -70mV
i. The K voltage gated channel proteins close immediately. This is know as repolarization of membrane
j. The Na/K pump will reestablish the resting potential of -65mV. This ends the action potential
i. Resting potential
-65mV
ii. Threshold potential
-55mV
iii. Action potential depolarization +40 mV
iv. Repolarization
-70mV
19. Draw and label a graph of an action potential.
20. What is the relationship between an action potential and impulse? An action potential leads to an impulse.
21. Describe how an impulse is propagated along a membrane. An action potential’s current opens adjacent
voltage gated Na channel proteins, which trigger the next and so on. An impulse is an action potential that is
propagated throughout an excitable cell membrane
22. Why is an action potential considered an “all-or-none” event? Once the threshold of potential is reached an
action potential will take place.
23. Why is an impulse considered an “all-or-none” event? Once an action potential is generated, it will produce
an impulse, there are no partial impulses
24. Describe saltatory conduction in a peripheral nerve fiber using the following terms: Schwann cell, node of
Ranvier, axon, and myelin sheath. A salutatory conduction is a more rapid impulse conduction than the
“normal” impulse
a. Some neurons that form the peripheral nervous sys (PNS) have myelinated axons or dendrites
b. Myelinated peripheral nerves have specialized glial cells called Schwann cells associated with axons
or dendrite as it grows
c. Schwann cells attach and wrap around the dendrite or axon. Schwann cell membranes have white fatty
substance called myelin
d. Myelin prevents Na and K ion channels from functioning
e. Gaps between the Schwann cells called Nodes of Ranvier expose the neurilemma (neuron cell
membrane), these gaps have a high concentrations of Na and K voltage gated channel proteins.
25. Why do myelinated fibers conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated ones?
a. As Na ions flood into the cytoplasm in depolarization, they repel other positively charged ions creating a
magnetic flux
b. The flux passes from one node of Ranvier to the next
c. The flux opens all the highly concentrated Na voltage gated channel proteins of the next node of Ranvier
d. An action potential is generated at the node, creating another magnetic flux which jumps to the next node
e. It jumps from node to node because the myelin prevents impulse conduction along the membrane. Axon
potentials can only occur at exposed neurilemma sites (nodes of Ranvier). The highly concentrated voltage
channels create a stronger flux than normal neurilemma. As a result myelinated fibers are faster
26. Describe the events that occur at a synapse using the following terms: synapse, presynaptic cell, postsynaptic cell, axon,
dendrite, neuronal synapse, neuromuscular synapse, synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitter, and receptor proteins.
a. Impulses are conducted in all direction from the site of action potential initiation. However, functionally and
impulse works from dendrite to axon.
b. When the impulse reaches the end of the axon there is a space between the neuron (presynaptic cell), and the
next cell (postsynaptic cell) called a synapse.
c. The next cell (postsynaptic cell), the dendrite of another neuron, forms a neuronal synapse (junction)
d. Or, the next cell (postsynaptic cell), a muscle fiber cell, forms a neuromuscular synapse (junction)
e. The axon contains numerous synaptic vesicles that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters
f. An impulse causes the vesicles to fuse with the neurilemma, spewing the contents into the synapse
g. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptor proteins in the postsynaptic membrane,
producing one of two effects (if postsynaptic cell is excitable)
i. Excitation – increases Na ion permeability leading to the threshold potential
ii. Inhibition – decreases Na ion permeability preventing action potential generation
h. Postsynaptic cell enzymes degrade the neurotransmitters and reabsorbed by presynaptic cell
27. How are excitatory neurotransmitters different from inhibitory neurotransmitters, and what determines whether a
neurotransmitter will be excitatory or inhibitory?
i. Excitation – increases Na ion permeability leading to the threshold potential
ii. Inhibition – decreases Na ion permeability preventing action potential generation
Excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic cell depends on the combination of neurotransmitter secreted by the
presynaptic cell, and the receptor protein of the postsynaptic cell. The postsynaptic cell may not be excitable, in
which case the neurotransmitter may produce some other effect.
28. Why are synapses necessary? If neurons were in direct contact, impulses would travel from cell to cell. Any action
potential would be conducted throughout all nervous and muscle tissue. The synapse allows for control of impulses and
the effects they generate
29. Describe the events that occur at a neuromuscular junction using the following terms: acetylcholine, Ach receptors,
adenyl cyclase, cyclic AMP, kinase, ion gated Na channel proteins, threshold potential, action potential.
a. Neurons that innervate skeletal muscles have synaptic vesicles that contain the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
(Ach)
b. In response to an impulse the synaptic vesicles spew Ach into the synapse
c. Ach binds to the membrane receptor protein of the postsynaptic sarcolemma (cell membrane of muscle cell)
d. In response to binding Ache, the membrane protein binds and activates the cytoplasmic enzyme, adenyl cyclase
e. Activated adenyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP (cyclic AMP)
f. cAMP binds to and activates the enzyme kinase
g. activated kinase enzymes phosphorylates an ion gated Na ion channel protein
h. phosphorylating the ion gated Na channel protein opens its gate, increasing the membrane’s permeability to Na
ions
i. enough Ach will cause the membrane to reach threshold potential, generating an action potential.
30. Describe the relationship between the following: epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, sarcolemma, muscle fiber,
myofibril, myofilaments, actin, myosin, troponin, tropomyosin, sarcomere, thick filaments, and thin filaments.
a. Muscle fiber – muscle cells
i. Sarcolemma – muscle cell membrane and has deep invaginations called transverse tubules (t-tubules)
b. Endomysium – a thin layer of dense irregular tissue in which each muscle fiber is incased
c. Perimysium – connective tissue that encapsulates muscle fibers that are bundled into groups called fascicles.
d. Epimysium – connective tissue within which fascicles are bundled together, forming a muscle
e. Myofibrils – bundles of proteins within muscle fiber
f. Myofilaments – formed by contractile proteins which compose myofibrils
g. Thin myofilaments – composed of the globular subunits of the protein actin, which form a double helix,
troponin-tropomyosin complex is also helical and overlays the myosin binding sites of the actin subunits
i. actin proteins have myosin binding sites where myosin heads will bind
ii. the troponin-tropomyosin complex normally cover the myosin binding sites
iii. when troponin-tropomyosin complex binds Ca ions, the shape changes exposing myosin-binding sites
h. thick myofilaments – are composed of the protein myosin
i. the myosin protein has a myosin head
ii. the myosin head will bind to actin and has two pivot points
iii. when bound to ATP, it will be in a power position
iv. when ATP is released, the heads spring forward
i. sarcomere – the smallest functional unit of the muscle is the sarcomere; in thin myofilaments surround the
thick myofilaments.
31. Using the terms above as well as the terms sarcoplasmic reticulum and transverse tubules, describe the sliding
filament mechanism of muscle contraction.
a. A neuron innervating a muscle, conducts an impulse, initiating an action potential in the sarcolemma
b. The impulse is conducted throughout the sarcolemma including the t-tubes down into the interior of
the fiber to the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) -(smooth endoplasmic reticulum)
c. When the impulse reaches the SR, voltage gated Ca ion channel proteins open and Ca floods out of SR
d. The Ca binds to the troponin-tropomyosin complex which changes the shape of the helix exposing
myosin-binding sites
e. Myosin heads having already bound ATP, and in a power position, bind to actin causing myosin heads
to release ADP and phosphate
f. This causes a change in shape of the myosin head - - it pivots forward in two positions, pulling the
actin (thin filaments) over the myosin myofilaments
g. The sliding of thin myofilaments past thick myofilaments shortens the muscle
h. The Ca pump in the SR will actively transport Ca ions back into the SR
i. When the Ca back in the SR, the troponin-tropomyosin complex recovers the myosin binding sites on
the actin protein, ending the contraction.
j. Muscle contraction is an all or nothing event
32. Is contraction of a muscle fiber an all-or-none event? Explain. Yes, it’s all or nothing. There are no partial
muscle fiber contractions, however, a whole muscle is capable of graded contractions
33. Is contraction of a muscle (organ) an all-or-none event? Explain. No
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Each muscle fiber contraction is all or nothing, but each fiber is separated from the others by the endomysium
The endomysium will conduct impulses (dense irregular tissue), and acts as insulation between muscle fibers
Strength of contraction of a muscle is dependent on how many muscle fibers are contracted
A motor unit consists of a neuron and the muscle fibers in innervates
Motor units are recruited, the greater the strength of the contraction
34. Describe the relationship of the following: CNS, PNS, ANS, and Somatic SNS.
a. CNS – central nervous system, composed of the brain and spinal chord
b. PNS – peripheral nervous system. Composed of nerves that radiate to and from the CNS. Important
structures associated with PNS are: sensory receptors such as, mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors,
photoreceptors, thermoreceptors. Ganglia are masses of cell bodies outside the CNS. There are 12
pairs of cranial nerves that arise from different parts of the brain. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves
named for where they attach to the spinal cord
i. SNS – somatic nervous system, composed of nerves that innervate skeletal muscle, i.e. motor
nerves and the sense organs
ii. ANS – autonomic nervous system, composed of nerves that sense and regulate the viscera
(body organs) and related unconscious activities. ANS is further subdivided into the
Sympathetic division and parasympathetic division
Characteristic
Sympathetic
Paraxympathetic
Short
Long
Preganglionic neuron
Long
Short
Postganglionic neuron
Paravertebral
Paravisceral
Ganglia
Thoracolumbar
Craniosacral
Nerve locations
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
Postganglionic neuron
neurotransmitter
Systemic, long lived
Localized, short lived
effects
Fight or flight syndrome, effects
Other
magnified by hormonal epinephrine,
norepinephrine
35. Describe the lobes of the brain and general functions of each.
a. Frontal lobes – primary motor cortex (controls muscles), speech centers, smell, memory, and
associating information form other brain areas
b. Parietal lobes – somatosensory complex that processes touch and pressure stimuli and relates to other
brain areas.
c. Temporal lobes – hearing centers, balance centers, some language and reading skills, identifying and
naming objects
d. Occipital lobes – visual centers, these are stimulated in memory such as when remembering an event
or trying to sell a word, you literally visualize it in the occipital lobe
36. How do the right and left sides of the brain differ? The right and left lobes are not mirrors of each other.
About 2/3 of nerve tracts decussate (cross over) from one side of body to other side of brain in brainstem
a. Left side – logical, temporal, language oriented
b. Right side – artistic side, “gestalt” conclusion, spatial relations, abstract reasoning.
37. What is the relationship between gray matter, fissure, sulcus, gyrus, white matter, and intelligence?
a. Gray matter – external to white matter, composed of unmyelinated neurons and generally related to
intelligence and conscious activities depending on its location.
b. White matter – composed of myelinated fibers (not Schwann cells) of oligodendroglia. White matter
is associated with the transport of information
c. Fissure – a crack or groove. The two highly invaginated cerebral hemispheres are separated by a deep
groove called the median fissure
d. Sulcus – an invagination is called a sulcus
e. Gyrus – the mass of tissue between sulcuses is called a gyrus
38. Describe the relationship and function of the following: prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon,
metencephalon, myelencephalon, cerebral hemispheres, corpus callosum, commissures, basal nuclei,
diencephalon, epithalamus, pineal gland (body), thalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain, forebrain, hindbrain,
brain stem, cerebral peduncles, cerebellar peduncles, corpora quadrigemina, superior colliculi, inferior
colliculi, substantia nigra, pons, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, decussation.
a. Prosencephalon – the forebrain. Develops into the following structures: the telencephalon, the most
anterior region and contains:
i. Cerebral hemispheres – cerebrum, cortex
1. Corpus callosum – the largest commissure at the base of the median fissure(white matter)
2. Commissures – masses of white matter that connect lobes on either side of the brain
3. Basal nuclei – located deep within cerebral hemispheres lateral to the thalamus. Nuclei
are masses of gray matter. Nuclei are considered “relays” between different areas of the
brain (concentrations of synaptic junctions). Relay information from cerebral cortex to
other brain areas and involved in our ability to do several motor activities at once.
ii. Diencephalon – deep to the cerebral hemispheres and surrounds the third ventricle. Composed of:
1. epithalamus – forms roof of third ventricle
a. pineal gland – secretes the hormone melatonin, which triggers sleep cycles
2. thalamus – 2 egg shaped masses forming the upper lateral walls of the third ventricle.
Contains important nuclei that relay to and from the cerebrum includes: all sensory
impulses, the emotional center of the brain (limbic system). Thalamus plays a role in
integrating and associating these processes: sensation motor activities, arousal (waking
up), learning, memory
3. hypothalamus – inferior to thalamus, forms floor of third ventricle, and duperior to
brain stem. Connects directly to pituitary gland. Has both neural and vascular
connections to the hypophysis and has control over it. Includes mamillary bodies that
are relay points in olfactory pathway. Contains nuclei related to these functions:
a. autonomic control center
b. physiological response center related to emotions
c. body temperature regulation
d. satiety and thirst centers (hungry, full)
e. circadian rhythms
f. endocrine regulation via pituitary gland
b. Mesencephalon – develops into the superior part of the brain stem called the midbrain
i. Midbrain – includes the following structures:
1. cerebral peduncles – large t5racts of white matter that connect to the cerebral hemispheres
2. corpora quadrigemina – four masses of tissue posterior and inferior to the pineal body
composed of the following:
a. superior colliculi – visual reflex centers such as tracking moving objects
b. inferior colliculi – auditory reflex centers such as tracking sound and startle reflex
3. substantia nigra – deep to cerebral peduncles, nucleus linked to basal ganglia, secretes
dopamine (neurotransmitter). Motor activities. If it degrades, leads to Parkinson’s disease
c. Rhombencephalon – inferior portion of the embryonic brain forming the remainder of the brain stem
and cerebellum
i. Metencephalon – the more superior portion of rhombencephalon, gives rise to:
1. Pons – inferior to the midbrain, conduction pathway between higher and lower brain
centers, respiratory center located in Pons, middle cerebellar peduncles communicate
with cerebellum
2. Cerebellum – athletic brain, dorsal to pons and medulla oblongata, integrates sensory
and motor information to carry out learned motor activities. Develops an athletic
memory so activities don’t have to be relearned.
ii. Myelencephalon – more inferior portion of rhombencephalon, gives rise to:
1. Medulla oblongata – inferior to the pons, conduction pathway between higher and
lower brain centers, inferior cerebellar peduncles communicate with cerebebellum,
centers for many autonomic reflexes such as: cardio regulatory, blood pressure,
respiratory, vomiting, coughing etc. 2/3 of nerve tracts decussate from one side of body
to other side of brain in brainstem
39. Describe the role of the following in a simple reflex arc: afferent neuron, efferent neuron, interneuron,
associative neuron, sensory neuron, motor neuron, dorsal horn, ventral horn, gray matter, white matter.
a. Afferent neuron – sensory neurons. conduct impulses via peripheral somatic nerves through the
dorsal horns to the gray matter of the spinal cord. They may synapse with the following neurons in the
gray matter directly with an efferent neuron, or with an associative neuron in the gray matter.
b. Efferent neuron – motor neuron. The efferent neuron’s axon will exit the spinal cord via the ventral
horn and innervate a muscle via a peripheral somatic nerve. Stimulates muscle fibers to contract.
c. Interneuron
d. Associative neuron – these synapses with an efferent neuron, or an ascending tract neuron (afferent)
which tells the brain what’s going on.
e. Dorsal horn – afferent neurons conduct impulses via peripheral somatic nerves through the dorsal
horns to the gray matter of the spinal cord
f. Ventral horn – efferent neuron’s axon exit the spinal cord via the ventral horn
g. Gray matter – in the spinal cord, gray matter is internal to the white matter
h. White matter – in the spinal cord, white matter in external to the grey matter
40. Describe the following: conus medullaris, cauda equina, lumbar enlargement, cervical enlargement.
a. Conus Medullaris – the spinal cord ends at about the first lumbar vertebrae (L1), and terminates in a
structure called the conus medullaris
b. Cauda equina – from the conus medullaris, the cord splits into numerous nerves that run within the
vertebral foramen called the cauda equine (horse tail)
c. Lumbar enlargement – one of two areas that the spinal cord is thicker than the rest of the cord
d. Cervical enlargement - one of two areas that the spinal cord is thicker than the rest of the cord
41. What is cerebrospinal fluid and what is its function?
42. Describe the role of the following in cerebrospinal fluid generation, flow, and recovery: choroid plexus,
lateral ventricles, foramen of Monro, third ventricle, aqueduct of Sylvius, fourth ventricle, central canal,
subarachnoid space, lateral apertures, superior sagittal sinus.
43. What is the relationship, and what triggers an action potential in the following: mechanoreceptors,
nociceptors, proprioceptors, chemoreceptors, photoreceptors, and thermoreceptors.
44. How are cranial nerves different from spinal nerves and how many pairs are there of each?
45. What are the subdivisions of the PNS?
46. How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems similar?
47. How are the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems different?
48. What can be said about the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems when they innervate the same organ?
49. What are the five types of taste receptors; to which class of receptor (mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor, etc.)
do they belong, and where in the brain is taste processed?
50. To which major class of receptor do olfactory receptors belong, and where in the brain is smell processed?
51. How many types of olfactory receptors are there?
52. What is the relationship between taste and smell?
53. Describe the tunics of the eye.
54. Describe the visual receptors and their distribution and density on the retina.
55. Be familiar with the major structures of the eye.
56. Describe the mechanism of lens accommodation when looking at something near and far away.
57. Describe myopia, Hyperopia, presbyopia, and astigmatism.
58. Describe the pathway of visual impulses and where they are processed in the brain.
59. What is the optic disc and why is it called the blind spot?
60. What is the function of tears?
61. Describe the pathway of sound and how vibrations are converted to impulses.
62. Describe the relationship and function of the following terms: bony labyrinth, membranous labyrinth,
perilymph, endolymph, cochlea, utricle, saccule, semicircular canals, hair cells, organ of Corti, basilar
membrane, tectorial membrane, stereocilia, cupula, maculae, otolithic membrane, otoliths.
63. How is an open vascular system different from a closed one?
64. Describe the relationship between the following: plasma, cerebrospinal fluid, interstitial fluid, lymph, and
filtrate.
65. Describe the role of the following in muscle contraction: sino-atrial node, atrioventricular node, bundle of his,
Purkinje fibers, atria, ventricles, connective tissue, intercalated discs, and pacemaker.
66. Explain how cardiac tissue is autorhythmic.
67. What causes the lub-dub of the heart sounds?
68. What is “normal” blood pressure and how is it related to ventricular systole and diastole?
69. Describe the mechanism of blood clot formation.
70. Describe the relationship of the following terms: arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis, aneurysm, thrombus, and
embolism.
71. Describe the relationship of the following terms: right lymphatic duct, thoracic duct, afferent lymph vessels,
efferent lymph vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, lymphocytes, APC’s macrophages, and dendrocytes.
72. What parts of the body are drained by the right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct, and into which blood vessels
do they return lymph to the cardiovascular system?
73. Describe the role of the following in immune responses: MHC1 and MHC2 proteins, APC’s, dendrocytes,
macrophages, B cells, antibodies, antigens, gamma globulins, immunoglobins, T cells, Helper T’s, Cytotoxic
T’s, CD4 and CD8 receptors, Natural Killer T’s, Suppressor T’s, Memory Cells, interleukin 1, interleukin 2,
plasma cells, MAC’s.
74. Describe nonspecific body defenses.
75. Describe the events in specific humoral clonal responses, and why one is protected from future exposures to
the antigen.
76. What organ plays a role in helping the immune cells determine self vs. nonself, and culls cells that are
hyposensitive or hypersensitive?
77. Contrast passive and active immunity and how are they related to the processes above?
78. What are some types of vaccines used to protect public health, and what are epitopes and adjuvants?
79. Describe the events of inflammation.
80. Describe the male sexual organs and trace the pathway of sperm from seminiferous tubules to the outside
world.
81. Describe the organs that produce seminal fluids and the approximate volume of ejaculate they produce.
82. Why is semen of alkaline pH?
83. Describe the erectile issues of the penis, and how they function to produce an erect and flaccid penis.
84. What is a bacculum and do humans possess one?
85. What factors contribute to impotence, low sperm counts, and sterility in males?
86. How does Viagra work, and does it work as well in females as males?
87. Describe the hormonal control of spermatogenesis and secondary sexual characteristics.
88. Describe the female sexual organs and trace the pathway of a secondary oocyte from ovulation to the outside
world.
89. Describe the three layers of the uterus.
90. What causes the vagina to have an acidic pH?
91. Describe oogenesis as it relates to follicle development.
92. How is ovulation not ovulation?
93. Approximately how many days after ovulation does implantation occur and what stage of embryogenesis
implants in the endometrium?
94. How does female orgasm contribute to the chance of fertilization?
95. What is the difference between menarche and menopause?
96. Describe hormonal control of the menstrual cycle.
97. Describe how the birth control pill prevents pregnancy.
98. How does the blastocyst (trophoblast) prevent menstruation, thereby saving itself?
99. What organ eventually secretes progesterone and maintains and controls the pregnancy?
100.
Describe the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy.
101.
How long does pregnancy last?
102.
Describe the events of first, second, and third stage labor.
103.
Describe the pathway of air from oral cavity to alveoli.
104.
Describe the location and function of the epiglottis.
105.
How are the right and left lung different form one another?
106.
What is the relationship of the following terms: lobules, lobes, and lungs.
107.
What is surfactant and why is it important to lung function?
108.
Why do air passageways have cartilagenous rings?
109.
Describe the anatomy and physiology of tidal and forced ventilation.
110.
Why is it so important that the pleural space remain closed, and how does a pneumothorax lead to a
collapsed lung?
111.
Describe the following: vital capacity, residual volume, total lung capacity.
112.
Describe the tunics of the digestive tract.
113.
Describe the relationship and function of the following: serous membranes, mucous membranes,
synovial membranes, peritoneal cavity, parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum, pleural membrane,
pleural cavity, visceral pleura, parietal pleura, pericardial cavity, mediastinal cavity, visceral
pericardium, parietal pericardium, mesentery, mesocolon, greater omentum, lesser omentum.
114.
Describe the digestive anatomy from oral cavity to anus.
115.
Compare peristalsis to segmentation, and physical digestion to chemical digestion.
116.
Be able to describe the locations and mechanisms of digestion and absorption of the following:
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
117.
What are the accessory organs of the digestive tract and what do they do?
118.
Describe the relationship of the following: rugae, plicae, villi, microvilli, and haustra.
119.
What are sphincters and name as many as possible?
120.
Is rennin technically a digestive enzyme? Explain.
121.
Is bile a digestive enzyme? Explain.
122.
Describe the relationship of the following: gall bladder, hepatic ducts, cystic, duct, and common bile
duct.
123.
What is cirrhosis of the liver, and what is its cause?
124.
Describe the relationship of the following: micelles, lacteals, chylomicrons, villus, and thoracic duct,
left Subclavian vein.
125.
Describe the location and function of the caecum and vermiform appendix.
126.
Describe the composition and role of the microflora in the large intestine.
127.
What are hemorrhoids?
128.
Describe the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of the kidney and urinary system.
129.
Describe the process of filtration.
130.
Describe the process of reabsorption.
131.
Describe the process of secretion.
132.
Compare the relationship and composition of filtrate, plasma, and urine.
133.
Describe net glomerular pressure and how it is related to filtration.
134.
When a person goes into shock blood pressure drops dramatically because arterioles dilate. Why does
shock shut down kidney function?