Supplementary material
Summary of ecosystem services related to biodiversity discussed in the text, factors that influence strength of the effect and processes causing the effects, biological
mechanisms by which the process functions, the relationship of the service (process) to stands and landscapes, and the area and temporal scales at which the service
occurs. (SFM = sustainable forest management; references in text)
Ecosystem
service
Key factors /
biological
processes
Mechanism / points
Relationship with
for management
ecosystems
mechanism:
factor: species,
ecosystem, forest
Production
area, habitat
process:
individual and
population growth
Relationship to species
of effect
Scale (time)
Often, productivity is related
complementarity,
affected by
with species richness
facilitation, mutualism,
regulation services
(Thompson et al. 2009, Zhang
photosynthesis, species
(e.g., pollination,
et al. 2012) and with highly
dominance
biological control
functional species (Diaz and
management:
and soil nutrient) and
Cabido 2001). Biomass is
silviculture, SFM,
other ecosystem
correlated with plant species
plantation forestry,
processes such as
diversity (Cardinale et al.
forest laws,
seed dispersal and
2011). Plant genetic diversity
governance, hunting
water supply
affects productivity (Crutsinger
regulations
Scale (area)
et al. 2006).
stand and
rotation period/ tree
landscape
generation time
Diversity of soil organisms
regulate soil nutrient, formation
factor:
temperature,
moisture,
biomass, litter fall
nutrients
Nutrient
cycling and
decomposition
process: N
fixation,
decomposition by
organisms;
facilitation of
nutrient uptake in
plants
(Vitousek and
and quality (Harris 2009) but
mechanism: chemical
not always necessary for
reaction including
nitrogen (Diaz and Cabido
photosynthesis and
2001). Decomposer biota
Long, to complete a
nitrogen fixation,
highly related to plant species
cycle between plant
diversity and soil biota,
food-web mediated by
Canopy present >>
richness (Zeugin et al. 2010).
species interactions,
absent (Firn et al.
Microbial diversity is
mechanical and
2007)
theoretically necessary but
to 6 years after change
organic decomposition
experimentally not shown
in plant species
management: e.g.
because of antagonistic
(Eisenhauer et al. 2012)
plantation with
interactions in soil
ectomycorrhizal fungi
(Hättenschwiler et al. 2005),
stand
soil biota might lag by 4
but richness provides
Sanford 1986)
redundancy. N-fixing species
facilitate tree growth (Davies et
al. 1999)
factor: species
mechanism: predation
Natural enemy diversity can
usually local,
Depends on landscape
Pest and
composition,
or parasitism of forest
Requires habitat for
enhance biological control
but can be
pool of natural enemies
disease
species
pests by their natural
natural enemies
success through well-
important at
(Tscharntke et al. 2008).
reduction
abundance,
enemies
(Siemann et al. 1998)
established mechanisms
regional scales
If enemies are present,
habitat, climate
management: habitat
(Hambäck et al. 2000; Gifford
(Tscharntke et
benefits occur over short
process:
conservation for
et al. 2012), the effects of
population
natural enemies; host
predator diversity can depend
dynamics,
apparency
on the environmental context
outbreak
Pollination
al. 2008).
time scales, depending
on pest species.
(Tylianakis et al. 2008).
factor: species
mechanism: pollen
composition,
transfer by animals
species
(usually insects, also
abundance,
Local, depends
General increase in pollination
on foraging
Requires habitat for
success with increased
/dispersal
birds, some mammals)
pollinators (e.g.
pollinator diversity (e.g.
distance of
habitat, climate
management: habitat
Ricketts 2004)
Kremen et al. 2002; Tylianakis pollinators
process: co-
conservation for
evolution
pollinators
et al 2008)
(Klein et al.
2004)
Time from management
to effectiveness depends
on landscape pool of
pollinators (Tscharntke
et al. 2008). If
pollinators are present,
benefits occur over short
timescales.
Local and
Seed dispersal
factor: species
mechanism: frugivory
composition,
and endo- and
species
ectozoochory usually
abundance,
by birds or mammals
habitat, climate
management: habitat
process: co-
conservation for nests
evolution
and forage tree species
Requires presence of,
landscape,
and habitat for,
depends on
dispersers in
High diversity of dispersers
foraging/dispe
surrounding
improves this service (Garcia
rsal distance of
landscape
and Martinez 2012); coevolved
dispersers
(Tscharntke et al.
and low level of redundancy,
(Tscharrntke
2008); enables
especially for large seed
et al. 2008);
community assembly
species.
important gene
in tropics across large
dispersal
landscapes
mechanism at
stand and
Depends on seed
germination time and
plant generation time.
landscape
scales
Water use increases with
growth rates (Law et al. 2002)
but selected fast growing
factor: vegetation
cover, plant roots,
precipitation,
Water quantity
anthropological
consumption
process: water
retention by
plants and soil
mechanism: water
For constant water
absorption and water
supply, Forest > bare
retention by plants and
field & undisturbed
soil.
vegetation > land
management:
converted (Bruijnzeel
maintaining forest
2004, Brauman et al.
ecosystem
2007)
species can be more water-use
efficient and produce more
wood with less water or smaller
land areas (Stape et al. 2004,
local to
Binkley 2012). Some species,
regional
usually a time lag
e.g., Acacias, have excessive
water demand and affect local
flows and supply (van Wilgen
et al. 2001). Better flow rates
from natural forests vs.
plantations (Lara et al. 2009)
Water quality
factor: physical
mechanism: filtration
Natural forest>
and biological
by soil and roots
restored ecosystem>
filtration
(Neary et al. 2009) and
intensive cropland
process:
detoxification
(Foley et al 2005)
purification from
management:
Forest> cultivated
Probably none
local to
regional
short to long (not clear)
polluted/
maintaining forest area
land> residential
contaminated to
(natural forest >
(Neary et al. 2009)
fresh water
planted forest) (Little
Watershed forest is
et al. 2009)
important (Postel and
Thompson 2005)