SCIENCE & MEDIA
EXPERT EU GROUP ON BENCHMARKING
THE PROMOTION OF RTD CULTURE AND
PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE
RESEARCH DG
VLADIMIR DE SEMIR
SCIENCE COMMUNICATION OBSERVATORY
POMPEU FABRA UNIVERSITY - SPAIN
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
GEMMA REVUELTA, ASSOCIATED PROFESSOR ON SCIENCE COMMUNICATION
&
SILVIA COLL, MASTER IN SCIENCE COMMUNICATION
FIRST BENCHMARKING EXERCISE
FINAL REPORT - MAY 2002
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
4
2. DATA FROM THE EUROBAROMETER
6
2.1 INFORMATION AND INTEREST ACCORDING TO AREAS
6
2.2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION
7
2.3 ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE VARIOUS SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION MEDIA
8
2.4 LEVELS OF CONFIDENCE
9
2.5 SUMMARY: THE PUBLIC FEELS POORLY INFORMED
10
3. FEW STUDIES ON THE TRANSMISSION OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
11
3.1 MORI POLL FROM SCIENCE MEDIA CENTER (APRIL 2002)
14
3.2 INFORMAL SCIENCE AND MEDIA SURVEY (1994)
19
3.3 DAILY SCIENTIFIC NEWS IN A SAMPLING OF NEWSPAPERS FROM
3.4 SCIENCE GENDER AND MEDIA
22
22
4. SCIENCE AND MEDIA: A BIT OF HISTORY
23
5. SCIENCE AND MEDIA: A GENERAL OVERVIEW
25
FIVE MEMBER STATES
5.1 SCIENCE IN NEWSPAPERS
25
5.2 SCIENCE IN NEWS AGENCIES
5.3 SCIENCE IN POPULARIZATION MAGAZINES
31
5.4 TV: LARGE SPREAD BUT POOR SCIENCE
35
5.5 SCIENCE ON TV: CONTRIBUTION FROM THE BBC EXPERIENCE
37
5.6 SCIENCE ON TV: SITUATION IN FRANCE
43
5.7 THE CREST REPORT: THE ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN THE
PROMOTION OF S&T
2
29
43
5.8 SCIENCE, ADVERTISING AND THE MEDIA
46
6. OVERVIEW IN THE MEMBER STATES
48
6.1 AUSTRIA
6.2 BELGIUM
6.3 DENMARK
6.4 FINLAND
6.5 FRANCE
6.6 GERMANY
6.7 GREECE
6.8 IRELAND
6.9 ITALY
6.10 LUXEMBOURG
6.11 PORTUGAL
6.12 SPAIN
6.13 SWEDEN
6.14 THE NETHERLANDS
6.15 UNITED KINGDOM
48
52
53
54
58
62
67
67
69
71
72
73
77
78
80
7. BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MEDIA
85
7.1 BIOTECHNOLOGY, THE EUROPEANS AND THE MEDIA
7.2 SPECIFIC CASE: BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FRENCH MEDIA
88
86
8. SCARCE TRAINING IN SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION AND JOURNALISM
90
9. INTERNET, THE INTERMEDIATION BOOSTER
92
10. USEFUL EUROPEAN INITIATIVES
96
10.1 CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research)
96
10.2 EICOS (European Initiative for Communicators of Science)
96
10.3 Science on BTV, the local channel of Barcelona
97
10.4 Tuttoscience
99
3
10.5 Horizon
99
10.6 Science & Vie
99
10.7 CNRS info
10.8 Science & Decision
100
10.9 New Scientist
100
100
11. IMPROVING SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION
101
12. QUESTIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
102
ANNEXES
107
4
1. Introduction
The media have become the pivoting axis for the transmission of scientific knowledge
to the general public. This proves to be particularly true for the audiovisual media,
given that, for good or evil, they occupy a preeminent position. We could even say
today the media are ubitiquously present in our daily lives.
The Eurobarometer “Europeans, science and technology” from December 2001 has
shown clearly which are the sources of information on scientific developments in the
citizens of the EU member states:
TV: 60,3%
Press: 37%
Radio: 27,3%
Scientific journals: 20,1%
Internet: 16,7%
The section School or University as a source of information only represents 22,3
percent, and although the Eurobarometer does not specify neither scientific
popularization books nor scientific conference attendance as sources, it may be expected
that among these groups of population books and conferences are widespread additional
sources of information and education of scientific culture.
Apart from specific scientific circles and in the strict field of education, science spread
is carried out through several routes of communication: museums, books, conferences,
etc. but undoubtely the media overshadow because they are the most extended route.
Jane Gregory and Steve Miller in their publication “Science in Public”1 remember us
that “as museums consultant Roger Miles points out, even major national museums –
like London’s Natural History Museum- can claim only as many visitors in a whole
year as watch a single edition of Horizon (BBC) on television.” An idea that has been
ratified by the data from the so-called Eurobarometer “Europeans, science and
technology”. Professor Bertrand Labasse (Université Bernard in Lyons, France) in a
report to the European Commison2 supports this consideration when he remembers that
“the number of tickets sold each year by the Cité des Sciences et de l’Industrie from
Paris and all the science museums run by the French ministery of Education (including
the Palais de la Decouverte and the Musee de l’Homme, both also in Paris, and fifty or
more other natural history museums throught France) was more or less equivalent to the
numer of copies sold each year by just one popularization magazine: Science & Vie.
And the latter is no more than a drop in the ocean of all the coverage of scientific and
technological subjects by the mass media (general press, radio, television, etc.)
So, there is no doubt that regardless of which had been the basic and university
education of the citizenship and the possible incidence of other “ways of learning”
about science like museums, the world of books and conferences, media are the
fundamental vehicles of information and ongoing education of our scientific culture
throughout our lives. That is why it is necessary to analyze how media carry out the
1
Gregory, J. & Miller, S. (1998) Science in Public: Communication, Culture and Credibility New York:
Plenum Press (page 211)
2
Labasse, Betrand (June 1999) The Communication of Scientific and Technical Knowledge (Report to
Directorate-General XII of the European Commission)
5
spread of scientific information since its incidence is essential to the public perception
of sciences.
EUROPEAN UNION. Newspapers readers par 1000 inhabitants (2000)
445
Finland
417
Sweden
348
Luxembourg
319
United Kingdom
Austria
308
Germany
291
The Netherlands
278
Denmark
277
Belgium
153
Ireland
150
148
France
Spain
106
Italy
104
Portugal
Greece
68
64
212
EU
Source: EGM, OJD, WAN
6
2. Data from the EUROBAROMETER3
2.1 Information and interest according to areas
The survey lead by the European Commission focused on the perception of the degree
of information at European level. The following table shows the results obtained.
Do you feel well or poorly informed Are you rather interested or not very
about the following subjects? (% EU15)
interested in each of the following
subjects? (% EU 15)
Areas
Well
Poorly
Do not know Rather
Not
No not know
informed
informed
interested
interested
57.0
40.5
2.6
54.3
44.7
1.0
Sport
48.5
47.0
4.6
56.9
40.8
2.3
Culture
44.3
52.2
3.5
41.3
57.0
1.7
Politics
61.4
5.2
45.3
52.2
2.4
Science and 33.4
technology
63.5
4.7
37.9
59.8
2.3
Economics 31.9
and finance
The survey tested to what extent people felt informed or were interested in five areas.
Europeans felt they were best informed about sport (57%), with culture taking second
place (48.5%) and politics third (44.3%). Roughly a third of Europeans believe
themselves informed about science (33.4%) and economics (31.9%).
When talking about interest, sport and culture also inspire a strong degree of interest
(54.3% and 56.9%), and science is in third place (45.3%), before politics (41.3%) and
economics (37.9%).
As a general rule, interest in the subjects mentioned tends to increase with the age at
which the person being asked finished studying. This tendency is even more marked in
the case of science and technology; 30% of those who left school early (aged 15 years)
say they are interested in science as opposed to 61% of those who were still studying at
the age of 20 and above.
Fewer women than men declare an interest in science (39.6% as opposed to 51.5%) and
this disparity occurs whatever the age at which they finished studying. The countries
with the highest percentages of interest in science and technology are essentially those
whose education systems produce the greatest number of graduates from higher
education.
This survey, among other things, suggests that people are interested in science but they
do not find as much scientific information as they would like to. However further
studies and surveys should be carried out to determine the extent of this perception and
to fin more specific results.
3
European Commission , Research Directorate-General. EUROBAROMETER 55.2: Europeans, science
and technology. December 2001
7
2.2 Sources of information
The EUROBAROMETER asked people from the 15 countries integrating the European
Union in order to discover which are the most preferred sources of information for
scientific issues.
TV
Press
Radio
School or
University
Scientific
journals
The
Internet
BE
DK GE
GR ES
FR
IR
IT
LU
NL
AU
PO
FI
SW UK EU15
63.6
37.3
29.7
24.8
60.6
39.3
22.7
27.9
62.2
30.1
33
28.7
64.6
34.7
33.7
17.4
61
39.1
39.6
20.5
48.8
28.1
15.9
34.3
42.3
29.5
24.4
19.1
59.4
49.2
35.7
26.9
64.6
41.2
41
14.3
59.1
22.8
28.3
19.1
59.1
50
21.4
26.6
66.2
46.4
24.6
23
67.7
43.9
25.5
14.2
52.5
25.8
33.6
24.7
20.9 16.9 15.4 13.2 16.9 20.8 14.4 33.1 13.9 21.2 16.1 8.1
18.4 15.8 13.7 10.4 13.5 9.5
60.4
42.2
25.6
22.9
60.3
37
27.3
22.3
22.4 21.2 18.7 20.1
20.3 23.7 14.3 23.3 16.4 13.7 18.3 14.1 22.8 16.7
To assess the use of the various media (TV, radio, written press, scientific journals, the
Internet, school or university) conveying scientific information, the public were asked to
classify them, giving each a “mark” of 1 (for medium judged the most important) to 6
(for the least important).
Adding together the high marks gave the following results:
TV
Press
Radio
School or university
Scientific journals
The Internet
60.3%
37%
27.3%
22.3%
20.1%
6.7%
These preferences do not vary enormously from one country to another, although there
is less enthusiasm for television in Italy (48.8) and a marked preference for the printed
press in Finland, the Netherlands and Sweden (50%, 49.2% and 46.4% respectively).
On the other hand we can notice strong differences in cultural practices according to the
age and level of education of respondents. TV appears relatively universal, though
cultured groups do not choose it so frequently or do not admit to watching it. Elderly
people are more likely to listen to the radio. The most educated more often read the
general press (41.5%) and specially scientific journals (29.2%). As for the youngest and
those who are currently still studying, they prefer using the Internet (29.1% and 33.1%
respectively).
8
2.3 Attitudes towards the various scientific information media
The EUROBAROMETER also prepared a series of questions concerning attitudes to
the various scientific information media and the results are as follows:
Inclined
to agree
I prefer to watch television programmes on sciences and 66.4
technology rather than read articles on this subject
I rarely read articles on science and technology
60.6
There are too many articles and programmes on science and 18.0
technology
Scientific and technological developments are often presented 36.5
too negatively
The majority of journalists treating scientific subjects do not 53.3
have the necessary knowledge or training
Inclined not
to agree
23.8
DNK
33.5
65.8
6.0
16.1
39.1
24.4
20.0
26.7
9.9
The first evidence is that two thirds of Europeans “prefer to watch television
programmes on science and technology rather than read articles on this subject”, which
is an answer consistent with the overwhelming choice of television emphasized above.
About the same number of respondents (60.6%) state that they “rarely read articles on
science and technology”. But this answer is given only by 48.6% of those who have
undertaken lengthy studies (who left school or university after the age of 20). Despite of
this low proportion of declared readers, this does not imply that there are “too many
articles and programmes on science and technology”, as this opinion is rejected by
65.8% of respondents and 75.9% of those who have pursued lengthy studies.
As for the questions related to the quality of information provided by the media, 36.5%
of Europeans think that “scientific and technical developments are presented too
negatively” but a higher proportion (39.1%) disagrees. Moreover, 53.3% believe that
journalists writing about scientific topics do not have the necessary knowledge or
training.
These two opinions show that a quarter of Europeans believe that scientific information
is too pessimistic and that journalists are poorly trained. This opinion does not vary
according to the age. It is only slightly higher among those who define themselves both
as “informed” about and “interested” in science (31.5%).
9
2.4 Levels of confidence
The feeling of confidence in players or organizations was measured from a general
question concerning the professions held in the highest esteem.
Doctors
Scientists
Engineers
Judges
Sportsmen
Artists
Lawyers
Journalists
Businessmen
None of the
above
Politicians
Do not know
B
DK GE
GR E
F
IR
I
LU
NL
AU
PO
FI
SW UK EU15
74.3
48.5
31.5
21.3
30.5
32.2
17.4
20.3
17.8
58.9
50.1
28.7
41.9
14.7
19.2
21.3
8.8
11.9
68.0
53.3
24.7
26.0
49.1
31.8
17.5
24.4
14.5
68.0
47.4
32.1
20.9
32.8
25.8
15.2
26.7
16
80.4
47.9
33.8
20.0
26.3
30.3
15.4
17.6
10.6
69.6
22.9
24.3
24.0
35.0
13.4
16.2
14.1
18.4
67.4
46.4
27.1
23.3
19.3
29.8
12.5
12.3
18.1
79.2
50.1
31.9
32.5
22.5
26.4
20.3
26.8
17.1
72.2
50.0
29.2
39.1
27.5
29.6
24.7
15.9
13.7
65.2
36.2
16.5
29.0
23.1
13.7
15.6
8.1
16.0
76.5
35.2
26.4
30.4
22.3
24.9
15.5
25.8
15.6
76.0
43.5
27.5
26.3
17.1
25.6
14.0
10.0
18.6
73.9
54.8
24.5
37.4
12.9
17.5
20.3
9.3
11.2
78.0
40.9
36.3
27.2
23.3
14.8
22.8
5.0
14.6
71.1
44.9
29.8
27.6
23.4
23.1
18.1
13.6
13.5
4.7
8.7
2.6
7.9 8.9
13.1 7.8
3.0 3.5
6.5
5.8
0.4
8.0
6.2
4.2
5.6
3.2
1.5
6.2
6.1
5.5
6.7
4.5
2.5
3.6 7.6 9.1
16.8 14.9 8.7
2.8 3.4 3.4
4.8
5.9
3.3
4.0
7.1
2.0
6.9
9.8
2.7
5.1
6.3
3.6
6.9
6.6
3.0
64.4
42.7
26.6
35.5
16.8
16.4
21.1
8.6
9.0
Esteem for the various professions proposed varies markedly:
-
the three professions held in the most esteem are those with a scientific
or technical dimension: doctors come first (chosen by 71.1% of
respondents), followed by scientists (44.9%) and, in third place, engineers
(29.8%).
Choosing doctors is linked not so much to cultural criteria as to the age of the person
asked (78.0% among those aged 65 and over). The professions of scientist and
engineers, on the other hand, are accorded greater esteem the higher the age when
studies were finished or the higher the level of knowledge (59.0% and 38.3%
respectively among those who have a knowledge “mark” of 11 to 13). Both France and
Great Britain appreciate the medical profession more (80.4% and 78.0% respectively),
while the scientific professions held in greater esteem in Sweden (54.8%), Denmark
(50.1%) and Greece (53.3%).
-
-
Judges obtain 27.6% of the votes, lawyers 18.1% (the legal professions are
more appreciated in Denmark and the Netherlands). But sportsmen (23.4%)
and artists (23.1%) take precedence.
Journalists and businessmen (or women) are more or less at the same
level (13.5% y 13.6%).
Politicians come last with only 6.6% of the votes. Only three countries
have a slightly higher estimation of this profession: Luxembourg (16.8%),
the Netherlands (14.9%) and Denmark (13.2%).
These results show us that there is a marked difference when talking about journalists.
For instance, we see that in the United Kingdom only a 5% of respondents chose
journalists, whereas in Spain, Luxembourg or Portugal around of 25 percent of
respondents chose journalists.
10
2.5 Summary: the public feels poorly informed
In order to grasp the attitudes of Europeans to scientific information more closely, it is
interesting to combine the degree of information and the terms of interest:
Informed and interested
29.1
Interested but not informed 14.7
Neither informed nor
45.8
interested
Other
10.4
When combining these results we can see that slightly less than one third of Europeans
(29.1%) state that they are both well informed and interested in science and technology
while, at the other extreme, 45.8% feel that they are neither informed nor interested.
Finally, a far from negligible proportion (14.7%) seeks information, since these people
declare that they are interested but not informed. It is noteworthy that this percentage is
at its highest in Greece (25.5%).
Various polls other than Eurobarometer taken across Europe unquestionably reveal too
the general public is attracted by scientific information but this interest is not followed
by the sensation of being well informed by mass media. In fact, two out of every three
European citizens consider they do not receive all the information they would want on
the latest scientific and technological advances, despite most reveal great interest in
learning about them. This is the general conclusion reached from reading the most
recent special Eurobarometer report.
It must be noted that the European Commissary for Research, Philippe Busquin, stated
these data were to be considered as «worrisome», and encouraged member states to do
everything possible to overturn this tendency. Swedes, Danes and Dutch are the
Europeans most interested in science, in opposition to the scant appeal shown by Irish
and Portuguese. Spaniards stand at an intermediate position. Paradoxically, Germans,
citizens of a scientifically advanced country, seem much less interest in research than
the Greek citizenry.
The media have practically exclusively replaced the diversification of sources that
nurtured the early days of scientific knowledge transmission. Recent data highlight this
fact: 85.8 percent of large city dwellers, such as Barcelonans, receive information on
scientific and technological advances from the television, the press, specialized journals,
radio and Internet, with a minor population group incorporating books, attending
lectures on scientific popularization and visiting science museums. (Poll from the City
of Knowledge Department - City Hall from Barcelona, September 2001)
11
3. Few studies on the transmission of scientific knowledge to society
In the European scene, very few studies are available on how the media transmit
scientific issues to society, and this applies to quantitative as well as qualitative reviews.
There seems to be a concurrent impression that the media are trivializing and converting
scientific news items into a show. Particularly due to the long shadow “fast thinking”
imposes on audiovisual media, independently of the degree of difficulty involved in
recontextualizing the scientific discourse delivered by experts into the way of
addressing the general public. This frequently reshapes scientific news items into sheer
anecdotes and can involve a certain degree of misinformation.4
Comparison
of various reports and studies concerning the issue of the
dissemination of scientific knowledge seems to indicate that the main
difficulty is that of bringing together two completely different systems
of thought and action: that of scientific research and that of mass
information and communication.
This difference is expressed in two contradictory fashions:
A) indirectly, by the perspectives taken by a number of approaches,
which reveal a unilateral conception of the processes at play.
Attitudes may then be based on different ways of thinking:
- taking account only of dissemination bodies that are closest to the
academic world and ignoring the major channels of dissemination;
- trying to transpose into the world of information and communication
the standards that prevail in the world of science and analysing the
latter according to the values of the former (or failing to analyse it at
all);
B) directly, by other, often more recent works, which instead place
emphasis on the "gap" between these two worlds and see it as the
main problem concerning the dissemination of scientific knowledge. It
might be noted, however, that these analyses, which usually tend to
dramatise the tension, might also seem limited because they focus
essentially on journalists5. This means they cannot claim to be based
on a holistic view of dissemination processes.
4
See:
- House of Lords (2000) Science and Technology Third report
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/38/3801.htm
- De Semir, Vladimir (2000) “Periodismo científico,un discurso a la deriva” Revista iberoamericana de
Discurso y Sociedad, volume 2 number 2 Barcelona: Editorial Gedisa
- De Semir, Vladimir (2000) “Scientific journalism: problems and perspectives” International
Microbiology volume 3 number 2 Barcelona: Springer-Verlag Iberica
http://www.ubxlab.com/imb/v3june/p3june009.pdf
- Tristani-Potteaux, Françoise (2001) “Du laboratoire au citoyen: les trois étapes de la communication
scientifique” CNRS Info nº 394 spécial 20 ans d’information et de médiation scientifiques Paris: CNRS
http://www.cnrs.fr/Cnrspresse/n394/n394.htm
5
“In a content analysis of 1600 television programs broadcasted in USA between 1969 and 1979 was
found that science appeared less in television news than it did in entertainment and science fiction
programs. These programs often focus on situations of crisis and danger, and they portray scientists as
forbidding and strange”, notes Dorothy Nelkin in Selling Science (1987)
12
We can therefore conclude, in both cases, that a better perception of the actual system of
the dissemination of knowledge is one of the main challenges to be met before any
attempt can be made to improve that system. It is impossible to think clearly, let alone
take action, when things are so vague: if the issue of the dissemination of scientific
knowledge is a serious issue, then it must be treated seriously. Yet we know of not a
single reference work that offers a genuine synthesis, on both the quantitative and
qualitative levels, of the scope of the various channels of dissemination.6
On the other hand, the volume of scientific news items appearing in the mass media has
notably and obviously increased in recent years. We are only aware of one empiric
study being conducted on this aspect of scientific communication. The project
exclusively covers medicine and health news issues7 as published in Spain’s five most
widely read newspapers (El País, ABC, El Mundo, La Vanguardia, and El Periódico).
The study reveals that the number of medical and health news items in the past four
years has grown as follows:
1997
5,984
1998
8,706
1999
11,135
2000
11,945
Thus, in three years, the number of medical and health news items has doubled in
number in Spanish press (news item selection criteria extended the entire time period
and covered brief news items as well as opinion articles). Also revealed by the study is
the fact the number of specialized journalists in the aforementioned dailies has remained
practically unchanged.
Despite the growing presence of science in the media, dailies only hire two or three -at
the very most— specialized journalists who are responsible of managing the entire
information load generated in this field of knowledge. This means some science editors
have signed practically 200 news pieces in the year 2000 (plus the help they provide in
the elaboration of other pieces that are published unsigned). The underlying issue here
becomes evident: Is it possible to maintain quality standards without investing in human
resources? Can journalists meet sufficient quality, rigor and depth standards when
needing to cover such a large number of news items?
We obviously cannot extend these figures and questions to other countries or to other
fields of scientific knowledge, but they evidence what readers have noticed when
reading generalist press, the fact that what they read does not meet their expectations.
This noticeable increase in medical information, a fact we could practically apply,
perhaps in a lesser way to other science and technology fields, originates in the
profound changes scientific and medical news diffusion has recently experienced. The
use of Internet and e-mailed press releases has meant an increase, at least a significant
6
Labasse, Bertrand (June 1999) The communication of scientific and technical knowledge (Report to
Directorate-General XII of the European Commission)
7
Informe Quiral: Medicina,Comunicación y Sociedad (1997, 1998, 1999 y 2000) Barcelona:
Observatorio de la Comunicación Científica-Universidad Pompeu Fabra
http://www.fundacionvilacasas.org/ventanas/inf00.htm
13
quantitative increase, in the distribution achieved of news items from original sources:
scientific reference journals, universities, research centers, firms, etc. These have had a
significant impact on the information reaching the general public. A paper published by
The Journal of the American Medical Association8 established that journalists are
clearly influenced by certain notes incorporated into specialized reference journal press
releases. This meaning that once the news science “stories” are elaborated, the
published final product often lacks correct contextualization of the procedures applied
in certain research projects or fall short in grasping the social and human implications,
setting the news far from the public interest and often using simplified captions and
information that fail to explain the expectation derived from the news piece. A recent
well-known phenomenon is “the discovery of the so-and-so disease gene...” daily news
item that is not understood by the public and ends up tiring them and making them lose
interest in science issues.
In this sense, another point to reflect on is whether all the issues that
appear in scientific reference journals are truly relevant or pursue a
certain dose of media impact, a situation that on the long run
negatively affects science popularization. In 1995, when Philip
Campbell became the director of Nature replacing John Maddox he
declared, “Nature will continue its quest for independent scientific
excellence and journalistic impact”9.
Now, are these really compatible goals?
De Semir, V.; Ribas, C.; Revuelta,G. (1998) “Press Releases of Science Journal Articles and
Subsequent Newspaper Stories on the Same Topic” JAMA, July 15 -Vol280,Nº3
http://www.ama-assn.org/public/peer/7_15_98/jpv80001.htm
9
Editorial from Nature, 14th december 1995
8
14
3.1 MORI poll for the Science Media Center (April 2002)
Tuesday 2nd April 2002 the new Science and Media Center published a survey conducted
by MORI (Market and Opinion Research International) among the general public. A
nationally representative quota sample of 1,987 adults was interviewed across 193
constituency-based sampling points throughout Great Britain. Interviews were
conducted face to face in respondents homes between 7th and 11th March 2002. The
Science Media Centre10, housed within the Royal Institution, is an independent venture
working to promote the voices, stories and views of the scientific community to the
news media when science is in the headlines.
Key Findings:

Nine in ten adults use the media to obtain information about science issues or scientific
research and its social and ethical implications. Television (82%) is most commonly
used, with TV news, documentaries and current affairs programmes seen as the most
common specific sources. The radio is used by around 4 in 10.

The press is a common source of information for just over 6 in 10, with national
newspapers often being referred to, but with local newspapers also being mentioned
(49% national press and 35% local press). Headline news in both the broadsheets and
the tabloids are the most widely read press sections for science information.

However, a majority of the public says that newspapers are not the source of most
influence on their views about science11, and trust in them to give accurate and
balanced information about the MMR12 combined vaccine is low compared to that
placed in doctors.

One-quarter do not expect a 100% guarantee from science on the safety of medicines,
but 6 in 10 do. Nearly nine in ten consider science to have had a positive impact on
society overall.

By a factor of almost 4:1, the media is seen as being negative, rather than positive, in its
reporting of science issues. However, it is not only the media which is criticised: eightyfive per cent feel that scientists need to improve how they communicate their research
findings to the public through the media. Scientists are also generally expected to
present an agreed view on science issues to the public.
10
www.sciencemediacentre.org
Just 17% said the ‘front-end’ of newspapers most influences their views about science issues or
scientific research and its social and ethical implications; and just 13% said this of the ‘back-end’ of
newspapers.
12
Measles, Mumps and Rubella
11
15
Summary tables in relationship with media:
The majority of the public (9 in 10) relies on the media for at least some of the
information they receive about science issues or scientific research and its social and
ethical implications. Television is the most common channel (82%), with newspapers
(63%) and radio (43%) also often used. Outside the media, friends and family are the
most common source of information (22%).
Sources of Scientific Information
Q1 Through which sources of information, if any, do you get most of your information
about science issues or scientific research and its social and ethical implications?
90%
Media
82%
Television
Newspapers
63%
Radio
43%
18%
Internet
Science press
8%
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
2
The news is the most commonly used source of scientific information on television
(68%), with documentaries or current affairs programmes also featuring highly (60%).
However, fictional TV dramas and films also contribute as an information source for
around 1 in 7. Use of the radio shows a similar pattern, although listenership is at a
lower level in each case.
16
Among the newspapers, the nationals appear to show the deepest penetration (49%),
with the national tabloids and broadsheets gaining equal readership (around 3 in 10).
Newspapers as Sources of Scientific Information
Newspapers
63%
Nationals
49%
Locals
35%
Nationals (Front-end)
41%
Nationals (Back-end)
26%
Tabloids
30%
Tabloids (Front-end)
Tabloids (Back-end)
24%
14%
Broadsheets
28%
Broadsheets (Front-end)
Broadsheets (Back-end)
22%
17%
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
3
Local newspapers also receive considerable attention for science issues. In fact, they are
more often cited as a source of science information than either the broadsheets or
tabloids alone. Perhaps not surprisingly, it is the front-end ‘headline’ news within
newspapers which receives the most attention (as opposed to the more specialist back
pages). Back-end news is equally well read for both types of publication, but it is not as
widely read as the front-end of newspapers.
Sources of Scientific Information
Q1 Through which sources of information, if any, do you get most of your information
about science issues or scientific research and its social and ethical implications?
68%
TV news
60%
TV documentaries/current affairs
Local newspapers
35%
Radio news
33%
Tabloid newspapers (Front-end)
24%
Radio documentaries/current affairs
24%
Friends and family
22%
Broadsheet newspapers (Front-end)
22%
General interest magazines
18%
The internet/web sites
18%
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
1
17
Those with a higher level of educational attainment are often more likely than those
with no formal qualifications to use the media resources tested here, whilst those with
fewer qualifications are more likely to say they do not seek information on science at all
(1 in 7).
Influence of Sources of Scientific Information
Q2 Which sources of information, if any, most influence your views about science
issues or scientific research and its social and ethical implications?
84%
Media
64%
Television
Newspapers
27%
Radio
16%
Internet
6%
Science press
6%
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
5
Television is not only the most popular source of scientific information, but also
(though perhaps as a result of its popularity) most commonly an influential medium
(64%). News and documentaries or current affairs programmes all have a particularly
high impact.
Newspapers influence around one-quarter of the public, with little difference seen
between the headline news, the back pages, the tabloid press and the broadsheets
.
Influence of Sources of Scientific Information
Q2 Which sources of information, if any, most influence your views about science
issues or scientific research and its social and ethical implications?
TV documentaries/current affairs
39%
TV news
38%
Broadsheet newspapers (Front-end)
10%
Radio news
10%
9%
Broadsheet newspapers (back-end)
9%
Tabloid newspapers (front-end)
Friends and family
8%
Radio documentaries/current affairs
8%
7%
Local newspapers
Tabloid newspapers (back-end)
6%
The internet/Web sites
6%
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
4
18
Overall, radio is less likely to be an influence than the press or television (with TV being
cited by four times as many adults). Indeed, despite the observed leanings towards the
media for science information, radio only has similar levels influence and penetration to
non-media sources i.e. friends and family, campaigning groups, charities, politicians,
libraries and museums.
A Pessimistic Media?
Q8 How do you feel about the media’s reporting of science issues and scientific
research and its social and ethical implications?
nearly always concentrates
on the positive aspects
The media...
None of these/
Don’t know/No opinion
12%
nearly always concentrates
on the negative aspects
tends to concentrate on
the positive aspects
4%
8%
15%
31%
is mainly balanced
30%
tends to concentrate
on the negative aspects
Base: All adults aged 15+ in Great Britain (1,987)
11
Around three in ten see the media in general as being balanced in its reporting of
science issues and a further one in ten see it as generally adding a positive spin to its
reporting13. However, more commonly, the media is seen as concentrating more on the
negative side of science stories (c.45% say it does), and this may contribute to the low
rating of newspapers’ as being the most trusted source of information on the MMR
vaccine debate.
Mirroring recent findings which showed four in ten members of the public feel that ‘the media present
science in a responsible way’ (‘Science and the Public’; The Royal Society/MORI, March 2002).
13
19
3.2 Informal Science and Media Survey (1994)
At the beginning of November, 1994, when preparing the Geneva conference on
"Science, Media and Society" -organized by HYPOTHESIS14 in collaboration with CERN
at the end of the 2nd European Week for Scientific Culture - a questionnaire was
circulated among scientists on the World Wide Web with a mirror questionnaire being
faxed to 500 science journalists all over Europe. Three weeks later, 810 scientists had
replied; after three months and three recalls, only 81 journalists had faxed back.
These are some results of this informal survey:15
Scientists' sources of general information
TV
Radio
Daily newspapers
Weekly magazines
Monthly magazines
Books
Cyberspace
Family, friends, colleagues
Other
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Why should researchers talk to the media?
Go o d fo r their career
To s hare enjo yment and p ain fo r res earch
To attact b rilliant yo ung mind s
To increas e fund ing s
To s p read id eas and metho d s in s o ciety
To d is p el unreas o nab le fears /exp ectat
To acco unt fo r p ub lic mo ney received
To warm s o ciety o f chang es
Other
They s ho uld n't
0
14
15
10 0
200
300
www.hypothesis.it
Full report in http://www.upf.es/occ
20
400
50 0
600
In the press, scientists find most reliable
Local news
World news
Politics
Economics
Sports
Science
Horoscope
Other
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Main sources of scientific information for journalists
Labs or research centers bulletins
News agencies
Scientific magazines
Books
Press releases
Conferences attended
Scientists among family or friends
Other
0
10
20
30
40
21
50
60
70
400
Although a long time passed since the results of this informal survey among European
scientists and journalists were presented, we can do some considerations that nowadays
are still valid. The first one is the scarce response of the survey among information
professionals: only 81 from 500 answered, a proportion that is to be considered very
low. An interpretation based on the deep knowledge of how work the media and which
are the habits of journalism world makes us value that journalists as well as media
groups are not sensitive –except when dealing with marketing—to studies about their
own activity and even less to self meditation about the way they work.
Only those professionals that have entered the university world and
have become professors of other journalists have progressed in the
latest years in the analysis of the methods used by professionals and
mass media. There is still a lot to do in this area and this may explain
why there are so few studies about transmission of scientific
knowledgeto the society through mass media.
The second subject we would like to point out is the strong
dependence of scientific journalists from scientific newspapers such
as Science or Nature and from press releases generated by these
magazines. Easy well-practiced scientific reporting consist of drawing
information from professional journals, primarily such as Nature,
Science, The Lancet and The New England Journal of Medicine. The
rigorous review system used by these journals assured reporters that
these sources provided reliable, thoroughly-researched information.
Due to the heavy reliance of the news media on these sources,
journals began to send out in advance weekly press releases to
accredited reporters, that nowasday are spread by e-mail all over the
world... The purpose of this practice is to give reporters time to
develop news items on findings that would soon appear in scientific
journals, although the lay media cannot report these items until they
have appeared in the journal. So, a press release simplifies the
information and interprets it in a context that transforms it into news.
But press releases not only assist reporters in preparing news items,
they also reflect a certain rivalry between scientific journals that
compete for citation in the mass media -as well as for the scientific
authority- and social prestige that follow. The consequence is that
science reporters are coming to rely more and more heavily on
scientific journals as sources. Scientific journals with weekly press
releases such as Science and Nature are more general and cover a
diverse array of scientific topics, so they are the more useful for
scientific journalists They also tend to offer fewer review articles,
which do not offer “news” in the sense of novelty, a quality that
reporters find very useful in “selling” news in their respectives
newsrooms.
When news media are analyzed, emphasis is often placed on how news is reported and
not on what news is reported. The selection of news is fundamental because that is how
the media directs the public opinion of what is “important”. Issues become “important”
22
by attracting attention via the mass media, not because they are intrinsically more
relevant in terms of the advancement of science or social applications.
All that has other relevant consequences to understand how the image of scientific
world is formed in society and can have a lot to do with the widespread impression that
there is a lot of information about science, but paradoxically at the same time public
feels poorly informed. The widespread of information from press releases of these
reference scientific magazines make that work in press offices often is made at a
distance –or at least it is perceived like that- from scientists and scientific institutions
that correspond to the territorial and cultural field of the specific media. There are many
spectacular news about scientific progresses but that have no practical adventages in
citizens’ lives. The result can be that feeling that science is very far, is curious… but not
useful in our daily lives, and specially that it is created by people from places very far
from us. Can it be a reason that scientific vocations among young European people?
3.3 Daily scientific news in a sampling of newspapers from five members states
There does not exist any study at European level about what science publishes in the
daily information. As a sample, we asked scientific journalism students working at the
Scientific Communication Observatory to carry out a sampling from a selection of 5 EU
member states newspapers. In ANNEX 1 you can find the results of this preliminary.16
3.4 Science gender and media
When analyzing the few studies that aim to establish the relationship between science
and mass media, one topic is conspicuously absent: gender. Undoubtedly gender is an
argument generously used in advertising, just as much as it is present in mass media in
general. Various references can be found on gender and advertising17, but practically
none include science in their scope.
16
Gemma Revuelta, Sílvia Bravo, Joan Carrera, Marga Mas, Núria Pérez, Raimundo Roberts,
(March 2002). Science Communication Observatory. Pompeu FabraUniversity-Barcelona (Spain)
17 Gender & Mass Media Newsletters International newsletter published in Sweden to exchange
information about research and activities concerned with sex roles in mass media. Formerly titled Sexroles Within Massmedia.
Douglas, S. J. (1994) Where the Girls are: growing up female with the mass media. New York: Times
Books
Franckenstein, F. (1997) ‘Making up Cher - a media analysis of the politics of the female body’, in
European Journal of Women’s Studies, 4 (1): 7-23.
Hayes, B. C. and Makkai, T. (1996) ‘Politics and the mass media: the differential impact of gender’, in
Women and Politics, 16 (4): 45-74.
Hurtz, W. and Durkin, K. (1997) ‘Gender role stereotyping in Australian radio commercials’, in Sex
Roles, 36 (1-2): 103-14.
Sylvie, G. (1997) ‘Facing difference: race, gender, and mass media - Biagi, S, Kern Foxworth, M’, in
Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 74 (2): 435-36.
Walsh, Clare (1998) ‘Gender and mediatized political discourse: a case study of press coverage of
Margaret Beckett’s campaign for the Labour leadership in 1994’, in Language and Literature, 7 (3).
Worden, J. K., Flynn, B. S., Solomon, L. J., Walker, R. H. Secker, Badger, G. J. and Carpenter, J. H.
(1996) ‘Using mass media to prevent cigarette smoking among adolescent girls’, in Health Education
Quarterly, 23 (4): 453-68.
23
A systematic study on scientific knowledge transmission via mass media covering this
issue would be of utmost interest. As a suggestion, it could pinpoint possible
specificities of the discourse analyzing widely influential specialized magazines, such as
“women’s magazines”
24
4. Science & media: a bit of history
In 19th century and the early 20th century knowledge diffusion was performed in a
diverse way from very different information sources basically set off by scientific
societies and the activities they supported such as conferences, public debates and the
publication of books and journals. From mid 19th century on, scientific books began to
contribute to the industrialization and growth of the publishing industry, sustaining a
strategic role in the formation of large publishing groups such as Hachette and Larousse
in France, and Macmillan in the UK18. For instance, these circumstances explain how
the French publisher Flammarion was founded. In 1880, Camille Flammarion,
astronomer, writer and profuse lecturer, supported by an initiative put forth by his
brother Ernest, was able to publish his work Popular Astronomy, a book that sold
100.000 issues, practically meeting Emile Zola’s record sales of his social literary
works of the moment. At the same time, another astronomer, José Comas Solá, a
Spaniard, was a prolific writer in La Veu de Catalunya and La Vanguardia, two Catalan
newspapers to which he contributed science popularization pieces (mainly astronomy
and physics), publishing more than 1.500 articles in La Vanguardia.19
This phenomenon spread throughout Europe and led the way to the publication of
eminent scientific publications, both reference journals addressed to and written by
scientists, as well as science popularization magazines. Today we are still able to read
and consult some of these long-lived publications. Among the first group, there is no
way we can elude devoting a few words to Nature, the British journal, a publication that
was first published by the Macmillan group in 1869, and has grown to become one of
the most influential reference journals worldwide. Among the second group, we can
mention the French publication Science et Vie, a monthly that was first published in
1913 and has surpassed the 1000-issues landmark in January 2001.
Few authors have devoted their efforts to studying the history of scientific journalism,
but they all seem to agree on placing the origin of this development in the ensuing
interest convergence of scientific societies and press agencies that followed WWI, and
became particularly clear at the end of WWII when a new world resulted. For the first
time in history, at the end of WWII, there was an extended perception of the destructive
capacity human beings were capable of generating, and in which two antagonistic
blocks developed, each with its respective ideological and economical conception: the
capitalist and the communist worlds. On Wednesday, August 8 1945 --at a time the real
extent of the damage infringed upon by the dropping of the first atomic bomb was not
fully known-- the main dailies titled the event as a “great scientific revolution”20. This
brutal conquest of peace led to the Cold War that placed the two large blocks face to
face, with each one fighting to convince the entire world of the success of its societal
model. The space race that began in 1957 clearly evidenced this rivalry set off with the
launching of the first Soviet Sputnik and ending when the first human being –Neil
Armstrong, an American- embossed the Moon with the first human footprint on July
1969. The atomic bomb and the space race -marked with the undertones of a
communication war struggling to attain worldwide ideological primacy- have
Bensuade-Vincent, Bernadette (2000) L’opinion publique et la science Paris: Institut d’édition SanofiSynthélabo
19
Cebrián, J.L. “Comas Solá, divulgador científic” Doctoral thesis– Barcelona: Journalism Studies,
Pompeu Fabra University
20
See Le Monde cover page dated August 8, 1945
18
25
definitively been the decisive boosting agents in the consolidation of scientific
journalism as we know it today, and has set it in a clearly outlined battle field: the mass
communication media.
As a result of such scientific-technological evolution in the second half of the 20th
century, the first sections specialized in scientific communication were created in the
different media offices. The New York Times –a world reference newspaper- created its
section named Science Times in November 1978, and we can say that most European
newspapers such as La Stampa, Le Monde, La Vanguardia, El País, Die Welt, The
Guardian, etc. were including scientific journalists in their offices and the first pages
and supplements dealing with science topics appeared during the 80s and 90s.
26
5. Science & Media: a general overview
5.1 Science in newspapers
In the early 1990s, Pierre Fayard, professor at the University of Poitiers (France)
conducted a comparative study21 and noted the relevance science issues had acquired in
the main written European media, mainly as weekly supplements. This had become a
trend followed by many European dailies in the 1980s such as La Stampa, in Italy; La
Vanguardia, in Spain; Libération, in France; Publico, in Portugal; etc.
The following table -a summary from Fayard’s study- gathers the countries and the
newspapers from each of them that intended to include science in their pages by means
of supplements. Many of them currently do not have such supplements, but already
have news on science and technology in their daily editions.
NUMBER
COUNTRY
GERMANY
NEWSPAPER
PRINTOUT
SUPPLEMENT
DAY OF
NUMBER
PUBLICATION
OF PAGES
OF ARTICLES
IN EACH PAGE
Natür &
Wissenshaft
Wednesday
From 2 to 4
7
Umwelt und
Wissenschaft
Thursday
From 3 to 4
3
1
From 2 to 3
Frankfurter
Allgemeine
Zeitung
Süddeutsche
Zeitung
400.000
GERMANY
Die Welt
230,000
Umwelt &
Wissenschaft
BELGIUM
Le Soir
160,000
Weekend
1
From 1 to 2
BELGIUM
De Standaart
80,000
Sciences et
technologies
Kultuur &
Wetenschap
Daily
From 1/3
to 1
5
SPAIN
El País
400,000
Futuro
Wednesday
From 8 to 12
From 1 to 2
SPAIN
La
Vanguardia
Ciencia y
Tecnología
Saturday
16
From 2 to 3
200,000
FRANCE
Le Figaro
400,000
La vie
Scientifique
Daily
1
From 3 to 4
FRANCE
Libération
250,000
Eureka
Wednesday
From 6 to 8
From 1 to 4
FRANCE
Le Monde
500,000
Science et
Medecine
Tuesday/
Wednesday
3
From 2 to 3
UNITED
KINGDOM
UNITED
KINGDOM
The Guardian
400,000
Science
Friday
1
From 4 to 6
The
Independent
Science and
Technology
Monday
1.5
4
390,000
UNITED
KINGDOM
ITALY
The Times
440,000
1/2
4
Il Corriere
Della Serra
O’Publico
800,000
Once or twice
every week
Tuesday
4
4
Daily
1
1
Articles
and from 3 to
4 short articles
GERMANY
PORTUGAL
21
550,000
Scienze
75,000
Fayard, Pierre (1993) Sciences aux Quotidiens Nice: Z’Éditions
27
This editorial initiative had developed as a sequel of the model prompted by The New
York Times in 1978, when the American newspaper developed various weekly
supplements (published daily), and established Tuesdays as the day for the science
supplement. The underlying idea was to increase sales by capturing new groups of
readers interested in the specific issues being covered, as well as offering a new
advertisement platform for the corresponding business sector involved. This trend
picked up quickly in the US, both because of the attention it drew and the readers
increase that ensued, as well as for the fact this science supplement coincided in time
with the boom of PCs and its subsequent emerging advertising market22.
In Europe, however, only the first part of the plan was achieved. In his study, Fayard
explains that most of the dailies that went for including science pages increased their
distribution in 10.000 to 20.000 issues on the days the science supplement appeared, but
this distribution increase was not followed by an increase in advertising. After a decade
period, by the mid 1990s, supplements gradually disappeared due to the associated costs
–mainly owing to an increase in the price of paper-, and to the lack of impact it had
aimed for in the advertisement market. The fact science information was gradually
incorporated into standard sections, Society mainly or special daily pages were created
for this purpose contributed to their decline, as happened in the French newspapers Le
Monde and Le Figaro. In any case, the existence of these supplements had a decisive
impact in capturing new readers specifically interested in science issues, proving that
continuous and high quality information was the best option when trying to create a
demand, plus learning this type of reader was a particularly loyal follower.
Concurrently, these supplements lead to the development of a training movement
interested in educating journalist and popularizing science, addressed both at the
journalists who chose to specialize in science issues as well as to the scientists
interested in collaborating with the press and getting to know and understand the
constraints imposed by the media.
Unquestionably, thematic supplements allowed journalists to approach science
information with more rigor and physical space, two features that probably lead to the
creation of this type of news piece as they were awarded the requirements inevitably
associated to science popularization. These same circumstances would have been
reached with far more difficulties in common daily news sections, where space and time
requirements are stringently imposed on news-piece generating topics.
22
Diamond, Edwin (1994) Behind the Times:Inside The New York Times New York: Villard Books
28
As for written press, focusing on scientific newspapers supplements and magazines the
scenario is as follows:
COUNTRY
NEWSPAPERS
MAGAZINES
SUPPLEMENTS AND SECTIONS
AUSTRIA
Supplements:

Life (Der Kurier)

Spektrum (Die Presse)




Star Observer
Universum
Heureka
NOEO
Sections:

1 page every Tuesday (Die
Presse)

Half a page from Tuesday to
Saturday (Der Standard)
BELGIUM
Supplements:


Sciences et Technologies (Le 
Soir)

Kultuur & Wetenschap (De
Standaart)
Athena
EOS
Sections:

One page every Saturday
entitled ‘Science’ (Financieel
Economische Tijd)

3 pages every Monday (De
Standaard)

One daily science feature, but
not
on
Monday,
entitled
‘Demain’ (Le Soir)
DENMARK
Supplements:


A scientifc supplement until
Aktuel Naturvidenskab
February 2002 (Berlingske
Tidende)
Sections:

An average of 10 pages
daily (Berlingske Tidende)

One page every Sunday
entitled ‘Science’ (Politiken)

FINLAND
One
page
every
Sunday
(Morgenavisen Jyllands Posten)
Sections:


2
pages
every
Saturday
(Helsingin Sanomat)

One page twice a month on
Monday entitled ‘Science’and
one
page
every
Tuesday
entitled ‘Environment’ (Turun
Sanomat)
29
Suomen Luonto
FRANCE
Supplements:

Industrie (Les Echos)



Sections:


A daily page on science and 
health (Le Figaro)


One page on Tuesday and one
page
on
Wednesday/Thursday/Friday /S
aturday and a special feature
on Saturday entitled ‘Vivre au
21ème siècle’ (Libération)

Around 2 pages per day (Le
Monde)
La Recherche
Ça m'interesse
Pour la Science
Science et vie
Science et avenir
National Geographic
GERMANY
Supplements:

Natür
&
(Frankfurter
Zeitung)
Natur & Kosmos
Bild der Wissenschaft
G.O. de geoscience
GEO Explorer
National Geographic
LifeScience.de
NOVO
Spektrum der Wissenschaft
Wissenschaft-aktuell
Star Observer

Wissenschaft 
Allgemeine 


Sections:


A daily column entitle "Nature 
and
Science"
(Frankfurter 

Allgemeine Zeitung)

Around
4
pages
weekly 


GREECE
(Süddeutsche Zeitung)
Half a page to a whole page
from Monday to Saturday (Die
Welt)
A column from Monday to
Saturday (Handelsblatt)
Supplements:

IATRIKA (Eleftherotypia)

Georama
Sections:

A page twice a week, on
Wednesday
and
Friday
(Kathimerini)

IRELAND
Sections:


One page every Thrusday (The
Irish Times)
Technology Ireland
ITALY
Supplements:

Alpha (Il Sole/24 Ore)

Salute (La Repubblica)

Tutto Scienze (La Stampa)
Galileo
Le Scienze
Quark
Newton
Nexus
National Geographic
Scienza Nuova
Sapere






Sections:

One page on Sunday titled 

‘Scienza’ (Corriere della Sera)

1 or 2 pages every Sunday in
the section entitled ‘Scienza e
Filosofia’ found in the cultural
supplement of the newspaper
called “Domenica” (Il Sole/24
Ore)
30
LUXEMBOURG
Sections:


One
page
every
month
(Luxemburger Wort/La Voix du
Luxembourg)
NO DATA
PORTUGAL
Supplements:

Daily supplement (O’Publico)

Daily page “Science and
Environnement” (Diario de
Noticias)


National Geographic Society
Superinteressante







Investigación y ciencia
Muy Interesante
National Geographic
BIOlógica
QUO el saber actual
Ciencia Digit@l
Mundo Científico
Sections:

1 or 2 pages every day entitled
‘Science and Environment’
(O’Publico)

1 or 2 pages every day devoted
to science and the environment
(Diário de Notícias)

2 pages on Thursday and
Saturday (Jornal de Noticias)
SPAIN
Supplements:

“Futuro” (El País)

“El Mundo Salud” (El Mundo del
Siglo Veintiuno)

Expansión Digital (Expansión)

ABC de Salud (ABC)
Sections:

4 pages every Friday (ABC)

From 4 to 8 pages every
Tuesday in a section titled ‘El
Futuro’ and from 4 to 8 every
Monday in a section called
‘Salud’ (El País)
SWEDEN
Sections:


2 pages every Saturday in the 
weekend supplement of the 
paper (Dagens Nyheter)

2 pages every Sunday in the
section
entitled
‘Science’
(Svenska Dagbladet)
Scientium
Illustrerad Vetenskap
THE NETHERLANDS
Supplements:


Wetenschap & Onderwijs (NRC
Hondelsblad)

Wetenschap (Volkkrant)
Natuur & Techniek
Sections:

2
pages
every
Saturday
(Algemeen Dagblad)

4 to 6 pages every Saturday
(NRC Handelsblad)

4 pages with science-related
issues every Saturday as well
as a 3 pages health section on
the same day (De Volkrant)
31
UNITED KINGDOM
Supplements:


Science (from The Guardian)


Science and technology (from
The Independent)

FT Information Technology and
The FT Telecoms (Financial
Times

Weekly supplement in The
Times
NewScientist
National Geographic
Sections:

1 to 2 pages every Wednesday
(The Daily Telegraph)

2 science pages every Thursday
(The Guardian)
5.2 Science in news agencies
The big international news agencies such as Reuters, Associated Press, etc., and
national press agencies such as EFE in Spain, LUSA in Portugal, DPA in Germany or
France Press in France are important broadcasters of scientific, medical, technological
and environmental information. Since some time ago, about all have a specific section
for such subjects. Their news feed almost all press offices in a continuous way: written
press, radio and television. That is why it is to be considered its important spreading
task of scientific knowledge although its work is not evident for the general public. In
big press offices its presence is not very obvious because pres offices usually use the
agency office as an inspiration source of their own news, that are rewritten in the press
office, though the initial alert of the novelty had come from the agency. Radios and
televisions use them as sources, but not very often mention their origin and point out the
agency task. Only those newspapers that publish less issues, mainly regional, agency
news appear signed as they are. It has to be pointed out that for such media –less
important, but with strong influence on specific territory- news agencies are very
relevant sources for their daily informative task, because their offices have few
journalists, and they do not usually have specialized journalists.
In that sense it would be very important to recognize the scientific
and technological contents of the information they offer, as well as
their sources and the real impact in the spread of scientific culture.
These data from news agencies could help to create some useful
indicators about public communication perception of science.
Alphagalileo,
science23
internet-based
press
centre
for
European
The primary purpose of the AlphaGalileo Europe project lunched 1998
was to bring the achievements and relevance of science and
technology to the attention of the public. Raising public awareness is
recognized across Europe as a key to economic and other
development, forming a main action line. Scientific and technological
23
www.alphagalileo.org
32
advance can only have the impact that it needs to have if the public
is convinced of its essential role in driving forward the quality of life
and the economic competitiveness of Europe.
European citizens receive news mainly via newspapers and the
broadcast media. Thus, it is essential that these media include
coverage of European science and technology in sufficient quantity
and quality to ensure that it gets the recognition that it deserves.
Alpha Galileo Europe provides an internet-based bridge from S & T
practitioners to the media, and thus to the public, by enabling a new
culture of communication in Europe.
The proposal builds on a UK pilot project, which established
AlphaGalileo as a way to make the latest S & T news accessible to
journalists and broadcasters.
This pilot became multinational,
demonstrating the potential for a broader approach.
It is this
potential for European impact that AlphaGalileo Europe aims to
realise. A strong consortium of respected organisations from six EU
Member States was been formed to take the project forward and will
be extended to other countries throughout 2002.
AlphaGalileo enables a European culture of science and technology
communication to the public via the press and broadcast media by
establishing an internet-based pan-European service which makes
European S&T news available to the media quickly and easily. The
project help to bridge the gap between European science and
technology and the public.
AlphaGalileo Europe wants also to establish a network of national
offices, which will encourage S&T communication, by encouraging
participation in AlphaGalileo Europe, and by encouraging dialogue and
the sharing of best practice between researchers, communicators and
the media. This will result in improved media coverage, and thus
greater public awareness of S&T and its benefits. The national
funding for these offices is testimony to the commitment of the
countries concerned to the project. In this proposal, only the specific
costs of collaboration are being sought by these offices, together with
the central technical, marketing, networking and other infrastructure
costs to support this European initiative.
The internet service provide a tailored information service for the
media,
based
on
the
AlphaGalileo
pilot
project
on
www.alphagalileo.org.
It comprises moderated, fully European,
databases of press releases, events, images and background
information where vetted contributors, typically press officers, place
material within a posting policy designed to ensure that the material
is likely to be used by the media. An e-mail alerting system, based
on keywords, then alerts bona fide journalists to new information of
interest specifically to them. The vetting of contributors ensures the
integrity of the information on the database and the establishment of
the bona fides of the journalists allows the site to carry embargoed
33
material. The site thus, quickly and easily, supplies targeted material
to those who are likely to use it.
Recent data24 confirm that the service continues to being used by
2500 journalists with 24 hour a day access at ever increasing rates :
 Page impressions25 for January 2002 were 195,710, this gives a
yearly equivalent rate of 2,348,520
 Page impressions have risen by 25% since relaunch in November
2001.
 Recent monthly figures are:
October 2001 - 110,840
November 2001 - 156,843
December 2001 - 147,115
January 2002 -195,710
5.3 Science in popularization magazines
There is little doubt that today science popularization is also being performed through
magazines. The Spanish General Media Analysis (Estudio General de Medios) claims
that in Spain there are approximately 5.5 million readers purchasing popularization
magazines, and the number can be increased up to 7.5 million if magazines specialised
on computers and Internet are included. Very significant is the fact the most widely sold
magazines in Spain (Pronto, Hola and Lecturas) are addressed to women and “artists
and love issues”, but the fourth in this ranking is Muy Interesante, a science
popularization magazine that monthly distributes 290,422 issues. We can safely state
that Muy Interesante is one of the magazines through which many people, (particularly
young male readers) become interested in scientific issues, even if this interest begins at
a decidedly popular level, that later may direct them to search for science information in
other media. The table in ANNEX 2 from the professional Spanish media journal
Noticias de la Comunicación shows the distribution of accumulated diffusion per topic
segment in Spanish weekly and monthly publications. Following the leading “women’s
magazines”, totaling 2.642.636 issues (20,9 per cent of the magazine market share), and
home decoration publications, with 1.682.562 issues (13,3 per cent), the third segment
in relevance corresponds to science popularization publications, with 1.118.841 issues,
i.e., 8.9 per cent of the market.
In the case of Spain, it is rather significant that while general diffusion magazines sales
have decreased in the year 2000, the two most representative science popularization
magazines, with editions throughout Europe -- Muy Interesante (popular level) and
Investigación y Ciencia (high level, Spanish edition of Scientific American) have either
increased or remained stable in this general crisis, from which only some “sweetheart”
magazine or TV programming publications have escaped. Specifically, Muy Interesante
diffusion has increased from 273.469 issues in 1999 to 290.422 in the year 2000. And
Investigación y Ciencia readers have remained approximately the same, from 24.559 in
1999 to 24.731 in the year 2000. The opposite, however, has proved for other
24
Source: Peter Green, director of Alphagalileo
'Page impressions' is a smaller figure that 'hits', but is widely accepted as a very honest indicator of use
of a web
25
34
publications, such as Newton –the Spanish version of a Japanese magazine- that was
first published in April 1998 and was discontinued in August 2000, despite reaching an
average diffusion of 63.731 issues last year. The same proved true for Focus, the
English version of Muy Interesante that was terminated last December when it was
selling 87.473 issues.
Muy Interesante and Scientific American are, as we have previously mentioned, the only
monthlies –along with National Geographic, though this magazine cannot be included
inside scientific popularization magazines- being published in various European
countries, and thus can be considered to represent an indicator of the interest exhibited
by their respective populations in science popularization. Particularly if we take into
consideration that purchasing a magazine is an active decision and proves the readers’
interest. This is not the case when referring to TV audience indexes, as this is a passive
activity and varies greatly depending on what is programmed on other channels.
Population
Muy Interesante
Scientific American
Germany
82.2 m
450.227
132.963
France
59.4 m
229.012
50.713
Italy
57.8 m
768.625
71.800
Spain
39.4 m
290.422
24.731
It would be desirable to have a detailed market study for each country, with information
on other publications of this segment, in order to draw conclusions for each case. For
example, in the Spanish market Muy Interesante competes with other publications, such
as QUO (171.515 issues) or CNR (75.218). In France there exists an intermediate
science popularization segment that is absent in the Spanish market and which is most
relevant publications such as Science et Vie (349.212 issues) and Sciences et Avenir
(250.427). In Germany, GEO magazine is the leader (347.899) and the content of the
German edition is different from the European version of the publication. The German
version includes science popularization issues while other European GEO editions are
more focused on travelling and nature. In the UK, New Scientist (135.837 issues) is the
reference publication within quality science popularization, and has a weekly
periodicity.
It would be interesting to know in detail the circulation of scientific magazines and its
variation in a specific period to observe readers trends in each member state. In the case
of sister-editions of the same magazine, such as Muy Interesante, Scientific American
and National Geographic, the indicators could be very efficient. We insist on the idea
that to buy a scientific popularization magazine is one of the voluntary acts most
indicative of the interest for scientific information, as well as it would be the
comparison of each analyzed country.
An example: Popular Science Magazines in Greece26
26
Magazine
Specialization
Georama-
Space Science,
Average
readership/m
onth (2001)
37.544
Contribution from Vasilis Koulaidis
35
Average
readership/m
onth (2000)
51154
Var (%)
-27
Experiment
National
Geographic
Vita
Focus
Astronomy,
Archeology&
Geography
Science&
Geography
Health&
Fitness
Science
&Technology
29.382
42369
-31
48.749
42.486
+15
47.000
22.000
+114
Total readership
162.675
158.009
+2.9
of S&T
magazines/month
Total readership
2.353.966
2.470.331
-4.7
of all
magazines/month
**These data concern popular scientific magazines of readership larger than 5.000
copies since there is also a number of some other similar magazines with
insignificant though circulations.
Notes



The readership of the Greek popular science magazines has been
increased by 2.9% during the period 2000-2001.
If the readership figures of the Greek popular science magazines is
calculated as a percentage of the total readership of all magazines
(magazines of all types) in Greece then it is estimated at about
6.4% for 2000 and 6.9% for 2001. Showing a considerable
increase of 0.5% in the last year despite the fact that during this
period the total readership of the Greek magazines has been
decreased by 4.7%.
If we take into consideration the Greek popular magazines
concerning technological applications and informatics which have
an average readership per month of about 68.000 copies, then the
percentage of the techno-scientific magazines in relation to all the
Greek magazines rises to about 10%.
36
Young people and popular science magazines in France
The National Education Ministry from France carried out in 2000 a
survey27 taking as a respondents 300 young people from scientific
and technical university studies and also 300 students in general high
school. The survey included several questions about their attitude
towards popularization magazines and the importance of scientific
issues in the core of families.
The question concerning science and media was the following one:
“Could you tell me if anyone of your family members read
science magazines (such as Science et Vie, La Recherche…)?”
Often
From time
to time
Rarely or
never
Tota Universit
l
y
Students
19
25
30
37
51
38
High school
Students
17
28
55
The ones that answered “often” to the question were mainly
university students with a very slight difference comparing to high
school students. Those who answered “from time to time” were again
more university than high school students. The last possible answer
“rarely or never” showed the most marked difference, since there
were 55 high school students that chose this option.
The second question related to science and communication was: “Do
you discuss at home about science and scientific challenges?”
The results are compiled in the following table:
Often
From time
to time
Rarely or
never
27
Tota Universit
l
y
Students
18
23
49
44
33
33
High school
Students
16
51
33
“Les jeunes et les carrières scientifiques” SOFRES, France (December 2000)
37
This second table reveals that people do talk about science, that
science is a topic that lives among society and is not ignored. The
majority of respondents admitted to discuss about science from time
to time.
The third question related also to science and media was as follows:
“Do you read science books or magazines?”
Often
From time
to time
Rarely or
never
Tota Universit
l
y
Students
16
25
33
47
51
28
High school
Students
13
29
58
When talking about themselves, the number of university students
admitting that often read science magazines and books were the
same, but those saying they only read this kind of literature from
time to time were higher. As for those who declared they rarely or
never read scientific books or magazines the figures were lower.
These results reveal that around 50% of university students often
read scientific magazines and books. However, the percentage of
those who do not read any scientific publication is slightly higher than
of those who read them often.
As for high school students, the results show that approximately a
60% never read books or magazines on science and only 13% read
them often.
5.4 TV: large spread but poor science
The Eurobarometer presented December 6, 2001 reveals that, in general, most
Europeans gather their information and knowledge from television, being this equally
applicable to scientific issues. However, in most countries –with, perhaps, the
exceptions of UK, (BBC’s Horizon program) and Germany (with its GEO
documentaries and the TV channel ARTE)- TV programming is significantly scant of
science programs. The fact Roger-Gérard Schwartzenberg, Research Minister of France
has requested from Dominique Baudis, President of the Audiovisual Council (CSA), an
increase in the frequency of scientific issues in the programs aired, is particularly
significant (see 5.5 below).
38
This lack becomes evident when we analyze the data for each European Union country.
For instance, if we examine the situation in Spain, with a population of approximately
40 million citizens, accumulated audience data for September 2001 published by the
General Media Analysis (Estudio General de Medios) were as follows:






31,1 million watch TV (89.3%)
18,6 million read magazines (53,5%)
18,1 million listen to the radio (52,2%)
12,5 million read newspapers (36%)
6,5 million surf the Internet (18,6 %)
3,6 million go to the movies (11 %)
At the same time, no suitable science programs are being aired,
despite news programs have increased the time devoted to science
issues.
As for television and radio stations including scientific programs the information
compilled shows the following data:
MEMBER COUNTRIES
TV PROGRAMMES
RADIO
AUSTRIA


ORF: Modern Times
Universum
BELGIUM

No Télé: Voyons voir

(Tuesday, at 8 pm)
RTBF: Pulsations (Monthly,
Thursday, at 10.15 pm),
La
corne
de
temps
(Monthly, at 10 pm),
Matière Grise
Dansmark Radio TV2 (DR 
TV2): Tout savoir (Weekly,
8.30 pm)
DR2: Cosmos (Tuesday, at
8.30 pm)
YLE
Teema:
Prisma, 
Prisma
Jr.,
Great
Inventions, Cover Story

DENMARK


FINLAND

39

ORF:
Dimensions
Oe 1
NO DATA
NO DATA
NO DATA
O
and
FRANCE
GREECE

France 2: Les grandes

énigmes de la science
(Saturday, at 1.40 pm),
Savoir plus Santé
(Saturday, at 1.45 pm)
France 3 : C'est pas sorcie
(Sunday, at 10.15 am),
Science 3 (Monthly, at
11.30 pm), Nimbus (First
Tuesday of the month, at
11.30 pm)
La Cinquième : Archimède
(Saturday, at 3.30 pm)
M6 : E=M6 (Sunday, at
8.50 pm)
Deutsche Welle Fernsehen 
(DWTV): documentaries
Hessischer
Rundfunk:
Abenteur Erde (Sunday, at
9 pm)
Sudoestrundfunk SWR:
L’aventure des sciences
ZDF : Les secrets de notre
univers (Tuesday, at 7.30
pm)
NO DATA

IRELAND

NO DATA

NO DATA
ITALY

NO DATA
LUXEMBURG

Rai 1: Super Quark and 
Quark
NO DATA

PORTUGAL

RTP2: 2010 (Friday at 7 
p.m.)
RTP2: Turma das Ciencias
(Tuesday at 7.30 p.m.)
TV1: Redes (Saturdays

after midnight)
BTV: Einstein a la platja,
(Saturdays, at 10 pm and
Sundays at 5 pm)
C33: Omega3

NO DATA




GERMANY





SPAIN





40
NO DATA
NO DATA
NO DATA
NO DATA
Catalunya Ràdio:
Sorbets de
ciència (weekly
transmission
every Saturday at
1 pm)
Cadena SER: La
hora del siglo XXI
(Sunday, at 7.40
pm)
Cadena COPE:
Planeta COPE
(Saturday, at 4
pm)
Ràdio4:
L’Observatori
(Sundays,
at
9.05)
SWEDEN

THE NETHERLANDS



UNITED KINGDOM







SVT1: Le monde de la 
science
(Twice
every
month at 8.00 pm) and
scientific documentaries.
TV3:
Découverte 
(Saturday, at 7.30 pm)
VPRO: Lumières du Nord
(Tuesday, at 8.30 pm)
NCRV:
Document
(Monday, at 10.30 pm)
Anglia TV: Survival

BBC: The Human Body (7
weekly chapters series)
BBC1: Walking with
Dinosaurs (Monday, at
21.30), QED (Wednesday,
at 9.30 pm)
BBC2: Horizon
(From
January to June, Thursday,
at 9.30 pm)
Channel 5: documentaries
ITV
Network:
documentaries
Tomorrow’s world?
NO DATA
NO DATA
NO DATA
5.5 Science on television: contribution from the BBC
experience
We will reproduce here some excerpts from the book Communicating
Science28 edited by the Open University. The narrator, J. Bennett,
focuses on science on television and particularly on the case of the
programme Horizon (BBC2). His words are appropriate to this
preliminary study because they can be also applied to other European
countries and show what is the general state of science on television.
So, the text that goes on to the end of this section has to be
completed as a contribution from J. Bennet.
What view of contemporary science and technology do the mass media present to the
public? This paper is confined to the medium of television, not only because this is the
main medium in which I have worked, but because television is probably the largest
source of information on contemporary science used by the general public outside
formal education. I would not claim that television can offer science museums and
science centers a way forward as they seek to increase their coverage of topical science
stories and new developments. But, as a programme maker, I would argue that museum
professionals will draw some interesting parallels with the changing nature of
contemporary science programming over the past 30 years. Exhibition developers may
find some useful information in the research we have used to shape our current
approach. If museums and science centers are to begin to tackle subjects and issues
28
Scanlon, Eileen; Whitelegg, Elizabeth and Yates, Simeon (1999). Communicating Science: Contexts
and Channels New York: The Open university.
41
which up to now have only been covered in other media, then I suspect we may face
some similar challenges.
However, a warning about evidence: the television industry is not very sophisticated in
terms of its qualitative research methods, and available data on the contents of science
programming and audience responses to it are not conclusive. However, the data that
exist and the quantitative research that measures viewer numbers, demographics and
viewing habits are both revealing and robust.
One common challenge which is increasingly facing both the museum world and that of
television is the search for audiences; - for `visitors'. In both museums and increasingly
television there is a need to recruit our audiences in competition with the plethora of
other possible activities, from video games, theme parks, the World Wide Web and, in
the BBC; case, from cable, satellite and shortly, from hundreds of competing stations
transmitting via digital technology. We are in a world of fewer and fewer captive
audiences. Audiences are also seeing their time as a form of leisure expenditure which
they will decide how to broker for themselves. They will make the choice between
theme park and museum, between a BBC programme and a computer games console.
The media will have to focus clearly on what it can and cannot do in order to provide
something attractive to them. By identifying some of these trends, the BBC has become
more audience-focused and less paternalistic in its science programme provision. Given
that, as programme makers, we have less and less influence over what people watch,
this seems to be the right focus.
There is another common force operating for both museums and television: the interest
that people have in knowing more about science and technology. The link between
science, technology and industrial expansion is encouraging many populations to
become more technologically literate. People in other countries may be more aware than
those in Britain of the importance of understanding the impact of scientific
development. Thus it is no accident that the BBC is continuing to expand the coverage
of science on World Service Radio through its news and features coverage. This
expansion is continuing on television channels, not just in the USA and the UK but also
elsewhere in the world
I have painted a rather optimistic picture of infinite thirst for scientific and technological
information. A subsequent question is: demand for what? It is important to ask what
approach to science and technology is needed or indeed wanted. Is the depiction of
science by the media utopian or does it adopt a critical approach?
A short history of British television's science
coverage
Science on television grew out of the fact that television itself is a
technological wonder. Sixty years ago the first BBC television
broadcasts merely screened what they found in the real world, or,
more often than not, what they found in the Alexandra Palace
studios. Even 33 years ago the original mission of the flagship
Horizon programme, `The World of Buckminster Fuller', transmitted
on BBC2 on 2 May 1964, was to translate the ideas of contemporary
science on to the screen for a lay, audience and to act as an
interpreter for the scientists:
42
The aim of Horizon is to provide a platform from which some
of the world's greatest scientists and philosophers can
communicate their curiosity, observations and reflections, and
infuse into our common knowledge their changing views of the
universe. We shall do this by presenting science not as a series
of isolated discoveries but as a continuing growth of thought, a
philosophy that is an essential part of our twentieth-century
culture.29
That was, of course, only for those scientists who were vulgar enough to use the
medium at all. There have been many stories of how scientists were spurned by their
colleagues for having ‘supped with the television devil’. Even now it is sometimes
considered harmful for a scientist to have appeared ‘on the box’.
From Professor Jacob Bronowski onwards, `telly boffins’ have
sometimes had a bad time back at the lab. Bronowski, presenter of
the renowned The Ascent of Man, felt he was held in less high regard
as an academic because of his role in popularizing (vulgarizing)
science. However, this mode of passive translation coupled with the
broadcaster's initial deference to science ensured that the first
television science broadcasts presented an optimistic view of the
future, which could justifiably be called utopian. An episode of
Horizon from 1964 illustrates this attitude of awe and belief in the
future being built by science and technology’.
Science television grows up
I have suggested that there may be a new, more mature relationship
between the science community and the media. There is, however,
another factor: the increased need for the media to understand and
respond to audiences' interests and likes.
In an analysis of news bulletins from February 1994 conducted by
the BBC30 researchers were interested in what provides a news
item’s appeal, and what prevents it being effective as far as
viewers are concerned. The survey established that there is
potentially more interest in science stories in the news than in
coverage of the arts, sports, finance or party politics. Genetics,
medicine, environmental issues and other science stories that
have relevance to people's lives aroused particular interest.
Importantly, for a science story to qualify as newsworthy, the
ordinary viewer has to be able to understand it. This creates
problems for coverage of modern science.
29
30
Daly, P., 'Horizon', Radio Times (30 April 1964).
BBC; Broadcasting Research, Science in the News - Qualitative Research SP93/98/3125.
43
Likely to fall vs likely to succeed
Table 1 highlights the difficulties caused by the very nature of science as a discipline.
Much of science is based on claims and hypotheses, and real milestones and
achievements are sparse. Much of what science is about is painstaking testing and
uncertainty, yet this is something which, if concentrated on, is likely to make a ‘story’
fail. The complex, the difficult, the technical and the concentration on the ‘how’ are
essential to actually understanding what a scientific development really means. Science
for science's cake is very important within science, and many scientists rightly feel
passionately about this, but it often leaves television viewers cold. In contrast, what is
likely to succeed is media-hyped science, claiming a real milestone, real certainty and
achievement. Take the case of the 1996 Nobel prize winner Sir Harry Kroto’s discovery
of buckmininster-fullerenes or ‘bucky balls’. To say this new form of carbon is directly
relevant to our lives would be an exaggeration, and yet this was an exciting science
story. There are, therefore, some aspects of science itself which do not lend themselves
to successful science communication.
Table 1 Characteristics associated with science items in the news that
indicate whether a programme is likely to succeed or fail
Likely to fail
 ‘Science for science’s sake'’
 No relevance to everyday
 Does not indicate why we should be interested
 ‘Claim’/hypothesis
 Viewer knows nothing about area
 Complex/difficult/technical/concentrates on how research is done
 Footage of boffins/machinery
 Scientific/technical jargon
 Long/rambling
 Covers many areas
 Gives publicity to vested interests/shows bias
 Ignores viewers’ worries
Likely to succeed
 ‘Science for the human race’
 Could affect us all
 Indicates why we should be interested/why we are being told now
 Fact/real achievement/milestone
 Viewer already knows enough to be able to integrate new information
 Presented simply, without too much explanation of technical/theoretical
background
 Clear, explanatory graphics
 Layman’s language
 Short
 Focuses on one clear issue
 Performs public service (warns of danger/flags where help available)
 Shows awareness of viewers’ concerns
44
Newsworthiness of science items
Table 2 shows 23 science stories rated by, focus groups according to
newsworthiness. What comes across is that the clear key to the more
newsworthy stories is relevance. One respondent said about ‘Missing
Matter’, a clear ‘loser’: ‘Why should I care? I didn't even know it was
missing’. An item entitled ‘British Scientists Race towards Absolute
Zero’ fell to the bottom of the league table because the story
appeared to rely upon science for science’s sake. The analysis of why
stories fail reveals that the viewing public has a sophisticated
screening system for relevance.
Programme makers have to take account of this negative response to
pure science when thinking of how to cover scientific news: rare
diseases, foreign achievements, continuing projects without new
milestones or with no solution in sight, government shake-ups, a lead
in technology that is likely to be lost, or raising false hopes such as
whether cancer treatment is promising too much - this is a long list of
‘loser stories’. I believe that programme makers should be covering
these issues - although with care - even if they are not considered to
be immediately high up in the news agenda or even on the news
agenda.
What is needed is a filter of relevance, or a mechanism for
constructing that relevance if necessary through the way the story or
subject is presented. For instance, Horizon: ‘Assault on the Male’
made specialist science relevant for the non-news-programme
audience, yet -was presented in the form of an extremely
newsworthy `scoop' documentary. This was the first time any
broadcaster had gathered together the news about new oestrogens in
the environment.
Table 2 Number of focus groups rating a science item as ‘newsworthy’
Science items
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Yes
Don’t
Government go-ahead for genetically altered food
Scientific advances in genetic screening raise serious moral
Concerns
8
Nuclear reprocessing: government gives go-ahead for
Sellafield tests
8
Trials begin of a new treatment for breast cancer
8
Americans clone identical twins
8
British scientist receives Nobel prize for medicine
8
Gene therapy gets the official go-ahead
7
1
A thousand women in the West Midlands recalled after
45
know
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
examinations for cervical smear tests
7
1
Nuclear fusion: American scientists claim major advance
2
Ice-core research throws doubt on global warming
2
Hubble telescope: astronauts replace faulty parts
2
Experts say there is no evidence to link children's skull
deformities with polluting chemicals - but North Yorkshire
parents demand full investigation
6
2
AIDS: Department of Health report predicts sharp rise in
number of British heterosexuals contracting HIV virus
5
US researchers think they have located 'gay gene'- but worry
that it may lead to sex orientation checks on the unborn
2
1
A new British clinic offers sex selection of your baby
5
2
Trials of anti-AIDS drug AZT show that it does not delay the
onset of the disease
4
President Clinton announces plans for new US Space Station
2
2
Government reveals plans for shake-up of science and
technology
3
Video games are turning many young people into addicts and
making them aggressive
3
2
New telephone technology paves the way for home banking
3
2
Computer scientists warn that British lead in technology could
be lost
2
Australian scientists find universe's missing matter
4
3
British scientists race towards absolute zero
1
6
6
6
6
3
5
1
4
4
4
1
3
3
2
1
4
1
‘Good’ vs ‘bad’ science
What effects do the good news or bad news messages within
programmes have upon viewers? Assessing Horizon by topic
using audience appreciation scores provides an interesting
perspective on its 33-year history. In the audience appreciation
index, a high score is in the high 70s to the mid-80s and a lower
score is the mid-70s. Contemporary topics with worrying
secondary issues (AIDS or the non-ethical introduction of
Norplant, the implantable female contraceptive, into developing
countries, for example) received lower scores in the audience
appreciation indices than ‘discovery’ programmes. The Horizon
programme ‘AIDS: Behind Closed Doors’, 31 for example, received
31
Horizon: 'AIDS - Beliind Closed Doors', transmitted on BBC 2 on 4 December 1995, producer
Andrew Chitty.
46
a score of 75, and ‘The Human Laboratory’ 32 (the Norplant story)
scored 76. A more popular stop called ‘The Planet Hunters’, 13
about discovering a new planet, recently scored 80.
On the same scale, a programme on the ethics of non-lethal
weapons and the politics of hand mines, Horizon: ‘Small Arms,
Soft Targets’ received a score of only 74. Socio-political issues
and campaigning films seem to be given relatively low scores by
the audience, unless they have empowering and optimistic
endings. My interpretation of the audience appreciation scores
suggests that the audience is searching for hopeful messages:
for stories from the world of science which are enriching and
perhaps complicated, yet which do not give prominence to
worrying issues.
An important exception to this rough-and-ready rule was
coverage of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), a serious
subject which was ranked highly in the audience appreciation
index. This is a particularly British contemporary issue about
which viewers are worried and personally interested. Seventy four percent versus 21 percent of viewers in our focus group
research stated clear preferences for narrative rather than
`fact-file' approaches. This supported the approach taken by the
producer of the recent Horizon programmes examining BSE
which focused on a strong personal story within the wider
scientific framework. The programme covered prions, public
policy and scientific uncertainty. The point about uncertainty
was that in the case of CJD we do not know where we are on
any possible epidemic curve. Are we at the beginning of a large
curve, or will there be only a few cases? The programme
discussed epidemiology and how epidemics can or cannot be
identified, a debate which will obviously be important in terms
of future health policy. What stance does such a narrative
approach take to science? In the case of BSE, the most
important question is how the developments in a particular field
may affect public policy. Science is not exactly value -free but is
reported as an activity, much as we report on politics, the arts
or industry.
5.6 Science on television: situation in France
The 23d of January of 2001, in a mail addressed to the Head of the Conseil Supérieur de
l’Audiovisuel (CSA) in France, Roger-Gérard Schwartzenberg, French Minister of
Research, wanted to draw the attention of the Council on the scarce frequency of
Horizon: 'The Human Laboratory', transmitted on BBC2 on 5 November 1995,
producer Deborah Cadbury.
32
47
scientific broadcasting on the French TV. As a reply, the CSA transferred a study about
the TV programme planning on scientific emissions, along with the main results issued
from it. See ANNEX 3
5.7 The CREST report: the rol of the media in the promotion of S&T33
Progress in science and technological innovation was, is and will be
one of the important driving forces to create and sustain the level of
welfare and well being in the EU. In view of this fact, it is rather
strange to find that the general public does not seem all that
interested in S&T.
Factors fueling this apparent lack of interest are:
 the intrinsic complexity of scientific and technological research;
 the long "time to market”: it takes a while before the citizen actually "feels" the
effects of research in his/her daily life and even then is the “contribution” of S&T
hardly visible or recognized as such. Everybody knows that R&D precedes the
introduction of new drugs, ICT-applications etc. Few however can picture more or
less clearly what this process involves and how it is carried out. The focus of the
citizen-user is on the result, not on the process;
 relatively few people are involved in R&D, which turns the whole sector into an
even more unfamiliar activity. Contrary to sports, theater, film, politics, industry....
the scientific community has few people who act as role models. Famous present
day researchers are unknown to the general public and heroes are almost nonexistent in the field of science and technology;
 researchers pay little or no attention to communicate their work to the general public
in a comprehensible way. Firstly, they are not trained to do so and the feeling that
one cannot explain complex issues without sacrificing correctness is still
predominant. Secondly, scientists rarely - if ever - talk in public about the reasons
that drive their curiosity and creativity and the satisfaction they get out of their
work;
 at times the general public is confronted with contrasting views of scientists on a
same phenomenon, fi GMO’s, BSE, MCD, utilization of nuclear power etc.
However, these justified and necessary public debates, insufficiently explained and
often very technical, increase the public’s feeling of alienation towards science and
technology.
As a result, citizens are ill prepared to participate in the social debate about issues that
will have a fundamental influence on almost every aspect of their life. They are
insufficiently aware of the fact that in the present world a certain degree of science
literacy is and increasingly will be a necessary condition to function in our societies as a
citizen, an employer or employee, a participant in social activities.... etc.
This document builds further on the observations and ideas contained in the
CREST REPORT ON SCIENCE AND SOCIETY (CREST 1206/01) in particular point 8:
Enhancing the role of the media in the promotion of S&T. The CREST report was a
follow up of the Commission’s working document “SCIENCE, SOCIETY AND THE
CITIZEN IN EUROPE”, SEC (2000) 1973.
33
48
On the other hand, governments find it difficult to account for the
substantial financial means they invest in R&D and to solicit public
support for the priority they attach to science and technology.
It is difficult to say to what extent the shortage of researchers and the decreasing
participation of youngsters in S&T-related education is due to this overall lack of
interest in S&T. However, the fact that several, if not all, member states are confronted
with this problem and the phenomenon described earlier, underlines the necessity to
develop a European strategy to increase science awareness and science literacy in the
EU.
In 1982, Helga Nowotny made a comparison with illiteracy. She
stated “It has taken centuries to wipe out illiteracy, and to provide all
members of society with a modicum of universal education free of
charge. What we are facing now is a new and more hideous form of
computer illiteracy; more hideous because its demands are higher
and more difficult to meet for reasons of costs, of equality of
opportunities and of the individual’s capability and willingness to meet
these demands.” 34
Although this statement is also valid for general science and
technology illiteracy, there is one major difference: once a person has
learned how to read and write, he/she is set for life. Even though
spelling rules change over time and new words are added to the
vocabulary, these developments are not that fundamental as to turn
the person’s knowledge obsolete in his/her life span. This is clearly
not the case with “science and technology literacy”. Someone
“speaking” only DOS or FORTRAN IV, even fluently, would be
completely lost in today’s Windows world.
However, there remains some doubt that the remedy, advocated by Nowotny and
hundreds of people after her, will be sufficient, i.e. that the formal education system
should take care of eradicating this form of illiteracy. In fact, one may question whether
“literacy-illiteracy” is the correct terms to indicate this phenomenon. Shouldn’t one use
the term “knowledge-ability” instead, at the same time enriching the English language
with one new word? Knowledge-ability could be defined as the ability to absorb and
apply knowledge about science and technology as well as scientific knowledge and
technological know-how in a societal context. The educational system carries an
important responsibility in this matter indeed. But even the best educational system will
be incapable of providing youngsters with an S&T-backpack that will last their whole
life. Moreover, focusing too much on the formal educational system would neglect the
majority of the population: the adults, thus creating double trouble. Indeed, they too
need updated knowledge on the one hand, but on the other hand they are, as parents, the
main influencing power with respect to the study choices of their children. Little or no
NOWOTNY, Helga, “The Information Society. Its Impact on the Home, Local
Community and Marginal Groups”, in, BJØRN-ANDERSEN,Niels, EARL, Michael,
HOLST, Olav, and MUMFORD, Enid, (ed.) Information Society. For Richer, for
Poorer, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam,1982, p.108.
34
49
attention paid to and knowledge of S&T-related matters in adults will result in a
decreasing interest of young people for S&T-studies. This “chicken and egg” situation
cannot be resolved by referring to the statement that an egg is only a transition between
two chickens. It teaches however that the approach to increase S&T awareness and S&T
knowledge-ability has to be multi-dimensional and multi-modal.
A common European initiative, focused on the public broadcasting
companies (PBC), should be one of the cornerstones of a multidimensional and multi-modal strategy.
Indeed, TV, and to a lesser extent radio, is one of the most powerful means in
communicating messages to a large public, almost irrespective of age and social class.
The developments in ICT will result in a convergence between TV and radio
broadcasting and the internet, thus solving the problem that, apparently, youngster are
more prone to obtain information through the internet, while adults are more addicted to
TV. However, since PBC's programming is largely a reflection of their public's interest,
S&T issues are not predominantly present and the formats used are rather traditional
"documentary-style", attracting mainly viewers who are already interested.
We feel that a closer cooperation between European PBC's in this field
could:





increase the attractiveness of the scientific programs by jointly developing new and
more appealing formats, such as: science game shows, science theater/soaps,...;
better account for the three objectives and different target groups :
- increasing awareness about S&T;
- transmit general as well as specific S&T-knowledge;
- fuel the social debate about the promises and dangers of science and technology,
its ethical, economical and social implications;
improve the interchangeability of programs (and thus produce more at the same
cost);
better integrate the international dimension of science and technology;
create fall-outs to other media in general and to private broadcasting companies in
particular. Successful programs will attract attention from the press and their format
might be taken over or copied by commercial stations.
It has to be underlined that the aim of this initiative is not to
duplicate other products such as the Discovery Channel or National
Geographic, nor, at least not in the short term, the founding of a
European "science" broadcast company, a scientific Arte. In this, the
Belgian initiative differs from the proposal that has been presented by
ALLEA (All European Academies) to the EBU and to Mr. Busquin,
although we share the same objective.
The best approach would be to create a mixed working party,
composed of representatives from the PBC's and the scientific
community to :
50



investigate the feasibility of a closer cooperation between PBC's;
assess the necessary conditions and success factors;
draw up an action plan;
 propose the organisational structure needed and/or the integration
of its tasks in an existing organism.
5.8 Science, advertising and the media35
Advertising may be considered a new mass communication realm, representing a
discursive activity present in all ways of life. It may easily be the mass media most of us
are most exposed to. Due to its own obvious and daily nature, simplicity, brevity and
flashiness advertising earns limited media analysis attention. However, advertising is
not only a staple element for the consumption economy, it depicts ideology and
lifestyle. Advertising has multiple discursive forms: advertising describes products,
provides features and performances information, advertising tells stories, reenacts
situations, etc. Essentially advertising establishes a public dialog including invitations,
temptations, respectful or casual approaches, inquiries, riddles and challenges aimed at
the addressee. Advertising specialists put their imagination to establishing an effective
dialog between the entities, they aspire to engage and gain the audience’s maximum
collaboration, participation and, after all, connecting with the audience. This dialog
encourages establishing a relationship between the communication characters involved,
rhetorical procedures are highlighted, as this dialog not only blends images and words,
it appeals to the desires, beliefs and values of the audience.
As Sophie Moirand noted,36 the science-society interaction is no longer triangular
(scientific community/mediator/citizenry), it is progressively becoming an area where a
variety of social agents merge, question the role each plays and present the need of
redefining communication roles.
Manufacturers, leaders, citizens, scientists and journalists are striving to find their
position in these new communication challenges. Firms, in this context, have started to
incorporate the advertising sphere as a direct, intermediary-free media, in order to
introduce the audience to the research being conducted and to share their view on
whatever current controversial issue with the general audience.
The incorporation of technological and scientific references in advertising in all kinds of
products is an old strategy used to support arguments such as novelty, progress and
trustworthiness. As early as 1870, at a time Evolutionism was the hot topic of the day,
Spanish manufacturers of Anís del Mono (an anisette by the name of The Monkey)
proposed including in their brand representation a simian whose face resembled that of
Darwin, holding a scroll that read: «It is the best. Science said so, and I never lie».
This is a new and specific phenomenon: the introduction of biological knowledge
applications in the realm of manufactured products and the enactment of the goals they
strive for in mass media advertising campaigns. To some extent, this is also science
popularization (as info is being broadcast) on new techniques that have been developed
as a result of science advancements, while they popularize their usefulness and role in
the near future (making people believe in the product).
35
Contribution from Helena Calsamiglia, professor of Discourse Analysis (Pompeu Fabra UniversityBarcelona) An extended version of this text can be found in Quark nº 12 Biotecnologia y sociedad JuneSept 1998 Avalaible on line in http://www.imim.es/quark/num12/
36
Moirand, Sophie: «Variations discursives dans deux situations de communication scientifique:
astronomie vs vache folle, plantes transgéniques...», Communication presented in the workshop
«Sciences et médias: transversalités linguistiques et discursives», Paris, November 1998.
51
Advertising discourse analysis allows us to determine society values and distinguish the
changes taking place (for further information, see Jean Michel Adam and Marc
Bonhomme37 and Angela Goddard38).
These comments aim to encourage reflecting of the new situation science is undergoing
and particularly to the technological development involving biology. We are probably
witnessing a deep transformation affecting how these sciences are established, how they
are developed, financed and communicated. Analysis of linguistic representation (the
presence of a new nomenclatures rather that a substitution of traditional ones) and
advertising discursive forms, propaganda and popularization leads us to learn about the
fact that via mass communication media, certain values are being incorporated into
citizen minds. Research center dispersal and the new combinations of participants
aiming to defend diverse interests, all undoubtedly perfectly legitimate, are transforming
what was considered classical science popularization into a «popularization debate».
In other words, the combination of scientific progress, mass media and the everincreasing information requirements requested by the general audience leads the
audience to demanding appropriate information and puts addressees in a position where
they are capable of deciding, improving and preserving life quality. Thus, this situation
has paved the way for the existence of scientific advertising. The positive side to this
situation is that scientific progress is no longer regarded as an obscure procedure, now it
is part of the public domain, introduced via a variety of channels, advertising among
them. Thus, technological applications lead to progressive public conscience.
37
38
Adam, Jean Michel and Bonhomme, Marc: L'argumentation publicitaire, Paris, Nathan, 1997
Goddard, Angela: The Language of Advertising, Londres, Routledge, 1998.
52
6. Overview in the member states
(The information of this section comes from different sources and in some cases it has
been impossible to complete it in this benchmarking exercise. That is why its content is
very irregular and should be completed and included systematically in future studies.
The used sources are the authors of the report, other members belonging to the expert
group of the benchmarking exercise, the High Level Group, Eurotech Data and external
individual contributions, as well as material from ENSCOT - European Network of
Science Communication Teachers)
6.1 Austria39
Printmedia:
Amongst the Austrian newspapers, four (Der Standard, Die Presse, Salzburger
Nachrichten, Wiener Zeitung) regularly publish specific science pages with news from
science, research and science policy; temporarily, comprehensive series (10 to 14
editions) referring to specific topics, such as biotechnology or university reforms, are
being published. Additionally, two of those newspapers (Der Standard and Die Presse)
edit a weekly one-page-science-series, which is subsidized by the Federal Ministry of
Education, Science and Culture jointly with the Austrian Science Funds, dealing with
information on research. Der Standard also regularly introduces eminent Austrian
scientists to the public. Der Standard has a circulation of currently 103.000 copies and
379.000 readers (5,7 % of the total); Die Presse has a circulation of 76.000 and
currently 364.000 readers (5,4 %); Salzburger Nachrichten, which is mainly addressed
to residents of the federal province of Salzburg (45,6 % of Salzburg readers), has a
circulation of currently 104.625 copies, but is available also in Vienna and other parts of
Austria (4,5 % of the total of readers). The Wiener Zeitung functions, in addition to its
usual news-service, as the official announcement paper of the Republic of Austria and
regularly issues articles on science and research in its weekly supplement. The Austrian
newspaper market, however, is dominated by the largest newspaper (Neue
Kronenzeitung) which has roughly 2,8 million readers (42 %), but covers science issues
only incidentally and superficially.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture supports financially a small science
magazine (Heureka), which is being published six times a year as a supplement to a
weekly paper and which is mailed in addition directly to all scientific personnel of
Austrian universities. Total number of Heureka is 55.000 copies per edition and all
editions can be downloaded from internet as well:
http://www.falter.at/heureka/default.html (25.000 electronic contacts per month).
Heureka has a societal viewpoint and reports about institutional changes in scientific
institutions (e.g. university reforms), relevant developments (genetics, biotech), or other
interesting issues concerning science (fraud prevention in research, the position of the
humanities etc.).
Universum magazine is published monthly with a total of 70.000 copies, abundantly
illustrated and is focused on nature/environment/biology themes. It is sponsored by the
Austrian Science Funds. There is also a TV broadcast with the same name; contents of
the magazine and TV are close together frequently.
39
Contribution from Reinhard Schurawitzki
53
Austrian Radio and TV (ORF)
The Austrian Radio and TV Corporation (ORF) has a "cultural and
educational mission", defined by law.
Austrian radio
broadcasts
three
programmes
nationwide,
additionally 9 regional programmes for each federal province.
Programme Oe 1 transmits more than 30 broadcasts with scientific
and educational contents weekly, which in total sum up to 51 hours
weekly and a total of more than 10 mill. listeners. Five days a week,
the broadcast Dimensions (30 minutes at 7 p.m.) reports in detail
about recent scientific developments, conferences and significant
events in the world of science. In addition, also the five information
blocs daily contain about 25 brief reports weekly with a scientific or
educational reference and there are a number of recorded discussions
which at given opportunities focus on scientific issues. Also the other
programmes transmit news concerning science, but more incidentally.
Austrian TV is publicly owned and transmits 2 programmes
nationwide. In 2000, about 48 transmissions per month were related
to science and education with a total of 27 hours.
Modern Times is the main science and future-oriented transmission,
which focuses on the one hand on more traditional issues, such as
medicine, ecology and nutrition, and on the other hand on new media
and technologies of the future. Modern Times is broadcast each
Friday at 10.35 p.m. and combines five to six short contributions
about recent scientific and technological developments and research
results, with a perspective on their application. Another focus is the
presentation of internationally relevant Austrian research. Modern
Times reaches 4 to 6 % of the grown-up population and can be
viewed live in the internet (http://www.orf.via.at/modern.times),
where text and pictures of the last four broadcasts and all texts of
earlier broadcasts can be found.
A public favourite is Universum, a twice weekly 45 minutes
transmission of internationally acknowledged high quality (partly in
co-operation with National Geographic Society, with the Natural
History Unit of BBC or with Docstar, France), which broadcasts
popular natural sciences and documentary series focused on nature
and animals on Tuesdays (8.15 p.m.). and on the many other facets
of nature, the secrets and wonders of earth and cosmos on Thursdays
(8.15.pm.). It reaches between 8 and 14 % of the Austrian
population above 12 years.
54
Media Online
The most important Austrian newspapers offer an Internet version of
their paper product and additionally a specific internet "entrance to
science" with a number of important links to scientific institutions.
The science page of "www.DerStandard.at" is contacted 700.000
times per month, 150.000 of these open sub-buttons to nature,
space, engineering, etc. Internal analyses found 47.000 individual
readers of science pages per month, which in the average are 85 %
male, 34,4 years, 44 % academics, 41 % in leading positions.
The Internet-Science-Channel of ORF (http://science.orf.at/) is online
since 15. January 2001. This Science Channel can be opened via ORF
ON homepage (news channel: http://www.orf.at/) and was visited by
approximately 620.000 viewers in September 2001. The independent
Austrian Internet Radar (AIR) estimates, that the science channel
reaches 16 % of the population (23 % of university graduates).
Science-Channel is being supported by the Austrian Science Foundation (FWF) and
publishes news from the scientific world and announces scientific meetings. Frequently,
results of FWF supported research projects are introduced to the public. Scientists are
offered the possibility to give their opinion on specific subjects and thus, interactive
discussions with the interested public are possible on the net. Last but not least, the
science channel offers a broad selection of links to research institutions and to issues
under discussion.
Eurotech Data: science coverage in newspapers and magazines
Der Kurier
There are ten journalists working on all the science features. The interviewee was not
able to comment on how many of there were permanent members of staff and how
many were freelance.
The newspaper has an insert called “Life” which deals with science. This insert is part
of the paper, but it forms a self-contained book that can be removed from the other
sections. The “Life” section is published Tuesday to Friday. The interviewee was not
able to give circulation figures, but the Kurier websites gives good media data and gives
a readership for the “Life” section of 835,000 for the first half of 2001. The actual
science coverage takes up 3-4 pages depending on advertising. The number of articles
varies, but is normally somewhere in the region of 3-4.
Separate special features on science are done only very rarely.
Die Presse
There are three permanent journalists working on science coverage
There are 8 freelance journalists working on science coverage
The journalists work on all the science coverage – column, features
and supplement.
On Tuesday there is a special section on science in Austria (1 page)
There are 3-4 articles in this section.
It is situated in the middle of the paper with the cultural pages
55
On Wednesday there is a special section on medicine (1 page)
There are 3-4 articles in this section.
It is situated in the middle of the paper with the cultural pages
On Saturday there is a special section in the weekend supplement
(the supplement is called Spektrum) (2 pages)
There are 7-8 articles in this section.
The circulation is 100,000 copies.
Special features are written on topical issues as and when
appropriate. These sometimes appear in other sections of the paper
(cultural pages etc. etc.)
Der Standard
There are 2 permanent journalists working on science coverage.
There are 10 freelance journalists working on science coverage.
The science column appears five days a week (Tuesday – Saturday)
It is situated towards the end of the newspaper.
The column only covers half a page and contains approximately two
articles.
Once a week a page is dedicated to Austrian research projects.
Special features are written from time to time on topical areas, often
in conjunction with other parts of the newspaper (economic pages,
political pages etc). This is dependent on advertising revenues.
The weekend newspaper contains a general supplement called
“Album”.
The supplement sometimes contains scientific articles (between 3-4
pages) but this varies from week to week. There is no general rule.
The supplement is not edited/managed by the scientific section, so it
draws mainly on freelance journalists (sometimes the science
section’s freelance journalists and less frequently the section’s
permanent writers)
In terms of circulation figures, all the interviewee could quote was a figure of 68,786 for
the last 3 months of 2001, valid for the whole newspaper, and taken from market
research carried out for internal purposes. He was not able to given any indication of
readership of the science section. He indicated that the Saturday edition had a higher
circulation than weekday editions.
“Star Observer”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 10 issues yearly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 60,000
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Austria, Germany
“Universum”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 10 issues yearly
56
Circulation:
Latest figure: 68,333
Year on year % change: n/a
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Austria
“Eureka”
Language of Publication: German
Frequency/number of issues per year: 6
Circulation:
Latest figure: 55,000 including 10,000 for Austrian Universities
Year on year % change: n/a
Online version: 25,000 hits per month
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Austria, some readers in
Germany
6.2 Belgium
Newspaper
Printout
Supplement title
Le Soir
De Standaart
160.000
80.000
Sciences et Technologies
Kultuur & Wetenschap
Supplement
issue
Weekend
Daily
These data are taken from a study published in 1993 by Pierre Fayard 40 and show that
the most read newspapers in Belgium already published scientific news and moreover
they had supplements, the evidence scientific issues are considered important in the
newspaper.
It has to be pointed out that the Walloon region of Belgium fosters the spread of
scientific and technological information. RTBF (Public Belgium Francophone
Television Institut) produces a series of emissions containing scientific spreading
during 52 minutes, Matière Grise. From 1999, the Walloon region is the main financial
partner of this edition. Their collaboration consists on information exchange: they
discuss about the most interesting subjects that could be chosen. This initiative shows
that there is a quite general interest to promote science popularization, even from public
institutions.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
De Financieel Economische Tijd
The Financieel Economische Tijd publishes one page on science every
Saturday. The page is titled ‘Science’ and usually consists in one main
article and 2 or 3 smaller items. The Science page is generally
situated in the middle section of the paper.
Various topics are covered and there are no particular strategy
regarding the choice of topics. However, Medical and Health subjects
40
Fayard, Pierre (1993) Sciences aux Quotidiens Nice: Z’Éditions
57
are quite popular. As a rule, the editorial team wants the articles to
be as easy to read as possible for a non-scientific reader.
Apart from the special Science page published weekly in the Saturday issue, scientific
topics can be covered other days of the week when it happens that one of the main news
is related to science (for instance the launch of a satellite, cloning, etc). In this case, the
scientific news will be covered just like any other news, and the length and situation of
the article within the paper vary depending on the relevance of the subject.
The Financieel Economische Tijd has one permanent science writer (the science editor)
and few other freelancers (no approximate number could be provided).
The circulation reaches 55,000 on Saturdays.
De Standaard
Other science features: De Standaard publishes a regular 3 pages feature on science
every Monday. The feature comes under the heading ‘Science’ and is situated in the
first pages of the second part of the newspaper.
Some subjects are covered with more regularity than others such as: health, astronomy,
space, biotechnology. On average, there are around 15 articles of different length in the
science section.
The main news also covers scientific issues, which means that on average there are
around 20 articles per week covering a scientific subject (including the 15 appearing in
the Monday Science pages).
Circulation: The circulation figures average 73,000 for the Monday issue.
Journalists: 3 permanent journalists and between 5 and 6 freelancer journalists write on
science.
Le Soir
Other science features: Le Soir usually publishes one daily Science
feature (not on Monday). The feature is entitled ‘Demain’
(‘Tomorrow’) and consists in 3 to 4 articles on a wide variety of
subjects.
The feature is placed at the end of the first section of the newspaper,
which is in a central position.
Journalists: 2 permanent science journalists and around 3 freelance journalists write
articles for the science page.
“Athena”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 10 issues per year
Circulation:
Latest figure: 23,000
Year on year % change: increase of 1,000 subscribers every year
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Belgium
(18,0000) and other countries
58
“EOS”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 11 issues yearly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 48,000
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Belgium
6.3 Denmark
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Berlingske Tidende
The Berlingske Tidende used to publish a science supplement until the beginning of
February 2002. Since then, the science features have been transferred into the main
pages of the paper under a ‘Science and Culture Section’.
The Science and Culture section average 10 pages. The length of the articles is very
variable. The section is published daily. On Sunday, it is placed in the central pages of
the paper. Every other day of the week, it is situated in the second half of the paper.
The topics covered are often chosen according to their novelty. The
science editorial staff works in close cooperation with major
universities which ensures the depth and reliability of the topics.
There is a permanent team of 2 science writers and 3 to 4
freelancers. Health journalists also contributed to the science pages.
Altogether, there is a team of approximately 10 science and health
permanent writers.
Politiken
Politiken publishes 1 Science page every Sunday titled ‘Science’ which
consists in approximately 4 to 5 articles. The page is located in the
first section of the paper (the news section). The science page covers
mostly environmental topics.
Also, on a daily basis, science articles appear in the main news (on
average one or two articles per day).
2 permanent journalists and 4 to 5 freelance writers write the weekly
and daily science features.
On Sundays, the circulation figure averages 200,000.
Morgenavisen Jyllands Posten
59
The Morgenavisen Jyllands Posten has a special science section every Sunday. The
section is situated in the central pages of the newspaper. The section averages one page.
The length and number of articles vary depending on the topics.
There are no permanent science writers within the newspaper. Some journalists (not
specialised on science) occasionaly contribute to the sceince section. A team of 5 to 10
freelancers are the main writers for the science section.
On Sundays, the circulation is 275,000.
Apart from the weekly science section, some science features may be
published in the newspaper. There is no regularity since the articles
would be related to a general news story.
6.4 Finland41
A dominant feature of the Finnish public understanding of science –
manifested in science policy documents as well as in the public
discourse – is the promotion of science and technology as a national
project. Science, technology and education are valued as the basis of
national welfare and international competitiveness. This national
imperative and the far-reaching uniformity on the issues of science
and technology form the basis of public understanding of science in
Finland.
The objectives formulated in the science policy have also informed
the efforts in popularization and public understanding of science in
Finland. The 1960s and 1970s brought a rapid expansion in the
Finnish university system, and science communication was also
gradually institutionalized and professionalized from the 1970s
onward. Universities got their information departments, somewhat
later than in other European countries.
In the 1980s the orientation towards technology was further
accentuated. A new funding organization for technical research and
development, Technology Development Center (TEKES) under the
Ministry of Trade and Industry was established in 1983. It has grown
into the most prominent funding institution in Finland. The most
authoritative science and technology political organ in Finland,
Science Policy Council, chaired by the prime minister, changed it
name into Science and Technology Policy Council in 1987. It defined
its mission as the development of the national innovation system, in
which education, science, technical research and product
development are regarded as central factors of economic growth and
competitiveness.
41
Contribution from Esa Väliverronen, University of Helsinki
60
One of the major recent events was the founding of the popular
science magazine Tiede 2000 (Science 2000), in 1980. This
magazine, sponsored by - among others - the Academy of Finland
and the Finnish Cultural Foundation, covers also social and human
sciences reflecting the broad conception of science in Finland. In
1986, it got two followers, a magazine specialized in health issues,
Terveys 2000 (Health 2000), and another general science magazine,
Tieteen kuvalehti, which is a Finnish version of the Danish Illustrerad
Videnskab. Another major event was the founding of the science
centre Heureka in 1989. Also the scientific community has adopted a
more active role. The science Forum, arranged regularly since 1977 in
Helsinki has now become a biannual and increasingly popular event
with around 10-20 000 visitors. The main equivalent to this event is,
perhaps, the Science Festival arranged by the British Association for
the Advancement of Science.
Economic and national arguments for the promotion of science as a
national project are also well present in the Finnish media.
Kauhanen42 who studied the science coverage in six newspapers
between 1989-91 concluded that scientific knowledge was often
presented as an economic asset only. Typical repertoires in the
newspaper editorials dealing with science were the "national resource
repertoire" and the "provincial resource repertoire" in the regional
newspapers. Typical of the repertoires was the construction of science
as an essential social and economic force for the development of the
nation or the region. The regional emphasis is linked to the nature of
the Finnish university system – there are 20 universities in the
country of 5 million people - and, particularly, the provincial
universities are considered as major driving forces of economical and
social development.
The public discussion on acid rain and forest damage started in
Finland in the early 1980s as a reaction to the debate on
"Waldsterben" in Germany and Central Europe. However, the health
of Finnish forests was not a cause of serious public concern in Finland
before 1988, in spite of the occasional warnings from some
"dissident" forest researchers. In the years 1988-89, there was a
dramatic change as newspapers began to talk about a "state of
emergency" in Finland's forests. At least the forests in Lapland
seemed to be facing an "ecological catastrophe". The main threat was
presented by two outmoded smelteries on the Russian Kola
Peninsula, near the Finnish border.
Kauhanen, E. 1997. The River of Ink. Media Epistemology, Ontology and Imagology in The Light of
Science, Pseudoscience and Technology Material in Six Major Finnish Newspapers in 1990. University
of Helsinki, Department of Communication.
42
61
During the debate, the traditional slogan "Finland lives from her
forests" was reformulated as "Finland lives from forest discussion".
One reason for the sudden change was that the leading Finnish forest
authority, the Finnish Forest Research Institute (FFRI), which had
previously strongly denied that Finnish forests were under any threat,
now partly changed its mind. Another reason was that these new
findings of forest damage in Lapland coincided with the big
environmental boom in Europe and North America and the increasing
reports of ozone depletion and climate change in the media.
Forest death was perhaps the most widely debated environmental
issue in Finland between 1989-92. It became a symbol of
environmental change in general and reflected the growing and,
partly also an increasingly controversial, role of science and scientists
in the media. Public debate remained quite heated for a few years,
and it can be compared to those in Germany or Austria. The debate
was fuelled by the disagreement among forest researchers on the
causes and seriousness of the damage. The public legitimacy of the
FFRI and forestry research altogether was strongly questioned. In the
beginning of the debate, the forest researchers were criticized for
their inability to forecast the deteriorating conditions of the forests
that formed the “national heritage” and the basis of the “national
economy”. Later, when the health of the forests, proved to be much
better than first indicated, the critical tone in the media was again
undermined and it seemed that the trust in science and scientists as
experts was only temporarily challenged during the forest death
debate.
Government policies and measures related to media diffusion43
Finland entered the digital era when the digital television broadcasts started on August
2001. At the end of year 2001 the network will cover about 70 % of the population.
Viewers have a total of twelve channels to choose from. One of the channels is YLE
Teema, which is the first Finnish channel dedicated exclusively to culture, science and
education. The Finnish Broadcasting Company’s radio and television channels have for
decades been offering viewers high-standard programmes on the themes of culture,
science and education. Now, with the advent of the new, dedicated channel and the
increased transmission time that it has brought, the need for quality programming has
considerably increased.
YLE Teema covers research in the natural sciences through its magazine programme
Prisma. Prisma tries to reach also children and young adults through its sister
programme Prisma Jr. The series Great Inventions takes a peek at the history of science.
The new reportage programme Cover Story rakes over the whole field of science and
examines its background scenarios. The channel also present many science and nature
documentaries. In addition to that the channel will televise public lectures such as those
in the University of Helsinki’s Studia Generalia series. YLE Teema collaborates closely
with scientific institutions and universities.
43
Data from the High Level Group (HLG)
62
YLE Teema offers educational programmes at prime viewing times. They include both
programmes suitable for use in distance learning and others intended to promote the
broad general education of young people and adults. The sub-areas involved include
language programmes, culture travel, the Open University, new communications
technologies, job skills, the new economy, e-learning and lifestyle programmes.
Interactive digital TV will offer an important aid to learning and self-development.
Learning can begin with a fascinating and inspiring series of TV programmes and
continue via supertext TV and the Internet.
Eurotech Data: science coverage in newspapers and magazines
Helsingin Sanomat
The Helsingin Sanomat publishes a regular science section every Saturday. The section
is situated towards the central pages of the paper, after the foreign affairs section (the
paper is divided into 4 sections and the foreign affairs section is the third one). The
section consists in 2 pages with an average of 15 articles.
On the day of the publication of the science section, the circulation amounts 450,000.
Apart from the weekly section on Saturday, some science articles may appear in the
paper, but this would be on a rather occasional basis. The occasional science articles
would be part of the domestic pages or international news sometimes.
There is a team of 4 permanent science writers (+ one person in charge of the graphics)
who also contribute to other section of the paper. Around 6 to 10 freelancers write for
the science section every month (out of a total of 30 freelancers).
The science articles are published in Finnish in the hardcopy of the newspaper and some
articles in English are available on the electronic version of the Helsingin Sanomat.
Hufvudstadsbladet
Hufvudstadsbladet do not publish any special feature or column/section on science.
Every day, there are no more than 2 or 3 articles related to science in the newspaper,
which are either in the foreign or domestic news section of the paper (according to the
relevance of the subject). Mediacl topics tend to be covered quite often.
All the permanent journalists can be writing on science (and an
additional 2 to 3 freelancer writers).
Turun Sanomat
Turun Sanomat publishes 2 types of science-related features (there are no daily feature
on science) :
-
-
Twice a month a ‘Science’ section is published in the Monday issue of the
newspaper. It consists in one page with one main article and 2 or 3 smaller
articles
Once a week a ‘Environment’ section which also consists in one page with one
major article and 2 or 3 smaller articles. This section is published every
Tuesday.
63
In both cases, the location of the section depends very much on where the color pages of
the science and environment section can be added. Therefore there is no definite rule.
The circulation figures on Monday and Tuesday are around 115,000 on average.
The sections are published in Finnish.
“Suomen Luonto”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 12 issues per year
Circulation:
Latest figure: 30,000
Year on year % change: n/a
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Finland
6.5 France44
The Association of the Scientific Journalists of the Press of Information (AJSPI) was
formed in 1955. The majority of science journalists are currently its members. But the
French news media have a small number of specialist science journalists. There are
about 30,000 journalists in France, 250-300 of which are science journalists – compared
to, for example, 2000 sports reporters. The Association of British Science Writers
(ABSW), by comparison, has about 500 members.
Medicine and health are the favourite subjects across all media. The scientific
popularization oscillates between pure information, factual exposition of the discoveries
in the terms of the scientific community, and a reconstruction of the scholarly speech to
get attractive science for the public. The degree of complexity of the articles and the
dose of literature depend on the culture of the customers who are targeted. Some very
scientific articles can be written in La Recherche or Pour la Science, a sort of
"secondary" magazine read by the researchers, the engineers, or people, whose
profession is close to science or those with a strong interest in science. In the same way
some serious newspapers like Le Monde and some technical magazines, as La Nouvelle
Entreprise give precise account of a lot of discoveries. Other newspapers as Libération
or Le Figaro take more care of the "literary" aspect of their articles, even if the level of
complexity is raised enough.
To produce a science report, the journalists use material from the AFP news agency, the
primary articles published in Nature or Science and the press releases from national
research institutions, such as the National Institute of Health and Medical Research
(INSERM) or as the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS).
One must distinguish the newspapers that publish scientific pages regularly, for
example, the weekly coverage in the major Parisian dailies (Le Monde, Le Figaro,
Libération and La Croix) from the big provincial press which rarely contains scientific
articles. Senior staff of these press groups have affirmed (cf. symposium of 1994
organizes by the Admitech) that their readers were not “interested” by these topics. In
comparison some small local magazines often present scientific articles. The weeklies
44
Input from European Network of Science Communication Teachers: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/enscot/
64
have more or less scientific content. They are in general a lot less didactic than the
pages specialized of their daily colleagues.
The monthly popular science magazines mix texts and pictures. They add to the
"literary" interest the visual seduction. Thus Science & Vie, Sciences et Vie Junior,
Sciences et Futur or Sciences et Nature use the iconography and the conventional
narration of scientific popularization (not of really controversial topics). They also adopt
a vigorously rationalistic position. A current risk for these magazines is to be tempted to
report the spectacular narrations para-scientific (UFO and so on).
Science & vie is a particular case of study due to its solidity. It was founded in 1913.
Science & vie publishes now roughly 172 pages and has 3,305,000 readers45. It is
important to highlight that they are all over 15. It is published every month and there are
usually 344,049 issues46.
There are excellent radio science programmes, especially broadcast on the national
public network of Radio France. Many are produced by France Culture. Other
peripheral radios, sometimes members of a national network, often broadcast a few
minutes featuring an often complex scientific or technical theme. Science also features
in many programmes targeted for specific publics, such as farmers or women.
Television in France is not a good way to transmit science the general population. The
constraints of the TV ratings limit the number of the scientific and technical emissions
likely to be broadcasted. Apart from Arte and La Cinquième, this is true for the public
and private channels. The French TV broadcasts several hours of science in TV every
week, but they are short emissions (less than 26 minutes) which are shown at night or
very early on the morning and addressed to limited audience. The scientific or technical
information are generally presented as events.
Government policies and measures related to media diffusion47
Most daily and weekly newspapers have in their staffs journalists in
charge of scientific information, meanwhile coverage by the press of
such information is uneven. There have been several times
complaints about the lack of visibility of scientific information in
broadcast media and more particularly in TV networks. Usually
scientific series, when they exist (the TV network M6 has a specific
programme dedicated to science), are broadcasted in time of least
favorable audience (during the day).
The science ministry has a policy for encouraging TV networks to
increase the time devoted to scientific information, it has also
launched a programme to support scientific films which will be
broadcasted through TV channels (2 millions Fs per year).
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
45
Data from AEMP99.
Data from OJD99
47
Data from the High Level Group (HLG)
46
65
in
newspapers
and
Les Echos
Supplement: Les Echos publishes a supplement entitle ‘Industrie’ every Wednesday. It
is worth noting that Les Echos is a business-oriented newspaper and that most of the
news and topics covered are dealt with from a business point of view. Therefore,
although the ‘Industrie’ supplement covers science-oriented subjects as a rule, it can
happen that some particular topics might not be strictly scientific.
For instance, the last editions of the supplements covered topics such as: resources from
the sea, the biotech business, the organic food business. However, other topics such as
the security business and the construction industry have also been covered.
The ‘Industrie’ supplement is part of the main newspaper. It consists of 3 to 6 pages
with a variable number of articles. Usually, there is one main theme and a number of
related small items.
Circulation: the circulation figures for Wednesdays are not different from any other day
of the week.
Journalists: Two journalists and the science editor are in charge of the weekly
supplement. Depending on the theme, a variable number of freelance writers also
contribute to the supplement.
Le Figaro
Le Figaro publishes a daily page on Science and Health. The page is located at the end
of the first section of the newspaper (news section).
The daily Science and Health page consists in 3 to 4 main articles and a series of short
items and information about congresses and scientific publications.
5 permanent journalists write on science and 4 permanent journalists
write on health. One regular freelancer also writes on both subjects.
Libération
Libération used to publish a science supplement every Tuesday but this publication has
been stopped 2 years ago. Instead, the editorial staff made the decision to merge the
science/technology/health features to the rest of the paper.
The science features now appear in 3 ways:
1. A feature that depends on the news and that appears on Tuesday
to Saturday. There is no rule but in a typical week there would be
2
pages
on
Tuesday,
1
page
on
Wednesday/Thursday/Friday /Saturday. The feature is located in a
strategic place in the newspaper: between the Society pages and
the Economy pages (so that the Science feature can give a breath
of oxygen to the readers). All together, the science features
represent between 3 to 6 pages with articles of a variable length.
66
2. A contribution to the Saturday issue of the paper. The Saturday
issue contents a special feature entitled ‘Vivre au 21ème siècle’ – ‘
Living in the 21st Century’). It covers any topics related to how
technology and science affect/improve the way we live. Usually 1
out of 2 subjects are related to science
3. Contribution to main news features: for instance, during the
Anthrax attacks, the science staff was there to support the main
news pages.
The science staff: 4 permanent writers on science + 3 permanent
writers on health and science.
Some main subjects tend to come back regularly (fashion effect) such as : genetics,
climate.
The circulation of the newspaper is higher on Saturday (although
cannot provide the figures).
Le Monde
Le Monde does not publish any science supplement.
Instead, the science features appear daily, with around 2 pages per
day, ie on average 8 pages per week. The length of the science has
been doubled in the last year. The health pages are dealth with by a
separate service. All scientific subjects are covered and greatly
depend on the news.
The science pages are located in the second part of the newspaper.
Depending on the day of the week, they are situated either before of
after the sport pages.
The staff: 7 permanent writers who write on all scientific subjects.
One of the writers is specialised on high tech and new technologies
“La Recherche”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 11 issues yearly-Plus 2 special
editions
Circulation:
Latest figure: 74,928
Year on year % change: +4%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: France, also distributed in
French speaking European countries
“Ça m’interesse”
Language of Publication:
Frequency/number of issues per year: monthly
Circulation:
67
Latest figure: 350,000
Year on year % change: -5.5%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: France
“Le Nouvel Observateur”
Other science features: Le Nouvel Observateur publishes one science page every week
under a general ‘Science’ heading. The page consists of a varied number of articles
depending on the subject. An additional page is also published under the title
(‘Discovery’), which consists of lists scientific news in brief.
The science topics are always linked to a scientific news or event: a discovery, a book
release, etc… Some topics, like DNA or cloning, are regularly covered but all sorts of
scientific subjects can be included.
It can happen that the front page of the magazine covers a scientific subject, in which
case the science coverage of the magazine would be more comprehensive (sometimes a
mini-supplement inside the magazine).
The Science page is located at the end of the ‘Our Society’ pages of the magazine (in
the central section of the publication).
Journalists:
There are 2 permanent journalists working on the science page (no
freelance journalists).
“Pour la Science”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 51,130
Year on year % change: +1.25%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: France
“Science et vie”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 344,049
Year on year % change: -1.7%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: France
“Science et Avenir”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 300,000
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: France
6.6 Germany48
48
Input from European Network of Science Communication Teachers: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/enscot/
68
Local or regional newspapers
National newspapers
"Street papers"
Total daily newspapers
355
6
10
371
Existing case studies
There exists a study49 of the science sections of six national dailies (Frankfurter
Allgemeine Zeitung, Suedeutsche Zeitung, ND, Frankfurter Rundschau, Tageszeitung,
Die Welt) and two weekly German papers (Die Zeit und Woche) between December
1995 and May 1996, inclusive. It identified 3,381 articles about science, of which about
35 percent were on medicine. Of the 1,173 medical articles, 452 articles cited or
referred to a scientific journal as source. The source was explicitly mentioned in 351
articles. Almost 90 percent of all the articles on medicine were factual news reports.
About 80 percent were based on a single source i.e. the journal. Almost three-quarters
were published within one month after the journal was published.
The study aimed to establish how medical stories are selected by the news media,
considering that about 200,000 original scientific articles with medical content are
published each year. In over 40 percent of the articles on medicine the journals Nature,
Science and the New England Journal of Medicine were mentioned as source. These
journals are all published in the English language, are all peer reviewed and have a high
“impact factor” i.e. they are frequently cited by other scientists.
Most of the journal articles referred to in the newspapers were also highlighted by the
journal itself, either by giving it an editorial comment or by announcing it in advance
via press release. Seventy percent of all cited articles were highlighted by editorial
comments on the first pages of the journals. Over 90 percent of all cited articles were
highlighted by press release. By and large science coverage in German quality press is
guided by major scientific journals of English language which are peer reviewed and of
high impact factor. The majority of articles covered have been highlighted by the
journals itself.
Another study50 carried out about German science media observed three major news
agencies in Germany and eight daily papers over a period of one month, from October
7th to November 7th, 1997. The news agencies were Deutsche Presseagentur (DPA),
Associated Press (AP) and Reuters (RTR).
Three of the newspapers surveyed had a well-established science department: Berliner
Zeitung (BZ), Sueddeutsche Zeitung (SZ) and Der Tagesspiegel (TS). Five papers did
not have any specialised science editorial staff: Leipziger Volkszeitung (LV),
Mannheimer Morgen (MM), Münstersche Zeitung (MZ), Neue Westfälische (NW) and
Passauer Neue Presse (PNP).
49
Pahl, Carola, 1997 The Place of Science Journals in the Selection of topics in German newspapers’
science sections (Original paper, in German, at: http://www.wissenschaftsjournalismus.de/pahl_fobe.pdf)
50
Gopfert, Winfried and Kunisch, Philipp, 1999. Science through the news agencies
(Original paper, in German, at:
http://www.wissenschaftsjournalismus.de/kuni_fobe.pdf)
69
News items with scientific content from the three agencies in the period from October 6
till November 6, 1997, were identified. Some 2,500 news items were found: 1,500 from
DPA (59%), 600 from AP (25%) and 400 from RTR (16%). The eight newspapers
published some 1,330 articles on scientific subjects. The majority of papers published
between 100 and 200 reports. Mannheimer Morgen had most coverage – with 203
reports; Berliner Zeitung published the least: 92 articles.
Of those newspapers with science staff, Berliner Zeitung used the news agencies most,
with 60 percent of its articles coming from those sources. Almost half of the science
coverage in the Sueddeutsche Zeitung and Der Tagesspiegel was based on agency news.
Newspapers without science departments tended more often to use material from the
agencies. They used the agencies for between 50 percent, Münstersche Zeitung, to 66
percent Mannheimer Morgen, for their science stories. That meant that about 40 percent
science coverage in the regional press was not agency-based.
In summary, 53 percent of all science coverage was done by agencies. Some 32 percent
of all science articles can be traced back to DPA, 9 percent to AP, 5 percent to RTR,
and 7 percent or from other agencies, or are mixed from the various agencies. Compared
to input (59 percent) DPA reached a printed output of 69 percent. The non-German
agencies had a smaller part of their material published than their input represented. AP:
input 25, output 21: RTR 16 to 10 percent.
The agencies’ preferred themes appeared not to serve well the needs of the newspapers.
Top subject categories offered by agencies were: "science and society" (27 percent),
"environment" (19 percent) and "nature" (17 percent). The most represented categories
in published stories were "medicine" (30 percent), "environment" (21 percent) and
science and society (16 percent). Almost half of all science coverage in the German
press came from news agencies, mainly DPA, whose Hamburg office has two people
responsible for science reporting. In the other agencies there are no specialised
reporters.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Frankfurter Allgemeine
The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (F.A.Z.) employs about twenty
staff in-house on all science-related columns, pages and
supplements. On top of that there employ a large number of
freelance journalists, advisers and proofreaders. The interviewee was
unable to give an exact figure.
The Frankfurter Allgemeine has a daily column entitle "Nature and
Science" which runs from Mondays to Saturday on the second page of
the features section of the newspaper. The features section is
dedicated to general coverage on culture. The science column deals
briefly with the latest important research developments. This column
is relatively new and was introduced during the course of last year
when extensive coverage was given of the results of new genetic
research.
70
The F.A.Z. has a supplement entitled "Nature and Science" which
comes out each Wednesday with the newspaper. This supplement has
been produced for decades. Each week one – two pages are devoted
to the results of recent research and interim reports, in particular
excerpts from international scientific technical periodicals that are
adapted so that the general public can understand them. There are
also some charts and picture, although only in black-and-white.
These pages follow on from the "Natural Science" pages in the
supplement and are themselves followed by a section with general
job advertisements. The "Nature and Science" supplement earned a
good name for the FAZ among experts and at the same time set a
high stand for science journalism aimed at the general public.
Since 30 September 2001, the FAZ launched a Sunday newspaper,
which contains a science section (entitled "Science") as well as
sections on politics, economics, sport, money etc. Each week the
section is dedicated to one theme (e.g. intestine cancer, the embryo
development etc.) These features are very much directed at the
general public, and this is reflected in the simplified journalistic style
and the colour pictures and diagrams which are included in the
double page feature.
Süddeutsche Zeitung
The newspaper has a total of 6 journalists (5 journalist / 1 editor)
working on science coverage.
They use approximately 15 freelance journalists, mostly regular
contributors, but sometimes using one-off contributors.
The science column is published weekly on a Tuesday. It is generally around 4 pages
long and contains somewhere in the region of 10-12 articles. These can be educational
in tone, or commentaries.
It is situated towards the end of the newspaper, after the culture
pages.
Mostly all science articles are saved for the Tuesday column unless
there is some pressing reason and then they feature at some other
point during the week.
Science coverage does not feature in the newspaper’s supplements.
The circulation is around 0.5 million.
There have been no major changes to the science coverage in recent
years.
71
Die Welt
Die Welt has three in-house journalists dealing with science coverage.
They also use freelance journalists, but the interviewee was not able
to give a figure. She said it varies greatly.
There is science coverage every day (Monday to Saturday)
Each day the science column has half a page to a whole page,
depending on advertising.
Monday – Friday the science section is situated towards the end of
the newspaper after the culture section (around about P31).
On Saturday it is nearer to the front of the newspaper (around P16)
Virtually all science coverage will be put on the science pages,
although there are very occasionally special features done on special
themes in conjunction with other sections of the newspaper (politics
etc)
There is no science coverage in the newspaper’s supplements.
Handelsblatt
There is one permanent and ten freelance journalists working on science coverage.
There has been an increase in science coverage over the last year.
Previously there was a weekly column published on Wednesday which
gave the latest research results. There are now short reports every
day on scientific advances (the column is entitled “Progress”). These
reports appear with the “Companies and Markets” section.
In addition to this, there is a permanent column on science which is published every day
(Monday – Friday) . The circulation is approximately 160,000.
The science column is situated in the middle of the newspaper under
the “Companies and Markets” column. The column generally takes up
one page with three or more articles.
The newspaper publishes supplements twice a month on Wednesday
on various topics
“Der Spiegel”
Other science features: Der Spiegel is a weekly publication, and there is a science
section in each edition. The science section typically comprises 2 pages. These contain
around 3 articles as well as around 6 short notices. It also includes subjects such as
technology and geology. The science section is situated towards the end of the
magazine.
The magazine also has regular science features on specific topics, which appear as and
when appropriate. In-house staff compile these features.
There are never special science supplements.
72
Journalists: Der Spiegel has 15 people in total working on the science
section of the magazine. Almost all the writing is done in-house;
freelancers are only used very occasionally.
“Natur & Kosmos”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 123,317
Year on year % change: +21.5%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Germany
“Bild der Wissenschaft”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 142,233
Year on year % change: +1%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Germany
Der Spiegel
Other science features: Der Spiegel is a weekly publication, and there is a science
section in each edition. The science section typically comprises 2 pages. These contain
around 3 articles as well as around 6 short notices. It also includes subjects such as
technology and geology. The science section is situated towards the end of the
magazine.
The magazine also has regular science features on specific topics, which appear as and
when appropriate. In-house staff compile these features.
There are never special science supplements.
Journalists: Der Spiegel has 15 people in total working on the science
section of the magazine. Almost all the writing is done in-house;
freelancers are only used very occasionally.
“G. O. de geoscience”
Frequency/number of issues per year: daily
Circulation:
This is an online magazine, number of hits to the site:250.000 hits per month
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: online publication, so virtually all he
world
“Spectrum der Wissenschaft”
Frequency/number of issues per year: monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 113,308
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Germany
73
6.7 Greece
Eurotech Data: science coverage in newspapers and magazines
Eleftherotypia
Supplement: Eleftherotypia publishes a science supplement every
week, on Tuesdays. Its title is "IATRIKA" (‘Medical Issues’). The 4th
issue of the supplement was published on 2nd April 2002.
The dimensions of the supplement are 18cm by 26.5 cm. It comprises 50 pages and
deals with medical issues (e.g. pharmaceutical, paediatric, gynaecological and
psychological issues, allergies in the home, alternative medicine, nutrition, etc.).
The supplement is inserted in the middle pages of the newspaper as a
separate booklet. It contains approximately 20 main articles that are
written mostly by professors of various universities. The language in
which they are written is Greek.
The articles vary in size, ranging from 1 to 3 pages.
Circulation: on Tuesdays, 50,000 copies of the newspaper (and
therefore of the supplement) circulate through the country.
Kathimerini
Other science features: Kathimerini publishes a science page twice a
week, on Wednesday sand Fridays. The page is placed in the central
pages of the newspaper and consists in one main article. All types of
science subjects are covered.
Circulation: the estimated circulation on the day the science column appears is the same
as the others days.
Journalists: there are no permanent journalists working on the
science page, but there are 5 freelance writers.
6.8 Ireland51
Unlike the other countries covered in this module, Ireland has not developed a
significant science specialism within the mass media. There are no popular science
magazines. Only one newspaper, The Irish Times, has a nominated science specialist
among its journalists, though he spends at least half of his time on general news-editing
duties (see Notes on Newspapers below for more on The Irish Times). The state
broadcaster RTE has a science and medicine correspondent, appointed in 1999; she
spends most of her time on reports concerning medicine, including medical policy and
medical practice. There has been a science programme on radio intermittently over the
51
Input from European Network of Science Communication Teachers: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/enscot/
74
past decade, and only one series of Irish-produced science programmes on television in
the same period. While there is a professional association, the Irish Science and
Technology Journalists’ Association, affiliated with the European Union of Science
Journalists’ Associations, most of its members report technology (specifically
information technology) and most are freelance, contributing to multiple publications
and broadcasting outlets.
The reasons for this difference from other EU countries are complex, being at least
partly embedded in issues of culture and history. But among the factors to be considered
in seeking to understand these circumstances are these:
 The small size of the domestic media market and the consequent
difficulty of sustaining any very highly specialized media outlets or
even part-outlets ;
 The close proximity of the much larger British media market, most
of whose major products (including four, and sometimes more
television channels) are widely available in the Republic of
Ireland ;
 The low political and public awareness, until very recent years, of
the contributions of science to modern economies and, specifically,
of the presence in Ireland of internationally established scientific
researchers;
 The low political priority – again, until very recent years – attached
to science policy and to the public funding of scientific research.
As suggested in the enumeration of these factors, the political context of science in
Ireland is changing, and it seems likely that the media responses will change too. At the
same time, several very high-profile public events and issues of recent years have had a
significant scientific or technical, or both, dimension to them, and this has obliged Irish
media to give more attention to scientific matters. These events and issues have
included a scandal over contaminated blood supplies, intense controversy over proposed
genetically modified crop trials, the dramatic effects of BSE (‘mad cow disease’) and
foot-and-mouth disease on the still-important agricultural industry, and the competitive
success of the Irish economy – with the highest growth rates in the EU – based in part
on the supply of graduates with appropriate qualifications in sciences or engineering.
All of the formal statements of science policy to emerge in the 1990s referred in some
way to the role of the media in promoting public awareness of science. The 1996
government White Paper on Science Technology and Innovation noted the “weak
representation of STI [science technology and innovation] issues in public affairs”. The
White Paper recalled that an earlier report to government, known as the Tierney Report,
had commented on the Irish media’s “low level of interest and expertise in covering
STI”. Declaring the government’s aim as bringing about “a significant cultural shift in
attitudes” and “better communication, interaction and mutual understanding between the
scientific community, industry, government, the media and the public”, the White Paper
committed the government to funding a public awareness campaign. This campaign,
began in 1996, and expanded in 2001, targets part of its activity at the media, e.g.
through an awards scheme for science journalism.
75
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
The Irish Times
The Irish Times publish a weekly science page on thursdays, placed in the features
section in the body of the paper after home and world news. It occupies a single
broadsheet page and includes a columnist plus at least three reports.
All science disciplines are covered on the page.
The science editor is the only permanent writer working on the articles, plus the
research scientist columnist. There are then features subeditors handling layout and
editing. Freelance contributions are also included occasionally.
The interviewee could not provide the circulation firgure for the
Thursday edition of the newspaper.
Irish Independent
The Irish Independent does not have any regular supplement/column on science-related
subjects. The newspaper occasionaly publishes science features but this would fall
under the general news headings. It is therefore difficult to estimate how many sciencerelated articles are published.
The Irish Examiner
The Examiner does not have any regular supplement/column on science-related
subjects.
Scientific subjects are only covered is the main news is science-related.
There are no specialist journalists on scientific topics.
“Technology Ireland”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 10 issues yearly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 5,500
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Ireland, UK
6.9 Italy
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Corriere della Sera
The Corriere della Sera has 1 sceince page on Sunday, titled ‘Scienza’ (Science). The
feature is located after the Domestic and Abroad news and before the Cultural and the
Sport pages (around page 30-31).
76
There are 2 or 3 rather long articles and the topics are: High
Technology, Nature, Human being, Chemistry and contribution to
main news features as Space, Satellite, Genetics and ethics.
The science staff is composed of 1 permanent journalist and many
freelances (cannot say the number) it depends on the subject.
The circulation of the newspaper increases on Sunday although the precise number
cannot be estimated.
La Repubblica
Repubblica has a scientific supplement called “Salute” (Health)
published every Thursday.
The main subjects covered are scientific discovery, illness,
prevention, and medical research. There are also pages about food,
well being and sexuality and these topics come back regularly every
week. The whole supplement has 48 pages, and more or less 6
articles per page.
The scientific staff: 8 permanent people and 50-60 freelances. There
are 6-7 doctors who answer every week to readers’ questions on
health issues.
On Thursday the circulation of the newspaper is higher but no figure
can be provided
Il Sole 24 Ore
Il Sole 24 Ore offers two science features:
1. A feature published every Friday in the central section of the
newspaper called “Alpha”. This supplement used to be called “New
Economy”, but the title has been changed because of the collapse
of the New Economy.
The main topics covered in Alpha are: High Technology, New
Economy and scientific discovery even though there are some
news about medicine and health. There are 3 permanent
journalists and about 20 freelances working on it.
This
supplement has about 20 pages and the number of the articles
depends on their length and on the number of the advertisement
inside.
2. The second feature is inside the Sunday’s cultural supplement
called “Domenica” (Sunday). Its name is “Scienza e Filosofia”
(Science and Philosophy).
The main topics are essays and reviews on ethics and bio-ethics,
genetics, biology and philosophic contents. The topics are also
related to news and important events in the scientific world.
“Scienza e Filosofia” has usually 1 or 2 pages at pg. 6-7 of the
“Domenica” (about 22 pages in all).
The science staff: 1 person and about 20 freelances all important
people of the scientific Italian environment.
77
The circulation of the newspaper is higher on Sunday. About 80,000 100,000 readers buy “Il Sole 24 Ore” because of its Sunday feature.
La Stampa
La Stampa publishes a scientific supplement called “Tutto Scienze” (All Sciences)
published every Wednesday. The main topics of this supplement are physics, chemistry
and medicine.
None of these articles is connected with news features.
“Tutto scienze” has 4 pages with 15 articles.
The circulation of the newspaper is higher on Wednesday because of the scientific
supplement (8,000-10,000 more). On that day the newspaper is sold to readers
interested in science-related topics.
La Stampa used to publish a scientific CD ROM every 6 months. From 2002, the
publication of the CD ROM will happen on a yearly basis.
The scientific staff: 2 writers but they are not in charge only with
scientific articles. There are also freelancers; their number depends
on the kind of articles published.
“Galileo”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 7,000
Year on year % change: no change
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Italy
“Le Scienze”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 94,000
Year on year % change: +25.3%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Italy
“Newton”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 12
Circulation:
Latest figure: 200,000
Year on year % change: +59%
Online magazine: visitors: 40,000 monthly
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Italy and
China
6.10 Luxembourg
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Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Luxemburger Wort/La Voix du Luxembourg
Other science features: Luxemburger Wort/La Voix du Luxembourg
publishes one science page every month. There is no rule regarding
when the precise publication date of the science page is but both the
French and German editions of the newspaper publish the science
page with the same frequency. The title of the page is ‘Science and
Techniques ‘ and is usually placed in the central pages of the
newspaper. The page consists of a varied number of articles.
Circulation: The circulation figures on the day of publication of the
science page are not different from the average daily circulation
figures.
Journalists: The newspaper has 2 groups of editorial staff, one for the
French version of the newspaper and one for the German version.
Therefore, subjects covered in the science page vary between the 2
versions. In both cases, the variety of subjects is wide and depends
on editorial choice.
The French version has one permanent science correspondent but
does not use freelance journalists. The German version of the science
page is written by various permanent journalists and occasionally by
freelance journalists (although not frequently).
6.11 Portugal
Government policies and measures related to media diffusion52
Promoting S&T Culture has been a political priority in Portugal since
1995, explicitly included in the national budgets and in the strategic
options approved by parliament. The establishment of the Ciencia
Viva programme in 1996 and the creation of a National Agency for
the Promotion of Scientific and Technological Culture in 1999 are a
direct result of these options, which are pursued under the
responsibility of the Ministry of Science and Technology.
Special programme to diffuse science and technology in the
public TV and radio
The Ministry of Science and Technology funds two national
programmes about science and technology in a public TV channel and
co-funds S&T radio programmes. 2010 is the only TV magazine on
science and technology and is broadcast twice a week (Thursday
52
Data from the High Level Group (HLG)
79
evening and Saturday afternoon). Turma das Ciências (“The Science
Team”) is a weekly TV contest designed for secondary school
students.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
O Publico
“O Publico” used to published a science supplement every Saturday,
“A Terra”, but this publication has been stopped a few months ago.
Instead, the editorial staff made the decision (due to economical
problems – advertising recession) to merge the Science/Society
column to the rest of the paper.
The Science article/pages now appear in 1 way:
1. A feature that depends on the news and that appears every day in
order to be up dated to the minute. There is no rule: some days it
could be 1 page, some others it could be 2 pages. It depends on
how interesting the subject is to the public. They also have
subjects that come back regularly. As an example, features could
have 4 main articles and 2 short ones. The feature is located in
the central section, the “Science and Environment section”.
Science Staff:
5 permanent writers in the science and environment
department + 2 freelancers
Diário de Notícias
“Diario de Noticias” has a daily section devoted to Science and the
Environment.
The section usually covers general scientific news subjects, which
depending on the importance of the matter, could be given one or
two page coverage. The feature is placed in the central section,
entitle Science and Environment section, just after the Society and
Education pages. Topics like astronomy or the effect of science on the
environment are quite popular and are often published in the
Saturday edition.
The science staff: there are 4 permanent writers and a few
collaborators (did not say how many) and, they also publish letters
from readers
The circulation of the newspaper is ~83,259
O Jornal de Notícias
“O Jornal de Notícias” offers daily science news in the Society section
of the newspaper. This means:
1. A feature every Thursday and Saturday. On Thursdays the paper
covers general science subjects (normally of 2 pages, with articles
80
that may vary in length and number, normally 5/6); On
Saturdays, a freelancer covers subjects related with
Geology/Astronomy. In this case, there is a main subject and
there might be little articles related to the main subject. The
feature is located in the central section, the Society Section.
2. Beside the permanent feature, the newspaper tries to offer a
science column every single day. Topics can either be related to
the main news or be more general scientific subjects. Again,
length and content may vary.
The science staff: there are 12 writers in the ‘Society’ department
and all of them are potential writes in the science area;One freelancer
writes for the Saturday feature and the paper also uses news from
news agencies like Lusa.
The circulation of the newspaper is higher on Sundays (~ 140.000)
and ~110.000 the rest of the days.
6.12 Spain
La Vanguardia, a newspaper that was first published in 1881, is a good example of the
tradition science popularization has experienced in Spain. Apart from the work
performed by the aforementioned Catalan astronomer Comas Solá in the period
spanning from the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century, throughout the
20th century various were the physicians and scientists who chose to continue
popularizing scientific knowledge. For instances, Miquel Masriera, chemist, or Lluís
Daufí, MD, who for over 25 years, between the 1960s and 1990s, had a weekly page
devoted to Medicine. Today the newspaper staffs three specialized journalists –each
specializing in science, medicine and the environment- who are responsible for these
news pieces in the Society section, as the other main Spanish newspapers are currently
choosing to do (El País, El Mundo, ABC, El Periódico). On the other hand, El País also
includes on Wednesdays an average of four weekly pages devoted to science issues and
called “Futuro” and El Mundo is the only daily that has continued publishing a truly
weekly Health supplement that appears on Saturdays.
Science news pieces appear in all the important media as well as in the various
television and radio news broadcasts. There is no doubt that the establishment of
electronically mailed press releases by science journals has notably influenced the
dissemination of science news pieces, despite this trend can also be read as a factor of
information uniformity almost exclusively from anglosaxon sources.
Contrarily, there isn’t that many programmes specifically devoted to science
popularization (setting documentaries a side). Only one publish television channel, the
main public TV channel, TVE1, has a weekly programme called Redes, that is broadcast
at an impossible hour: Sundays after midnight! The second Catalan public channel,
Canal33, airs a science popularization programme called Punt Omega Thursdays at
10.30 pm. (mostly airing Australian programmes). Barcelona’s local municipal channel,
BTV, broadcasts, as part of the activities supported by the “City of Knowledge”
81
councillorship, Einstein a la platja, a programme that is aired Saturdays, at 10 pm and
Sundays at 5 pm. Radio stations have various programmes devoted to science
popularization. Cadena SER, belonging to the Grupo PRISA and audience leader, airs
“La hora del siglo XXI” Sundays at 7.40am; Cadena COPE airs among its national
programmes Planeta COPE, Saturdays at 4 pm. Ràdio 4, belonging to the network of
Spanish public radios, RNE, airs a programme called L’Observatori in Catalan devoted
to science popularization on Sundays at 9.05; Catalunya Ràdio, leading radio station in
Catalonia and part of Corporación Catalana de Radio y Televisión de la Generalitat de
Catalunya, airs Sorbets de ciencia Saturdays at 1 pm. Also worth mentioning is the
substantial number of medical and environmental news pieces that are often present in
the media.
Government policies and measures related to media diffusion
1982 marked a change in the Spanish government’s science policy,
when a law on the “Promotion and General Co-ordination of Scientific
and Technical Research” was proposed. This was not, however,
passed until 1986, when it became the mechanism for establishing
Spain’s national plan for Research and Development. This created an
inter-ministerial commission on science and technology, and OCYT,
the Office of Science and Technology. This is now a unit in the new
Ministry of Science and Technology, established in April 2000. The
2000-2003 national plan has now defined a global R&D strategy,
based on the following principles: to put science at the service of
citizens and the improvement of social welfare; to contribute to the
improvement of economic competitiveness; and to contribute to the
generation of knowledge .
It is this plan that - for the first time on the national scale specifically sets out to raise the general level of scientific knowledge
of Spanish society, by providing resources for research institutions to
carry out activities to promote awareness of science and technology
and to collaborate with media to improve scientific journalism and
scientific news. This includes making the enterprise sector of the
economy aware of results that could provide solutions to daily
problems. Private foundations, such as the Fundación BBVA, have
funded research in the area of public understanding of science.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
ABC
Nature and extent of Science coverage:
 The daily issue of ABC comprises a section called “Sociedad”
that deals with issues such as education, religion,
communication, environment and science. Science features are
published in this section every Friday and deals with various
topics unless health. The section is situated right in the middle
of the newspaper. All together the scientific features represent
4 pages.
82


They also publish once a week (Saturday or Sunday) a
supplement called “ABC de la Salud”, dedicated to the health
sector. The supplement is sold with the newspaper and is 30 to
40 pages long.
Science staff also contributes to main features, when news are
related to scientific subjects.
Staff:
 There are two scientific correspondents working on either the
daily news and the weekly column.
 Four journalists work for the weekly health supplement.
 Three or four freelances are working for ABC when required.
Circulation:
Circulation on Sundays is 500,000.
Expansión
The only features related to science in Expansion is the New
Technologies supplement called “Expansion Digital” and published
once a week.
Expansion Digital is issued on Fridays. It is slipped into the main
newspaper as a supplement. The circulation on that day is on average
55,000. The supplement is 8 pages long with on average 7 articles
depending on their length. Three journalists work on this supplement.
El Mundo del Siglo Veintiuno
Science features appear in “El Mundo del Siglo Veintiuno” in two
different ways:
In the “Sociedad” (Society) section, situated in the middle of the
newspaper. On average El Mundo publishes one article per day
related to Science in this section. Topics may vary according to the
main news : new technologies, space, energy…
In a supplement called “El Mundo Salud” (health), sold with the
newspaper on Sundays. It contains on average 20 articles related to
health issues.
One freelance writer is working on science features that are published
in “Sociedad”.
A team of 8 journalists is working on the health supplement.
Circulation : information not available
83
El País
Science features appear in the “Sociedad” (society) section, which is
situated in the middle of the newspaper. Two different columns in El
Pais covers scientific issues:

“El Futuro” (the future) published on Tuesdays. It deals
with all kind of topics related to new technologies or
current scientific and technical issues.
 “Salud” (health) published on Mondays and covers news
related to the health industry.
Both columns are 4 to 8 pages long, and contain 4 to 7 articles.
On average 10 permanent journalists are responsible for Science
features. Freelances are hired when workload is too high.
El Periódico de Catalunya
Science features in “El Periodico de Catalunya” can be found in the “Sociedad”
(Society) section, but no column or day is especially dedicated to this topic. The section
is situated in the middle of the newspaper, after Opinion, International, Politics and
Economy columns.
Articles related to science are not published on a regular basis, but
only when a scientific issue stand out the main news. For example, in
February they published features concerning the genetics and the
cloning process.
One permanent journalist is writing science features. A freelance
helps him when necessary.
“QUO, el saber actual”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 331,761
Year on year % change: +54.6%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Spain
“Muy Interesante”
Frequency/number of issues per year: Monthly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 275,049
Year on year % change: n/a
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Spain
“Mundo Científico”
84
Frequency/number of issues per year: 11 issues yearly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 40,000
Year on year % change: +16.3%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Spain
6.13 Sweden
Government policies and measures related to media
diffusion53
The key document in which the principles and priorities of
Governmental science policy in Sweden is to found, is Regeringen
proposition 2000/1:3, with the title “Research and renewal”
(Forskning och fornyelse).
The Swedish Government confirms and restates its support of the
large number of activities that is already going on in Swedish science
under this heading, i.e., popular communication by individual
researchers, research performing organizations, science funding
bodies, museums etc, as well as science communication through and
by mass media, by science weeks/festivals, in publications for popular
science etc, etc. Support for science journalists by funding bodies is
also encouraged.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Dagens Industri
Dagens Industri is a business newspaper and science is only covered from a business
point of view. This means that there are no specific supplements, sections, feature or
column focusing on science. Subjects like high technologies, high tech industries are
always covered on a daily basis, but it would be difficult to evaluate how many articles
are devoted to science. The articles covering business aspects of science are scattered
around the newspaper every day.
There are no specialized science writers since business journalists
have to cover science-related topics.
Dagens Nyheter
53
Data from the High Level Group (HLG)
85
Dagens Nyheter offers 2 science pages every Saturday in the weekend supplement of
the paper. The weekend supplement consists in society issues, food and wine subjects,
crosswords, etc.
The ‘Science’ pages are located in the middle pages of the sipplement
and usually consist in 1 large article and 1 chronicle plus a series of
small items.
The topics covered are wide. The science editor reads scientific
magazines and picks up what she thinks would be an interesting topic
for the paper.
2 permanent journalists and 3 to 4 freelancers write on science.
The circulation in no different on the weekend.
Apart from the Saturday science pages, main news stories also cover
science topics. Usually, one article is published everyday and labeled
‘science’. The article is placed on page 5 or 6 of the main news
section of the daily edition.
Svenska Dagbladet
Svenska Dagbladet publishes a science section every Sunday. The section is entitled
‘Science’ and is part of the culture pages of the Sunday issue, normally placed in the
central pages of the newspaper. The science section consists in 2 pages with one main
article and other smaller articles which are related to the subject covered in the main
article. There are no rules regarding the topics covered in the science section, although
natural science tend to be one of the main field covered.
The circulation figures of the paper are slightly higher on Sundays (on average +3%).
The science editor is the only permanent journalist who is specialized on science. Other
permanent journalists of the newspaper who are not specifically science writers
contribute to the science section (between 10 and 20 journalists). Freelancer also
contribute to the science pages but it is difficult to estimate how many of them.
“Illustrerad Vetenskap”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 14 times a year
Circulation:
Latest figure: 378,000
Year on year % change: n/a
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: Sweden, Denmark
6.14 The Netherlands
Government policies and measures related to media diffusion54
54
Data from the High Level Group (HLG)
86
The governments' role is to stimulate and facilitate a situation in which the
organizations within the scientific community ensure a well-organized system for the
effective provision of well focused and correctly emphasized communication on science
and technology. A national expertise center is required in order to reinforce the
communications on science and technology. This role is being assigned to WeTeN, the
Dutch Association on the Advancement of Science and Technology. The center has to
act as an intermediary and a link between all the involved parties, the scientific
community, the media, educational authorities, local, regional and national
organizations for communication in sub-fields of science and technology. It will need to
help parties both in attracting means from the market and in further professionalising
the activities. For this reason, increasing the reach and impact of communications via
the traditional mass media and via the new media (Internet) is the first point for
attention.
Special policy to diffuse information on science and
technology
To gain additional attention in the media, and in particular in prime time programmes of
a general nature, it is important that the knowledge establishment supplies interesting
ideas for programmes or for features therein. A small media fund is being established at
WeTeN in order to finance the salaries of scientific editors who will be appointed by the
broadcast companies, to deal adequately with needs of the media to produce (part of)
programmes for the general public on scientific or technological subjects, and who will
have narrow bonds with the scientific community.
Eurotech Data: science coverage in newspapers and magazines
Algemeen Dagblad
2 science pages appear in the Saturday edition of the newspaper. The pages are placed
in the third part of the paper after the News, Sport and Finance Sections.
The main topics covered tend to be related to the weather, genetics, society and the
environment. The pages usually consist in 1 main article and other smaller items.
2 permanent journalists and few freelance writers write the science pages.
The circulation figure reachs 400,000 on Saturdays.
NRC Handelsblad publishes a science section every Saturday. The section comes under
the heading ‘Science and Education’ and averages 4 to 6 pages with a variable number
of articles. The subjects covered can be very broad, from biotechnologies to IT and
archaeology.
The paper has 6 different sections and the science science is placed either in the 4th or
5th section.
On satuday, the circulation figures are approximately 10% higher than the average
circulation figure.
6 permanent journalist and some freelancers (no figure could be given) write for the
science section.
87
De Volksrant
De Volksrant publishes a 4 pages science section every Saturday as well as a 3 pages
health section on the same day.
The sections are placed in the middle pages of the paper in the following order:
finance/science/health/travel.
A wide variety of scientific topics are covered. Scientific publications and magazines
often inspire the subjects.
8 permanent journalists and around 8 freelancers write in the science pages.
The circulation on Saturdays is estimated to be 500,000.
NRC Handelsblad
Other science features: NRC Handelsblad publishes a science section every Saturday.
The section comes under the heading ‘Science and Education’ and averages 4 to 6 pages
with a variable number of articles. The subjects covered can be very broad, from
biotechnologies to IT and archaeology.
The paper has 6 different sections and the science is placed either in the 4th or 5th
section.
Circulation: On Saturday, the circulation figures are approximately 10% higher than the
average circulation figure.
Journalists: 6 permanent journalist and some freelancers (no figure could be given)
write for the science section.
“Natuur & Techniek”
Frequency/number of issues per year: 11 issues yearly-Double issue
in July/August
Circulation:
Latest figure: 45,000
Year on year % change: +12.5%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: The Netherlands
6.15 United Kingdom55
The UK news media has a small number of specialist science journalists, of which
several have doctorates or other higher education qualifications in science-based
subjects. All four UK national elite newspapers, The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph,
The Times and The Independent, employ science specialists, as do two of the UK mass
market tabloids, Daily Mail and Daily Express. In addition, the BBC and ITN employ
specialist science journalists to work on terrestrial television news channels. These
journalists regularly cover science stories for these media outlets. Research has found
55
Input from European Network of Science Communication Teachers: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/enscot/
88
newspapers which employed science journalists had increased the levels of coverage of
these issues.56
Miller explains the role of these journalists:
“…specialist correspondents have a distinctive role on both [television news]
broadsheet and mid-market tabloid papers. Medical and scientific reporters tend to be
very knowledgeable about their areas of responsibility. This can mean both that they
adopt an advocate role for key sources in the medical and scientific community and that
they can spot news management activities by their sources more quickly than their nonspecialist colleagues.”57
Scientific journals are fundamental sources of science news, in part because journalists
are searching for newly published results. This can result in an emphasis on newly
published scientific research as a source of news. As a UK science journalist said:
“I’m always looking for something new […] I’m always looking for
results” (interview with science journalist, 19/01/99).
In particular, front line journals such as Nature, Science, the British
Medical Journal and The Lancet provide regular and credible sources
of UK science news. This is because they are published on a weekly
basis and also attract groundbreaking scientific research. Publication
in these scientific journals, as with most other scientific journals,
also guarantees that the published work has been subjected to peer
review, which establishes the scientific results as methodologically
valid. As Dr. Tom Wilkie, who was science editor for the elite UK
newspaper The Independent from 1986-1996, argues:
“Journals also provide quality control. If a paper has appeared in a
peer-reviewed journal it does not need to be checked by the
journalist. Peer-reviewed papers are assumed to have already gone
through the internal quality control and checking of science, so there
would be little scope left for journalistic inquiry.”58
By emphasising scientific journals as sources, the selection of science
news becomes largely a routinized process, based on these regular
sources. One UK science journalist said:
“We’re terribly, terribly wary of actually publishing any science, or
running any science story unless there is good material in the
literature [....] we tend to rely massively on the journals (telephone
interview with science journalist, 20/05/97).
However, by relying on these four reference journals, UK science
journalists also routinely choose science news from only a small
selection of newly published science. In effect, this information is
mediated by the journalist, who has chosen to use these sources, and
56
Holliman, R. (2000). 'Representing Science in the UK New Media: "Life on Mars?", Cell Nucleus
Miller, D. (1999). 'Mediating Science - Promotional Strategies, Media Coverage, Public Belief, And
Decision Making.' Communicating Science: Contexts and Channels. E. Scanlon, Whitelegg, E., and
Yates, S. London, Routledge.
58
Wilkie, T. (1997). From Labs To Hacks: Are Scientific Journals Doing Their Job?, University College
London, Presented at a public meeting on scientific journals and the public. 18th April.
57
89
by other factors including scientists who choose to submit to these
journals and the journal’s editorial board. This highlights the powerful
position of these scientific journals in mediating science news. As
Nelkin argues:
“These competitive journals want to maintain their image as the key
sources of scientific information for the public, and they skillfully use
the press to this end.”59
As a further level of mediation, scientific journals deliberately court
news media publicity through embargoed press releases to maintain
their privileged position. This is achieved through various ‘information
subsidies’.60
Four prestigious scientific journals, Science, Nature, the British
Medical Journal and The Lancet, issue an embargoed tip-sheet to
journalists prior to the day of their regular weekly publication. These
press releases are examples of ‘information subsidies’. They include
mediated information relating to the new research that is to appear in
the next edition of that journal. Also included is a date and time
before which the journal prohibits publication of any of this
information. This is issued on the understanding that journalists will
not break the embargo set by the journal. A journalist who is deemed
to have broken an embargo can be removed from the subscription
list. These press releases, now sent electronically directly to science
journalists, effectively replace the need to read the primary literature.
As Wilkie argues:
“All the main journals now distribute press releases in advance of the
publication of the journals, drawing attention to the most newsworthy
story, rewriting them in layman’s language, and providing telephone
numbers for ease of contact to the original scientist. Actually reading
the journal itself is becoming redundant”.61
This system benefits all parties who are regularly involved. For example: journalists are
provided with a usefully mediated press release which provides potentially novel and
credible information.
The journal maintains its position as a regular source of science news,
therefore potentially increasing its public profile and attracting
groundbreaking papers, and
the scientist and funding body for the work generate publicity for
their work.
59
Nelkin, D. (1995). Selling Science: How The Press Covers Science And Technology. New York, W.H.
Freeman.
60
Gandy, O. (1982). Beyond Agenda Setting: Information Subsidies And Public Policy. Norwood, New
Jersey, Ablex.
61
Wilkie, T. (op cit)
90
There is a potential downside to this system, however. By regularly
using these four journals, sources of science news become limited.
The result is that a more diverse range of scientific issues and views
is likely to be overlooked. The relationship between publication
activities of leading medical journals and newspaper coverage of
biomedical issues is explored by journalists David Rowan and Owen
Bowcott in The Spin Doctors (The Guardian, 19 February 1998.)
Other organizations including scientific institutions, funding bodies
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) also promote their work
by sending press releases, and organizing press conferences and
media events. Science journalists will also have regular contacts that
can
provide
advance
information
relating
to
newsworthy
announcements. In addition, there has also been an increasing role
for the Internet through controlled-access web sites such as
AlphaGalileo, which is managed from Britain and which disseminates
science stories from British and other European scientific institutions,
mainly universities.
UK science journalists also visit scientific conferences to report on
work presented at these events. The British Association (for the
Advancement of Science) festival, which takes place every
September, is an occasion for extensive coverage of science in a wide
range of media. This is at least in part because the papers and
lectures are selected for inclusion in the festival in part on grounds of
their likely popular appeal. Further to this, several UK science
journalists are involved in the annual Science, Engineering and
Technology week and various other public understanding of science
initiatives, which aim to promote science.
Eurotech Data:
magazines
science
coverage
in
newspapers
and
Daily Telegraph
The science features of the Daily Telegraph appear:
- On a daily basis
- In the special science features pages published every Wednesday.
The daily science features can be of various lengths and content since they depend on
the news. The Wednesday regular science pages are usually between 1 and 2 pages. In
both cases, the number of articles may vary since an article can be anything between a
few lines and a few paragraphs.
The daily science features may be placed anywhere in the paper
according to the relevance of the topic. The weekly science features
are usually placed in the center of the newspaper.
91
The topics covered in the science features may cover a wide range of
topics and there is no precise editorial line regarding the content of
the articles. The main news also influence the choice of issues
covered. The subjects nevertheless tend to be general.
Both daily and weekly features are writen by a staff of 2 permanent writers
supplemented by a number of freelancers if necessary (no figure available).
The Financial Times
The FT publishes several different supplements and surveys related to science and
technology :
-
The FT Information Technology, published twice a month on a
Wednesday
The FT Telecoms, published once a month on a Wednesday
Survey on the pharmaceutical industry, published once a year
Survey on the biotechnology industry, published once a year
Survey on the business of chemicals, published once a year
Survey on Business and the environment, published once a year
The supplements on IT and Telecoms are rather large: 10 to 12 broadsheet pages
(around 25 articles) (some additional articles might be published on the electronic
version of the paper for more convenience.
The various surveys tend to be slightly smaller with 6 to 10 pages.
Regular features: the FT does not offer regular science feature/column in the main pages
of the paper. If a main story happens to be related to science, it will be covered as a
main news feature.
Staff: there is a team of 3 permanent writers on science and a team of up to 10
permanent writers on IT and Telecoms. There is also a team of 30 to 40 freelance
writers on science and technology scattered around the globe.
The Guardian
The Guardian publishs 2 science pages every Thursdays that are part of a section titled
‘G2’ (a section that covers general features). The pages usually consist in 3 articles.
Topics covered in the science pages are anything that a scientist would call science,
such as volcanism, seismology, astronomy, climate. The approach is very much
scientific.
The pages are placed at the back of the G2 supplement.
The writers are mostly freelancers and scientists. The science editor and another
permanent journalist also write in the science pages.
There is no change in the circulation figures on Thursdays.
The Independent
92
The Independent publishes a ‘Science’ page every Friday, which consists in one main
article.
The page is usually place in the second section of the paper. Topics covered are
scientific in the broad sense of the term.
The science editor is the only permanent writer on science. Approximately 6 freelance
writers also write in the ‘Science’ page.
The Times publishs one regular science page every Mondays, placed in the second
section of the paper. Also, regular science features are published everyday as part of the
main news.
The ‘Science’ page published every Mondays consists in one long articles and a colomn
with 2 to 4 items. Goods topics are: genetics, cloning, new drugs, therapy, dinosaurs,
human, space or the environment.
Permanent writers are: one science correspondent and 2 other journalists. Freelancers
are occasionally employed.
On Mondays, the circulation figures reach 700,000
“New Scientist”
Frequency/number of issues per year: weekly
Circulation:
Latest figure: 135,489
Year on year % change: +52%
Coverage/Countries in which the magazine is published: UK and
distributed worldwide
93
7. Biotechnology and media
Pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies have enjoyed in the last years a rapid
increase in media coverage, mainly in economy&financial specialized newspapers and
health sections of relevant newspapers. Clive Cookson, science editor for the Financial
Times, wrote in a recent article:62
“Although science and medicine are attracting more media attention, the news coverage
often appears in a form that anyone who really knows about the subject recognizes as
grossly exaggerated, either as positive stories in the time-honoured “miracle cure” genre
or as negative scare stories. However, whatever you think of journalists, you cannot
ignore their impact. News stories, positive or negative, affect patient attitudes, research
grants, shareholder satisfaction and much more besides. I do not know of any studies
relating media coverage to long-term growth in shareholder value; indeed, it is hard to
know quite how such research would be carried out, covering indirect effects such as
the benefits of good publicity for staff recruitment. However, there are studies showing
that media coverage of a corporate disaster, such as a food poisoning scare, has a shortto medium-term impact on the share price.
Regardless of this, there is no way for a quoted company today to hide completely from
the media, even if it wanted to. Lexis-Nexis, database from Financial Times, shows a
sustained rise in the number of Financial Times stories and articles about biotechnology
over the past decade, from just 124 in 1991 to 1,117 last year - almost a tenfold increase
(Table 1). The number of articles in the FT about pharmaceuticals rose from 783 in
1991 to 3,092 in 2000 (Table 2). The New York Times, the leading national newspaper
in the USA., has also expanded its coverage of biotechnology and pharmaceuticals. Its
biotechnology coverage grew from 339 articles in 1991 to 637 in 2000, with a peak in
the early 1990s (Table 1) This increase reflects the increased resources newspapers are
having to put into covering the sector. At the beginning of the 1990s, the FT had only
one specialist reporter covering the whole span of the chemical, pharmaceutical and
biotechnology industries. Now there are half a dozen of us writing about
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. There is a similar pattern in the NYT’s
pharmaceuticals coverage (Table 2).”
Table 1: Articles about biotechnology in the Financial Times (FT) & New
York Times (NYT)
Year
FT
NYT
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
124
339
225
394
248
350
433
280
512
266
603
254
668
260
837
363
902
409
“Pitching Pharma”, in HMS Beagle-The BioMedNet Magazine, November 9, 2001
Available online: http://news.bmn.com/hmsbeagle/120/viewpts/pressbox?print=yes
62
94
2000
1117
637
Source: FT
Lexis-Nexis database
Table 2: Articles about pharmaceuticals in the Financial Times (FT) & New
York Times (NYT)
Year
FT
NYT
1991
806
1217
1992
783
1188
1993
1692
1360
1994
1896
1165
1995
2231
1146
1996
1997
2037
2122
1222
1202
1998
2537
1442
1999
2543
1553
2000
3092
1824
Source: FT Lexis-Nexis database
7.1 Biotechnology, the Europeans and the media
Eurobarometer 52.1 “The Europeans and biotechnology” (March 2000) offers
interesting answers about attitudes in relationship with the media:
I would take time to read articles or watch television programmes on the
advantages and disadvantages of the advances in biotechnology
72% of those interviewed say that they “mostly agree” with this proposal, compared to
19% who “mostly disagree” and only 9% who “do not know”. People are most likely to
agree with this in Denmark and Sweden (83% each), France (82%) and Luxembourg
(80%), whilst they are most likely to disagree in Spain (27%), Portugal (26%), Belgium
(24%) and Greece (23%).
73% of men compared with 70% of women opt for “mostly agree” in this instance, a
response that is once again most common among those aged between 25 and 39 (76%).
I feel that I am adequately informed on biotechnology
The reverse is true for this statement: only 11% say that they “mostly agree” whilst 81%
are likely to disagree, with 9% unsure either way. Nonetheless, the response “mostly
agree” is chosen by 20% in the Netherlands, 19% in Austria, 15% in Denmark and 14%
in Luxembourg. However, the response “mostly disagree” records peak scores in
Sweden (96%), France and Finland (88% each), and Greece (87%).
13% of men compared with only 9% of women agree with this statement while those
most likely to agree with it are in the intermediate age categories: 12% for people
between the ages of 25 and 54. Apart from this, the generic pattern applies in relation to
the other sociodemographic variables.
The newspapers and magazines which report on biotechnology
The newspapers and magazines which report on biotechnology do good work for
society according to 59% of Europeans, while 18% of them think the opposite and 23%
95
are unsure. In four countries, more than three-quarters of those interviewed feel that
“they do good work for society”: the Netherlands (92%), Finland (86%), Greece (80%)
and Austria (75%). Those most likely to answer “they do not do good work for society”
are the United Kingdom (30%), Sweden (27%), France (25%) and Ireland (22%).
60% of men and 57% of women believe that “they do good work for society”. Support
for this group decreases as the age of those interviewed increases.
Which source(s) of information do Europeans trust?
Of all the sources of information suggested, the consumer organisations record the best
result (26%), just ahead of the medical profession (24%) and environmental protection
organisations (14%). These three sources of information were a great deal more popular
than universities (7%), the responses “none of the sources suggested” or “do not know”
(6% each), television and newspapers (4%), international institutions (also 4%), animal
protection organisations (4% once again), farmers’ associations (3%), national public
authorities (also 3%) or religious organisations (2%).
27% of men and 24% of women choose consumer organisations, 22% of men and 25%
of women opt for the medical profession, while 13% of men and 15% of women trust
environmental protection organisations most.
As far as the age variables are concerned, those aged between 25 and 39 years are the
most likely to trust “consumer organisations” (28%) and “environmental protection
organisations” (15%), but they are least likely to trust “the medical profession” (22%).
The other sources Europeans also trust
Here, “environmental protection organisations” record the highest results (31%),
followed closely by the two most popular sources of information from the first section,
which have equal rating in this case: consumer organisations (29%) and the medical
profession (also 29%). “Animal protection organisations” (21%) are the fourth most
popular source of information, followed by universities (19%), television and
newspapers (16%), international institutions (13%), and then three other responses
which each record 12%: farmers’ associations, national public authorities and “do not
know”. All of the other suggestions record less than 8%.
The overall classification of the sources of information trusted by Europeans
1st
Others
Total
Classification
Consumer organisations
26
29
55
1
Environmental organisations
14
31
45
3
Animal protection organisations
4
21
25
5
The medical profession
24
29
53
2
Farmers’ associations
3
12
15
9
Religious organisations
2
7
9
11
National public authorities
3
12
15
9
International institutions
4
13
17
8
A specific industry
0
3
3
12
Universities
7
19
26
4
Political parties
0
3
3
12
Television and newspapers
4
16
20
6
None of these (SPONTANEOUS)
6
5
11
10
96
Do not know
6
12
18
7
To know more about public trust in scientific information see the IPTS
Report in ANNEX 4
7.2 Specific case: biotechnology in French media
Biotechnology is a quite recent subject that appeared in the media by the nineties in
France and other countries in Europe. It had been anonymous since the seventies, that
are for about 20 years. The words genetically modified organisms (GMO) appeared
related to other news or subjects such as Macdonald’s restaurants or the World Trade
Organization meeting. It could be expected to find GMO as environmental or public
health problems, but they did not. Such words were presented as a symbol of the
American culture hegemony, by means of a new concept that wanted to express the idea
of “inappropriate feeding”. This news represented a hit for Macdonald’s restaurants.
Media do provoke this situation spreading events that could have been only local.
An analysis of the attitude toward science and technology of
European citizenry provides rather contradictory findings. For
instance, Eurobarometer results do not correspond with what would
be expected from the “cultural model”. If this theory were to be
correct, high cultural levels would imply interest in science. Thus, we
would expect industrialized countries such as Northern European
states to display an open attitude toward scientific innovation and
their citizenry to be receptive to and interested in scientific culture.
But the opposite proves true. Martin Bauer (“European public
perceptions of science”, International Journal of Public Opinion
Research, vol 6, nº2) has proposed a different interpretation. In his
view, the reason why Northern European populations are less
interested in science is due to a certain reaction due to “satiety”. In
contrast, Southern European populations feel needy of scientific
development and industrialization. This increases their interest in
scientific culture and is evidenced in a “wanting-to-know-more”
attitude. Add to this hunger for knowledge, the concern Northern
European countries have for their environment, which in occasions is
at odds with scientific and technological development. On the
contrary, Southern European countries are less sensitive to
environmental preservation and thus are less reluctant towards
scientific and technological development. Many other reasons (way of
life, traditions,...) could also explain this cultural model paradox.
See ANNEX 5
This example shows that media play an important role in society. They are not only a
mean to express ideas that does not go further. There is a kind of “reading contract”63
between readers and newspapers. Why magazines in France such as Sciences & Avenir,
Sciences et Vie or La Recherche coexist? What are the differences between readers of
the international newspaper Le Monde and those of the local newspaper Le Parisien?
Which are the differences allowing them to go on with a number of readers? The answer
is in their contents. They have a target public, and there is somehow a reading contract
63
Word developed by the sociologist Eliséo Veron. It helps to distinguish among the various newspapers
and magazines and to explain why so different publications survive in the same society and environment.
97
between them. People who read the French newspaper Libération expect to find a
specific information within, in an specific style and approach. And a journalist writing
an article about any subject in the same newspaper knows he has to follow some “rules”
to get the readers attention and agreement.
Case study: Le Monde
Le Monde is a newspaper read by decision takers and high officials,
but also by teachers, professors and young students. Data show that
in 1997, 57% of its readers was having high education, and only a
17.5% was general public. It publishes about 500,000 issues that are
read by 2 million of people.
A study64 published in France in 2002 about Le Monde shows the
evolution of biotechnology information in the newspaper. Modern
biotechnology is based on genetic engineering and also on genome
mapping and sequencing. And this was the base of the study, news
dealing with these issues.
The data obtained showed that during the first years - from 1975 to
1987 - there was only a slight difference in the number of articles,
that is 20 or 30 every year, which means an article every 15 days. In
1987 there were less than 200 articles containing any of these
subjects. During the following years there was not a marked increase
of biotechnology related articles in Le Monde until 1997, when the
number of articles was 600. This increase was due to the
announcement of Dolly's cloning. Two years later, in 1999 the
proportion of biotechnology related articles rose dramatically to more
than 1000 of articles, that is 1.5 articles per day.
But this phenomenon occurred in France from 1997 has to be studied
along with the economy and policy scenario. In the 80s there was a
kind of economical and political euphoria, and later in the 90s a
debate on bioethics law was started. The public debate came in 1997.
There appeared biotechnology articles with different approaches: food
and agriculture approach, biomedical, research, economical, political,
ethical, etc.
Articles related to biotechnology appeared to be more worrying day
by day as they talked more about the risks of biotechnology. This was
due to the spread of news dealing with the subject in other media
such as general newspapers or TV. However France is a lay country,
which is not easily influenced by media associations, consumers or
ecologists. And this may explain why science has such a good
64
De Cheveigné S., et al. Les biotechnologies en débat. Pour une démocratie scientifique. Paris: Éditions
Balland
98
acceptance and why it is present on TV, newspapers, supplements,
radios, etc.
As for the most frequent approach in Le Monde it has to be
highlighted that the ethical was the first one. When talking about the
percentage of biotechnology articles with an ethical approach
compared for instance to articles taking a biomedical approach we
find that the first represented 39% very close to the second ones,
42%. The study also showed that the most recurrent concern as for
biotechnology in Le Monde was food. As a result of the publication of
articles dealing with biotechnology and food, there was seen a
request for political and company action in these areas.
Articles about biotec in Le Monde
(from 1987 to 1999)
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
99
94
95
96
97
98
99
8. Scarce training in scientific communication and
journalism
The relative newness of scientific communication training within the spectrum of
journalism education and its practically non-existence in the scientific world are two of
its most relevant aspects. The first evidence we have of this fact is the scarce presence
of scientific journalists in newsrooms. Again, no analysis or indicators are available
establishing their presence. Some scant data are presented in a study conducted in
France65 that states that of 30,000 French journalists, it is estimated that only 300 could
be labeled as science specialists or, in other words, one per cent of the total number of
journalists. This also means that there are ten-fold more professionals devoted to sport
news than to science. The study also reveals that these journalists hold no leading
positions in their newsrooms, and are granted particularly unstable jobs, given that
practically a fourth of the male journalists (23%) and almost half of the females (46%)
were “pigistes”, a French term applied to journalists who are paid per published news
item. For comparison purposes, when taking the profession a whole, only 17 per cent of
the French journalists are paid per published item.
Another contribution of Fayard’s study is that only large European dailies offer
positions for science journalists and, at the most, the number of positions per daily
never exceeds 4 or 5. Compared to other sections, political, sports or finance sections
are staffed with no less than 15 journalists (please bear in mind these are general data
and can vary significantly). Today, when almost ten years have elapsed since this study,
the situation does not seem to have improved. La Vanguardia is Barcelona’s main daily
and one of Spain’s most outstanding newspapers. Three journalists who cover science,
environment and medicine & health currently staff its science section. If we take a look
at the audiovisual media, the situation seems even more precarious, with the exception,
of course, of documentaries.
University specific training provided in journalism or science departments is, in most
part, new, as are most Master degree programs offered in Europe (more data available in
the publications of the ENSCOT66 network, sponsored by the EU). If we take Spain as
an example, only two universities provide some optional credits on Scientific
Journalism in their curricula and in the entire country, there are only two Master degree
programs in Scientific Communication or Science & Society (Salamanca and
Barcelona). On the other hand, not one of the many Science faculties in the various
universities offer courses in Scientific Communication addressed to future scientists
(the Universidad Pompeu Fabra, in Barcelona does plan to include one such course in
its Biology curricula for the 2002-2003 school year). In France, for instance, three
universities –Paris VII, École Supérieure de Journalisme de Lille and Louis Pasteur in
Strasburg- are offering training in scientific journalism or communication. In Italy, the
University of Trieste has also a Master’ Degree in Science Communication and so they
do in the United Kingdom the Universities of Belfast-Dublin and Imperial College,
UCL and Open University in London and in Germany the Free University of Berlin.
If there is one issue on which all, or nearly all, commentators agree with, it is the
importance of improving training in science communication even for scientists and for
65
66
Tristani-Potteaux, Françoise (1997) Les journalistes scientifiques Paris: E. Economica
European Network of Science Communication Teachers http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts/enscot/
100
media practitioners. So it does the Declaration of the Second World Conference of
Science Journalists held in Budapest, 4th July 1999, improving good practices and
training of science journalists.
See ANNEX 6
The Labasse Report to the European Commission67 argues:
“In the case of the press, for example, it is quite obvious that the few courses training
specialised science journalists do not solve the overall problem of the treatment of
subjects with a scientific content, which might be covered by political correspondents
(technological risks) or economic correspondents (high-tech enterprises), legal
correspondents (genetic testing, doping, etc.) or journalists writing specifically for
women (diets, astrology...), etc. Now scientific issues usually have only a very small
place - if they have one at all - in general journalism courses. Trying to promote a
"science quota" in these courses, assuming we ever get that far, would be nothing more
than an artificial and symbolic imposition. The issues that we have mentioned - genetic
engineering, technological risks, diet, etc. - are not only scientific: they are also
political, economic, legal, etc. We have to think in a much broader way if we are to
meet one of the real challenges in this field: the journalistic coverage of complexity. It is
not science that is involved here but the general epistemology of journalism, which is
faced with formidable problems and relatively ill-equipped to tackle them. It is mainly
at this level that progress can be made if the political will is there: before asking what
journalism can do for you, ask what you can do for journalism (and particularly for
schools of journalism).
However, the press is not alone. Issues of a similar kind arise in every field in which
science has to be adapted to other social perspectives, and especially in industry. The
best indicator is the small number of students being awarded diplomas each year on
completing courses in scientific and technical communication: this may be partly
because these training courses are still relatively new, but it is also a reflection of the
number of openings for diploma-holders on the job market. But enterprises should be
snatching them up, because their internal and external communications are often
extraordinarily mediocre when they concern complicated subjects. Their employees do
not understand anything, and neither does the public. Yet very few of these enterprises
are aware of the enormous financial, social and commercial consequences of their
inability to deal effectively with these subjects. Many of them do not even consider that
there is a problem, and yet a discourse by the academic community on its own
preoccupations (help to disseminate scientific and technological culture!) is obviously
inadequate. In-depth work on the attitudes of businessmen - looking at, for example, the
economic potential of popularisation and the cost of mediocre communication - would
certainly be more effective. However, we find ourselves once more up against the
fundamental contradictions of science communication, and particularly the very fluid
boundary between information and propaganda. Here, the number of people putting out
messages with a scientific content is infinitely greater than the number of specialists in
science communication too: so there is also the question of whether science
communication can find an appropriate place in schools of management or general
communication.”
67
Labasse, Bertrand (June 1999) The communication of scientific and technical knowledge (Report to
Directorate-General XII of the European Commission)
101
The lack of consolidation of the training programs and of the profession itself
throughout Europe leads to the current low sensitivity toward science information
exhibited by the managers of the leading mass media groups. The sole exception, as
previously mentioned, is their interest in certain areas, such as medicine and health
issues where these apriorisms may be changing. In essence, the science popularization
scene is not free of contradictions, given that numerous opinion polls clearly state there
is an extensive group of people interested in receiving information on scientific,
environmental and health-involving issues.
9. Internet, the intermediation booster
The communication world experienced a real revolution when the use of the Internet
and the World Wide Web. The scientific method -based essentially on the
communication of the way to reach a scientific thesis or discovery from preexisting
knowledge- has undergone radical changes.68 The result has not only been an easier
access to the work and results of the scientific community –taking into account that new
technological tools have also contributed to the presence of the world agreement about
what is done in the most modest countries as for research and development- but it has
enormously fostered the visibility of scientific activity among the general public. In that
sense we have to take into account that apart from the source –that could be considered
traditional- of the mass media there exist unexpected possibilities of direct
communication and interaction between science and public, that will undoubtedly
modify many up to date consolidated habits concerning the way people is informed and
learn scientific and technological knowledge.
Several landmarks have indelibly marked the history of journalism. One of these was
the Japanese attack over Pearl Harbor (1941); President Franklin Roosevelt address to
Congress broadcast over the radio, which was massively followed by US citizens,
boosted its importance as a media. The assassination of President John Kennedy (1963)
also registered an enormous follow-up by worldwide citizens, with TV being the key
media. The same proved to be true when the first man reached the Moon (1969).
July 4, 1997 and the days that followed also became landmark in history. Radio or
television were not the star media this time: Man’s return to Mars with Pathfinder and
its spectacular minirover was followed through the Internet by 45 million people,
turning this event into the most widely watched episode of the brief history of the Web.
A web traffic control center in San Diego (California, EE.UU.), estimated at the time
that a total of 80 million hits (electronic connections) were established with NASA and
other webs providing information on this mission at some point.
Some experts have considered this event as proof of the beginning of a new era in
interactive communication, a choice many citizens placed when they decided to follow
the fascinating exploration of the Red planet on the practically semi live broadcasts. The
basis to the growth the Internet experimented those days is the fact viewers could go
beyond standardized and passive information as offered by conventional television and
get information on the topics each viewer choose and considered suited his/her interests
Jane M Russell, “Scientific communication at dawn of the XXI Century” InternationalJournal of
Social Sciences nº 168 Science and his culture June 2001
68
102
and curiosity best. And above all, the fact this could be done at whatever time suited the
viewer most. Mars still represents the new frontier in our thirst for discovery, but has
become part of the media revolution, this time the Online Revolution.
The Mars case exemplifies the process now taking place with the new Internet era. The
web is a new popularization media with its own features and potential, and a represents
a radical change in the way original information sources and the large public can now
communicate. Internet will involve deep changes in the ways people have access to
information.
Until recently, the key role assigned to conventional media was that of intermediaries of
knowledge and this is doomed to change significantly. In the case we have just
explained, NASA, and its web needed no intermediary to access the general public, and
vice versa. This shall be a growing phenomenon and citizens will use this new channel
to go straight to the source. Communication intermediates will have to change and find
new communication solutions; for instance, newspapers shall become more analytic and
opinion providers, given that news as prospective readers will already know the news
before they pay for a newspaper –as is already occurring with radio and television.
Internet is a qualitative jump respect to audiovisual media as it provides a combination
of text and audiovisual, and allows users to download information and use it at their
convenience. Add to this the fact Internet represents the possibility of recapturing a
younger population segment, which, according to the Eurobarometer has lost interest in
science popularization. Internet should become an essential vehicle for any alternative
plan to place science closer to society.
The number of Internet users can, at first, be considered an easily understandable
indicator, but is rather hard to determine. OCDE estimated that the number of people
with Internet access on January 1, 2000 based on the data provided by operators and ISP
services per country were:
Germany
Spain
France
Italy
Portugal
United Kingdom
EUROPEAN UNION
9.000.000 subscribers
3.625.000
3.030.000
4.930.000
475.000
7.400.000
37.209.000
11 % of the population
9,2 %
5,1 %
8,6 %
4,7 %
12,4%
9,9 %
Internet subscribers and Internet users are not equivalent concepts as one subscriber can
provide access to various users, thus penetration indexes are estimated to be much
higher:
Germany
Spain
France
Italy
Portugal
United Kingdom
EUROPEAN UNION
27,8 % of the population
13,8 %
17,5 %
19,1 %
Not available
28,7%
23,6 %
103
These are data from practically two years ago and in the time being Internet growth has
been extraordinary. Recent data available from the General Media Study (Estudio
General de Medios, EGM), show the following figures as for the Internet use in the
countries belonging to the European Union:
Country
%
The Netherlands
Sweden
Denmark
Finland
United Kingdom
Ireland
Austria
Luxembourg
Germany
Belgium
Italy
France
Portugal
Spain
Greece
63.8
60.7
58.6
50.2
49.3
47.6
47.2
43
38.4
36.4
33.5
30.1
26.1
24.7
9.9
EUROPE
37.7 %
In the last two years the number of new users of the Internet has grown significantly,
but there are still countries that are in the last positions with low rates such as Greece,
Spain or Portugal. In the case of Spain, it may be due to the current hardware and
software of individual users. Not all users have an appropriate equipment to access the
Internet. We do not have to forget that a number of people access the Internet from their
work, and these connections are not being considered by the Eurobarometer.
A recent study69 reveals the difficulties prospective readers have to access European
research data and information that has not been published in the English language
reference journals currently dominating the scientific communication market addressed
to experts (Nature, Science, The Lancet), Alphagalileo, being the only exception.
Access to universities and research center information is difficult, representing a new
lead that needs to be firmly developed in the near future. Internet is the way!
Media Resource Service, a good example of what can be done with Internet
Media Resource Service70 is a free referral service for journalists to get help in locating
reputable expert sources of information on science and technology to interview for their
news and feature stories. The service is a programme of Sigma Xi, the scientific
research society since 1980, and maintains a database of primarily American scientists,
69
Lecoq, Eveline (2001) European Science at the Web London: Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine
70
http://www.mediaresource.org/
104
engineers, physicians and policymakers who are cross-referenced according to their
expertise, controversies on which they are competent and willing to comment, and
geographic location. The web site also gives access to Science in the News, a daily
digest of science appearing in the mainstream press; SciStacks, juried resource of links
to scientific reference sites, and Media links, a gateway
Media Resource Service is an American initiative that fosters science in the media by
means of the Internet. It is a good practice that could be also be suitable and very useful
in the context of the European Union to promote science in the media and to provide a
source of information for journalists.
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10. Useful European initiatives
There is still a lot of work to do to make scientific information a part of our lives.
However, there are already some examples at European level that show useful
initiatives that are perceived by both scientists and journalists as good practices. Such
examples can become starting points for other initiatives which could be copied by
many countries and considered for decision takers as possible recommendations to bear
in mind.
10.1 CERN71 (EU)
CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research) is financed by many European
and non-European countries and institutions. Its member states are 20: Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom. There are only two countries from the
European Union missing: Ireland and Luxemburg.
The laboratory was founded in 1954 and has an office responsible for the relationships
with the media among other functions. The main tasks carried out in this office are
writing articles about any current interesting experiment or event for an internal
publication; preparing press releases and press conferences; providing information
about the organization to anyone that contacts the press office; showing CERN facilities
to the media, particularly to TV channels that want to broadcast a programme on
physics research or any related issue; giving documentation, slides or other requested
material to journalists, teachers from the school or university, etc.
The team of this office is mainly made up by journalists and some writers with a
scientific background that usually write articles for more specialized publications within
the organization, but do not do other tasks in the press office. So, in fact there are from
3 to 4 people working in the press office. Among them there is always a student
journalist from a CERN member state. The student usually spends 4 months working in
the organization and for that period she/he writes articles for the internal publication,
gives information to journalists or other people interested in the activity of the
organization, prepares press releases, reads newspapers to detect news about the
organization, etc.
From that point of view, CERN offers a good experience to future scientific journalists
and becomes a second practical school for them. It has to be taken into account that the
internship for students journalists is paid, what means the organization understands and
supports the idea of educating a scientific journalist.
10.2 EICOS72 (GE)
EICOS (The European Initiative for Communicators of Science) is a programme that
wants to improve the communication between journalists and scientists. Within an
71
72
European Organization for Nuclear Research http://www.cern.ch
The European Initiative for Communicators of Science http://www.eicos.mpg.de/
106
eight-day hands-on laboratory experience they work side by side at the cutting edge of
scientific research. The course generally takes place in early spring. Professional
journalists from any European country and any media with at least two years experience
can apply. Scientific background is not necessary, but reasonable competence in English
is mandatory.
EICOS receives its primary funding from the 'Stifterverband für die
Deutsche Wissenschaft' and, since its foundation, from the 'Gottlieb
Daimler und Karl Benz Stiftung'. The Max-Planck-Institute for
Biophysical Chemistry offers the infrastructure and the manpower
necessary to guarantee a successful Hands-on Laboratory, and the
host institutes cover their expenses during the Extended Laboratory
assignments.
10.3 Science on BTV, the local channel of Barcelona (E)
Science on the street
Throughout the year 2001, 32 scientists who live in Barcelona have explained to its codwellers “what they do” as part of their scientific daily activities and “why” or “what is
the purpose” of their endeavors. Lectures have taken place in the Ateneu Barcelonès
(Barcelona’s cultural association) and have been later broadcast on BTV, the local TV
channel from Barcelona. During the year, two on-line publications La Vanguardia
Digital and Diari de Barcelona have also devoted a section to the series, and have
provided access to conference transcripts.
The City of Knowledge councillorship has organized this series lectures, in
collaboration with the Ateneu Barcelonès, the Reial Acadèmia de Ciències i Arts de
Barcelona (Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona), the Associació per al
Foment de la Ciència (Association for the Promotion of Science) and the Associació
Catalana de Comunicació Científica (Catalan Association for Science Popularization).
Attendance results
- “Physical” attendance
The number of people who have attended the lectures held at the Main Hall of the
Ateneu Barcelonès on Tuesdays ranges between 3.700 and 4.000, with an average of
120 attendants per session. Some lectures have reached attendances of over 200.
- TV attendance
The average number of viewers who chose to watch BTV while the Science on the
streets lectures were being aired, was approximately 27.000.
Two the various conferences exceeded the mark of 60.000 viewers (specifically those
by Anna Cabré, on demography, and by Ricard Guerrero on the origin of life and
ecosystems). Others, such as Anna Omedes’ lecture on simian language, Jaume
Baguñà’s on animal evolution, and Pere N. Barri’s on assisted reproduction attracted
between 48.000 and 56.000 viewers.
107
The following graph shows how attendance via BTV fluctuated throughout the Science
on the streets series of lectures:
-
On-line attendance
The online page that Vanguardia Digital devoted to Science on the streets, providing
information of the series and transcripts of the lectures, had a total of 3.200 monthly
hits, which corresponds to 32.000 hits for the entire time period of the series. Diari de
Barcelona on the other hand, had approximately 80 daily hits.
Einstein a la platja
This TV programme was born from the initiative of The City of Knowledge
councillorship. Einstein a la platja (Einstein on the beach) is aired on BTV, the local
television from Barcelona, twice every week: on Saturday at 10pm and on Sunday at
4pm they broadcast a revival of Saturday programme.
Einstein a la platja does not take any specific scientific area. Its subjects depend on
current topics of interest, or any other scientific issues that may interest the audience.
The approach is not only scientific, but also social, communicative, ethical, etc. BTV73
has its own website were there appears information about the programme, particularly
on the subjects that has already been broadcasted and those that are going to be aired.
73
Barcelona local TV website: http://www.barcelonatv.com
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10.4 Tuttoscience (I)
Tuttoscience is a weekly supplement form La Stampa, which prints
400,000 issues. On Monday, when the supplement is published, the
newspaper sells 5,000 additional issues.
Tuttoscience was created in 1981, and has now 4 pages. Furthermore
there is a book that gathers the supplements published from six
months, but the reported sales are not encouraging (from 3,000
issues to around 1,000). However there is a CD (40,000 issues with
the first one) containing the last 9 years supplements. The following
CD will include 10 years.
10.5 Horizon (UK)
Horizon74 is BBC Two's flagship 50-minute science documentary series. After nearly
40 years on air, and outstanding critical acclaim, it is a world leader in its field. It
regularly wins a sweep of international science, medical and environmental film
accolades, and has recently won the Royal Television Society Award, BAFTA and the
Prix Italia.
Horizon's strength lies in authoritative analysis of developments in science, medicine
and technology, and their bearing on the lives of viewers. Horizon is not a scientific
publication, but a dynamic mainstream network TV programme, whose subject matter
happens to be science.
Its target is the general audience, rather than the scientific
community, although it always reflects accurately the world of
scientists and strives to maintain a loyal following amongst them. The
series regularly achieves a 12% UK audience share, with audience
figures around three million.
Horizon is shown on BBC Two weekly during the series run; usually at
9pm on Thursdays. There are no scheduled repeats.
10.6 Science & Vie (F)
Science & vie is a French science magazine that stands out by its solidity. It was
founded in 1913. Science & vie publishes now roughly 172 pages and has 3,305,000
74
Horizon website: http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/
109
readers75. It is important to highlight that they are all over 15. It is published every
month and there are usually 344,049 issues76.
10.7 CNRS info (F)
CNRS info77 is a programme launched by CNRS (Centre national de la
recherche scientifique)78, a public institution devoted to fundamental
research made up by 25,000 people. The main CNRS goal is to
produce knowledge and make it available for society. CNRS info aims
to spread news related to CNRS works and it is specially addressed to
journalists. It started its activity around 20 years ago, and publishes
every month or every two months science related news on the
internet. The published articles have images and references of the
different sources.
10.8 Science & Decision (F)
Within the context of the CNRS has been created a web site called
Science & Decision79 as an initiative from the scientific world. The site
gives answers to questions about science realities that have an
impact on our daily lives. Science & Decision presents information by
means of short questions-answers, organized in subjects easy to
understand for everybody. Science & Decision information sources
are clearly identified and easy to consult.
This initiative is addressed to three different kinds of users: decision
takers, media and general public, and it is an excellent example of a
possible use of the Internet to make science-media-public interact.
10.9 New Scientist (UK)
New Scientist (135.837 issues) in UK is the reference publication within quality science
popularization magazines, and suprisingly has a weekly periodicity (surprisingly
because all the rest that we know in this field have a monthly publication). The
75
Data from AEMP99.
Data from OJD99
77
http://www.cnrs.fr/Cnrspresse/cnrsinfo.html
78
http://www.cnrs.fr/accueil.html
79
http://www.science-decision.net/cgi-bin/index.php
76
110
magazine has an excellent website www.newscientist.com, paradigm of a good practice
in dissemination of science knowledge and interactioin with public.
111
11. Improving Scientific Communication
The Committee on Culture, Science and Education of the
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted 18th
December 2001 a resolution about scientific communication.
The report focuses on the role played by scientists and science
journalists in passing on scientific information to the general public at
a time when science is advancing extremely rapidly. For the general
public to develop informed opinions on scientific subjects and exercise
influence from a position of knowledge over the policy-making
process, scientific communication must be improved.
Practical
measures could be taken by political decision-makers to enable
scientists and science journalists to fulfill better their role of
accurately conveying scientific information.
The report considers that scientific communication must be improved
for the general public to develop informed opinions on scientific
subjects, including on bioethics and new information technologies and
exercise influence from a position of knowledge over the policymaking process. In its resolution, the Assembly advocates concrete
measures to enable scientists and science journalists to fulfill better
their role of accurately conveying scientific information. Among the
priorities are the training of scientists in communication and
journalists in science, the institutionalization of regular contacts
between the two groups and the setting up of a technical platform on
the Internet to host scientific archives and exchange fora. See ANNEX
7
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12. Questions, Conclusions and Recommendations
Mass communication media –daily press, magazines, television, radio and more
recently, the Internet– have become science main diffusion media. Of course, they
are not alone. Museums, lectures, books, science weeks and days, among other
activities, also play a important role in configuring a people’s scientific culture but
undoubtedly public opinion on science issues, as in general, in many other areas on
knowledge- is largely configured through the so called mass communication media.
Last December, the Parliamentary Assembly of EU approved a
report with the following considerations: “The mass media are the
most effective means of disseminating scientific information to the
public. Initiatives such as open days; science festivals and science
weeks help improve public awareness on science issues. The
Internet, which was originally intended as a means of
communication among scientists, is playing an increasingly
important role in informing both the scientific community and the
general public. If the public is to be properly informed and if their
support for research and development and for science in general
as a driving force for social progress is to be assured, one of the
prime current concerns of policy-makers must be to improve
scientific communication at all levels of society and, in particular,
the popularization of science”.
SOME QUESTIONS
Thus, the key issue is to learn how science diffusion is to be performed, both in
terms of quantity and quality. Many questions pop up to one’s mind:
 What specific training do science journalists have?
 What human resources do the various media specifically devote to scientific
information and are these comparable to the amount of news issues they manage
including contributions to other sections in newspapers, radios and televisions?
 In the hierarchy structure of the media, what place is reserved for journalists
specializing in scientific information compared to those focusing on other areas,
such as political or financial information?
 How and in which sections are scientific news items included?
 Do science news items have a space of their own in the media?
 Which information sources do journalists use?
 How do journalists assess the veracity of their sources for science issues?
 What role do scientists play in the diffusion of scientific information?
 What is the role of peer reviewed scientific journals and their press releases
in the news agenda?
 Are scientific European institutions –research centers, universities – prepared
to communicate science?
 How do journalists set their agenda when it comes to scientific information?
 What type of scientific news is most attractive for the media? Are the newsvalues that characterize other information fields applicable to science issues?
113
 What is the amount of opinion articles on science issues compared to the
general amount of pages or sections? Who are their authors?
 Are newspaper editorials creating a scientific opinion?
 What is the volume of letters to the editor involving scientific issues compared
to other issues?
 In the audiovisual media, are there any studies available on the relation between
science popularization programs and those dealing with para-scientific issues?
 What is the circulation of science popularization magazines in each EU
country?
 Is there any relation between the previous data and the circulation of general
information dailies also including science news items?
 Have any audience analyses been performed for science popularization TV
programs for the member states?
 For the different media, are there any studies available on the issues most
attractive to readers, listeners or TV watchers with regard to scientific current
events?
 Are “reception studies” taken into consideration when scheduling programs in
the audiovisual media or when distributing information in the written media?
 Has the impact of the communication media on society been scientifically
assessed for any of the following topics: are issues chosen according to what is of
present interest (“current events”)? Do they generate or favor specific opinions? Do
they induce changes in attitude or behavior?
 Has the impact of the communication media on the political power been
scientifically assessed (for instance, the association between straining situations
influenced by the media and modifications in public activities or policies involving
scientific aspects)?
 Does the local, regional or European scientists and science represented in the
different mass media? Are they underrepresented in comparison with countries as
USA?
SOME PROPOSALS FOR ACQUIRING ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS
Two main types of studies: I) media analysis (descriptive and quantitative analysis,
content analysis and discursive analysis) and II) interviews, group studies and other
sociological studies.
I.
MEDIA ANALYSIS:
On a first stage, a descriptive study of the state of the art of “Science and Media” in
the 15 European Countries (daily press, weekly or monthly magazines, TV, radio,),
followed, in a second phase, by a systematic monitoring of the subject. Following
some studies that could be performed:
1. Comparative study on the circulation of science popularization magazines in
the EU’s 15 countries.
2. For comparative reference data, the same for some important collections of
science popularization works in each country, such books from Odile Jacob
(France) and Metatemas-Tusquets or Critica (Spain)
114
3. Request from representative newspapers for each country whether they have
conducted studies on the interest of their readers in scientific issues, as well
as audience indices, if available.
4. Compare audience data for programs such as Horizon (BBC-UK), E=M6
(M6-France), Redes (TVE2- Spain), SuperQuark (RAI1-Italy)... despite
these are program been aired at different times and their contents may not be
strictly comparable.
5. Conduct a census on science popularization per country
6. Conduct a European census of science communication studies and program
comparison
7. Perform a content analysis: focus of Interest, sources,
8. Study of the “local science” and “local scientists” representation on various
mass media in Europe.
II. INTERVIEWS, POLLS AND GROUP STUDIES
Following find the studies considered most needed in this group:
1. Interviews with the directive staff from various mass media (representatives of
all the 15 countries), in order to analyze the “decision making” process when
science news is involved: hierarchy, organization, human and technical
resources devoted to science news,
2. Polls and group studies, in order to analyze the influence of mass media on:
knowledge, attitude, opinion, and behavior changes of the general public in
front of science issues.
LONGER TERM PROPOSALS
1. Request from some academy group such as the Science Communication
Observatory in Spain or Labcis in France to coordinate a study on the news
published in the principal media from each member state: What is published? Who
is publishing? Who are the readers? What scientific institutions are represented
mainly on the media? What are the sources of information?
2. Perform comparative studies among various European countries on written
media, radio and television including among others, the following aspects in relation
to scientific information: quantitative studies (absolute volume of scientific
information and percentage compared to other “current events”); most widely used
info sources; features of the most widely covered issues; presence of scientific issues
in opinion sections (including editorials, op-eds, letters to the editor, etc.).
3. Development of a structure capable of “lobbying” striving to influence the
public powers and the directors and those responsible of the communication media
(mass media in general, but especially public media). Some of the directives this
lobby could work on are: a) increase the presence of science in the mass media, b)
increase technical, economic and human resources (journalists specializing in
science) in science programs or sections, c) bring science to the general public:
increase the presence of local scientists and science, etc.
115
4. Develop a “web of webs”, a site grouping the information and functions of the
variety of websites institutions/universities/research centers have set up or need to be
developed in a coordinated European pattern, equally available to journalists as to
the general public, and intensely promote webs of this type in all EU member states.
5. Compare the communication services in various large research centers, such as
CNRS (France), CSIC (Spain) and Max Planck Institute (Germany), both in issues
involving set up as well as news service.
6. Promote “training programs” or “internships” for journalists and communicators
(in general, not only those devoted to science) in research centers, as is currently
being done by the Max Planck Institute (EICOS initiative)
Science & Media Recommendations
 Public TV
As the recent Eurobarometer “Europeans, science and technology”
(December 2001) and other surveys performed in EU-member states
have proven, the general public is mainly informed by television. This
explains why scientific culture and debates need to be promoted and
present in public TV’s of member states. It is important to have the
public feel scientific developments as something close and not as
something extraordinary and distant, as something that has little to
do with their daily life. This explains why we suggest promoting the
presence of local scientists in public televisions, particularly in local
networks. In this sense, we ought to consider programs such as the
French-German ARTE’s thematic nights or the broadcasting of
conferences and the promotion of scientific debates with local
protagonists as those performed by BTV (Barcelona’s municipal
channel) as examples of good practices.
 News agencies
National information agencies act as large news transmission sources for all types of
news items. Member states should promote the presence of journalists and scientific
news in government news agencies. In this case, it would also be recommendable to
establish clear news promotion criteria for news portraying local people, in addition to
those brought from distant information sources.
 Media Studies
Very few studies have been performed in member states on how the media disseminate
scientific knowledge among their population, and there is no European wide analysis,
despite mass media is the main medium for scientific formation among its citizenry.
National and EU-wide studies need to be promoted, and become a high-priority
initiative, a task to be performed supported by networked university groups in the quest
116
for gaining quantitative and qualitative knowledge on these issues (taking into
consideration gender, advertisements and other influential biases). Such an analysis
would allow us to draw concluding deductions on the essential role played by the
media.
 Journalists and scientific popularizers training
Scientific communication studies need to be promoted and extended in social faculties
in order to train more and better scientific journalists, as well as in scientific schools
with the aim of having scientific popularization also concern the scientific world. If
scientists’ communication skills are not improved, society’s scientific communication
capacity increase is going to be an impossible goal, and if more and better scientific
journalists are not available, it will be difficult to balance this field of information in the
mass media. Initiatives aiming at establishing contacts between scientists and journalists
will also need to be promoted.
 Promote Internet as a communication medium
Internet’s position as an efficient media is becoming increasingly consolidated proving
it is capable of attracting the youngest age groups toward mass media, explaining why it
is necessary to encourage institutions and scientific-information producing centers to
use the potential this new media offers, improving their communication services and
broadening the use of Internet. An effort to coordinate a European communicative
endeavor by creating Internet-based national and international platforms to improve
scientific knowledge transmission to society is greatly needed.
117
ANNEX 1
Presence of scientific issues in five European Union dailies
Spain, France, Italy, Portugal and United Kingdom
Research directed by Gemma Revuelta and conducted by : Bravo S., Carrera J.,
Mas Sardà M., Pérez N., Roberts R.
Science Communication Observatory, Pompeu Fabra University-Spain
e-mail: observatori@grup.upf.es
Objective
Analyze and provide a general view on the presence of news items on
scientific, health and environmental issues in European dailies.
Design
Transversal, descriptive one-week coverage of dailies from five
European countries.
Methodology:
A one-week log was performed (January 21 through 27) on various
selected dailies from five European countries, namely Spain, France,
Italy, Portugal and United Kingdom. Dailies were chosen according to
print run and domestic prestige, taking into consideration local and
national characteristics. News item selection was based on the
following description of a scientific news item:
News items including explicitly scientific text, referring to discoveries, research or
scientific procedures, and performed by scientists and considering their intellectual
and/or professional achievements.
Nineteen fields were created to help catalog and classify the
collected articles and news pieces covering identification (newspaper,
daily, section, date) and descriptive (topic or main issue, number of
sources used, information genre, list of sources, etc.) features.
Analysis
The analysis performed is based on the comparison of the information
published in each country, according to the following criteria: topics
appeared per newspaper, number and type of mentioned sources,
existence of weekly supplements or science/health/environment
sections; quantity of news pieces selected per newspaper, coinciding
issues in two or more countries, among others. Percentage
comparisons are provided, given that comparison with absolute
values is unfeasible.
118
For this study, various exclusion criteria were defined: issues on political or scientific
policy issues, environment or health management. In general news pieces including the
aforementioned issues refer to scientific issues but focus on current events, cases of
negligence, or social aspects involving science.
The most significant limitation the authors have encountered has
been regular access to some of the studied dailies, particularly
Portuguese and Italian dailies.
119
Results
Following we present the results on news pieces published in 21 newspapers (13 dailies
and English newspapers: 5 published Monday through Saturday and three Sunday
issues) from five EU countries, during the one-week period that elapsed between
January 21 and 27, 2002.
When considering the quantitative data on science news pieces per
country, news items per newspaper, country and day must be taken
into consideration, given that a varying number of newspapers were
analyzed per country. Portugal, for instance, shows an average of
slightly over 5 articles per day. Spain does not reach 5 news items
(4,9), and France and Italy reach 4,7 and 2 news items, respectively.
In this quantitative ranking, UK would hold the last position, with 1.9
daily news pieces. The average number of daily news items is 3,8
texts per day and newspaper.
News pieces, per day and newspaper
UK
P
I
F
News
pieces
E
0
2
4
News pieces, per day and newspaper
120
6
121
Topic classification
Science news pieces were classified into three categories: Science,
covering basic and experimental science, Health and Environment.
Per topic, "Health" is most widely represented, with 51% of the total.
Topic percentage distribution for science health - environment
15%
34%
51%
environment
science
health
Per country, Spain and United Kingdom science news pieces
concentrate on Health issues, covering almost 80% of science news.
Contrarily, in France, "Science" was most widely represented (57%).
It is striking to observe such a low frequency of environmental
information in all the countries studied.
Topic percentage distribution per country
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
E
F
I
P
health
scienc
e
environment
122
UK
science
Sections and supplements
Newspapers devote certain sections for certain information.
According to needs and preferences, newspapers assign topics a
degree of relevance and decide on whether it justifies a section of its
own (may this be permanent section or a supplement). If not, these
news pieces are incorporated into some other section such as
"Society" or "Local news". Only four of the analyzed newspapers have
opted for devote a section or supplement to science, health or the
environment. Spain has two significant health supplements, but these
newspapers fail to present a science section in the body of the
newspaper.
News piece frequency
Based on news item frequency, no specific weekday seemed to be
devoted to science in any of the studied newspapers:
Science news pieces frequency
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
E
F
I
P
UK
M
T
W
Th
F
S
S
A closer look at science news items weekly distribution reveals a
homogeneous distribution in all five countries. All countries,
particularly Spain, seem to concentrate science news pieces over the
weekend, in special health supplements.
Sources
Journalistic genre was also analyzed, analyzing structure traits such
as text genre and number of sources per news piece. Comparison
was established between average number of sources average used
per article, per country and per journalistic genre. The global average
number of sources per article is 1.44, ranging between 1 source (in
Italy) and 1.7 (in Portugal and UK). One UK article cited more than
13 sources!
123
The following table provides information on cited sources (as
percentage) classified into types of sources:
Sources
Scientists and experts
Institutions
(Public
administration)
Science publications
Press agencies
Others
E
F
I
P
40,5% 42,9% 82,9% 26,5%
16,7% 20,4% 6,4%
19,7%
UK
55,0%
14,5%
11,5% 16,3% 10,6% 12,9%
0,9%
0,0%
0,0%
3,7%
30,4% 20,4% 0,0%
37,0%
5,5%
0,9%
23,4%
124
Conclusions
The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the scientific news published in any
one week (dates chosen at random). In no way does this study pretend to present
concluding or comparable data of any kind.
In analyzing the weekly information, the authors have come up with
various interesting issues that will deserve and require broader and
lengthier analysis.
Based on the information collected on the week analyzed, it can be
concluded that the proportion of science news pieces (covering
Science, Health and Environment) is very scant. With an average of
less than four daily news pieces and newspaper, the occurrence of
scientific, health or environmental information is practically irrelevant
within the existing sections of the analyzed dailies.
The fact science holds such an undignified position within daily news is certainly
worthy of mention. In most instances, it can be observed that scientific news items lack
an area or section of their own, and thus must share the space devoted to
"entertainment", "culture", "crimes and current events" or simply appear in “Society”.
Within the limitations of this study, it can be asserted that science
popularization appears to be scarce and low quality. This is in
complete disagreement with the preeminent position science and
technology occupy in our society and with the expectations European
policy makers have put on the new century. Mostly, science news
pieces refer to health issues, as is proven by the fact these represent
up to 51% of the analyzed news items. In total, during the seven-day
period analyzed by the authors, 467 texts were collected (under 500)
in more than 20 dailies.
A weekly log does not provide sufficient information so as to establish
which daily devote the largest and best space to popularizing science.
The authors conclude that more prolonged and continuous monitoring
should be conducted. To this date, the authors are not aware that
this is being performed.
Results per country
125
Detailed information per country follows. Relevant press information
and results are summarized per country.
126
SPAIN
The five newspapers with most circulation in Spanish territory (see print run and
audience data) were analyzed. Of these five dailies, three are general newspapers
distributed nationwide and two are regional news (Catalonia).
PRINT RUN AND AUDIENCE
DAILY
El País
El Mundo
ABC
El Periódico
La Vanguardia
PRINT RUN
450,000
302,000
272,000
212,000
208,000
*Source: Oficina de Justificación de Difusión (OJD) (Spanish Media Data Service); Spain 2001,
Media informaiton Association; European Media Landscape.
News items per topic
El País
Environment
Health
Science
TOTAL = 172
5
31
5
41
Articles/day
El
Mundo
0
39
0
39
ABC
0
25
3
28
El
Periódico
1
31
6
37
La
Vanguardia
0
21
6
27
Total
6
146
20
172
Articles/newspaper/da
y
4’9
24’5
SOURCES= 227
No SOURCES/ARTICLE= 227 :172 = 1’3
Institutions
Scientists
Experts
Publications
Agencies
Other
38
92
0
26
2
69
News pieces/day of the week
Newspap
er
El País
El Mundo
ABC
El
Periódico
La
Monda
y
Tuesd
ay
Wednesd
ay
Thursd Friday
ay
Saturd
ay
Sunday
7
1
2
4
6
2
2
3
7
2
2
4
3
2
1
4
2
0
2
7
7
21
17
6
9
11
2
9
2
1
2
2
3
6
11
127
Vanguard
ia
Total
16
14
17
12
14
57
39
SCIENCE/HEALTH/ENVIRONMENTAL SUPPLEMENTS
Newspape Supplement Day
Section
r
El País (*)
No
No
El Mundo
Health
Saturday
No
ABC
Health
Saturday
No
El
No
No
Periódico
La
No
No
Vanguardi
a
(*) El País includes four weekly pages devoted to science issues, called
“Futuro” (this is not a supplement)
Comment
Spanish daily press does not dedicate specific sections to science news pieces, with the
exception of the one day per week section “Futuro”, from El País. News items are
always published in the Society section.
In El Periódico and La Vanguardia (regional newspapers), science
news pieces appear in Society or a section called “Cosas de la Vida”
(Life issues) and “Vivir en Barcelona” (Living in Barcelona),
respectively. These correspond to daily sections resembling “Society”
focusing on local issues. El Mundo and ABC are the only newspapers
including a special weekly health supplement published on Saturdays
(in both cases).
In all, Saturday seems to be the day most scientific information is published in Spanish
dailies; two weekly supplements in ABC and El Mundo being mainly responsible for
this increase. Sunday follows in science news item quantity, and is largely dedicated to
health issues.
Weekdays, science news piece frequency is homogeneous.
Per newspaper, El País published most science pieces, followed by El Mundo. These are
also the most widely distributed dailies in Spain.
Per topic, certain subjects seem to be most widely treated. In Health, news pieces refer
to cell phone antennae electromagnetic radiation, nutrition and diet.
In Environment, news pieces mainly referred to polluting discharges into the Ebro River
and water pollution.
128
FRANCE
According to the OJD and published by CIT Publications Limited-The
Media Map Datafile, Le Parisien holds the French newspaper pole
position, with 481,000 issues sold daily. Le Monde, L’Equipe and Le
Figaro respectively come in second, third and fourth, with practically
400,000 issues sold daily. Liberation and France-Soir have a print run
that is less than half that of the previous three dailies. These would
be the six most widely sold dailies in France.
Le Parisien was excluded for this study, as it is largely “Parisian”
newspaper, mainly read and devoted to issues concerning Paris as a
city. L’Equipe, a sports newspaper was, obviously, excluded also.
The authors have chosen to set aside Liberation and France-Soir for
future studies. Thus French daily press is based on science news
items appearing in Le Monde and Le Figaro.
PRINT RUN AND AUDIENCE
PUBLICATION
DAILY
Le Monde
399.000
Le Figaro
363.000
*CIT Publications Limited-The Media Map Datafile
NEWS ITEMS PER TOPIC
Le Figaro
2
9
25
36
Le Monde
Environment
Health
Science
TOTAL = 67
6
12
13
31
Total
8
21
38
67
Articles/newspaper/da
y
4,7
Articles/day
9,57
SOURCES= 98
No SOURCES/ARTICLE= 98:67 = 1,5
Institutions
Scientists
Experts
Publications
Agencies
Other
20
34
8
16
0
20
NEWSITEMS/DAY OF THE WEEK
Monda Tuesd
Wednesd
129
Thursd Friday
Saturd
Sunday
Newspape
r
Le Monde
Le Figaro
Total
y
ay
ay
ay
7
4
11
0
7
7
3
6
9
8
8
16
ay
6
7
13
2
4
6
5
0
5
SCIENCE/HEALTH/ENVIRONMENTAL SUPPLEMENTS
Newspape
r
Le Monde
Le Figaro
Supplement
Section
No
No
Today-Science
Science and Medicine
Comments
The content of scientific news pieces was analyzed in daily news
pieces, brief pieces, chronicles, reports, etc., and classified into the
three science sections, Science, Environment and Health. Scientific
News pieces that did not fall into any of those three categories or
referred to in a grater or lesser to pure or applied science were
discarded. Thus topics such as scientific policies, financial aspects of
scientific, medical or environmental activities, ethic or social aspects
were excluded.
During the week content was heavily influenced by a local incident: the strike held by
the French public health system. The sheer amount of information devoted to the strike
probably affected the length of other sections such as science and society. The peak of
this incident occurred on January 21, 22, and 23, and health news piece frequency for
that period is null. It is known that readers are most attracted to medicine and health
issues and thus these should have been plentiful.
130
ITALY
All three most relevant and holding largest print runs dailies in Italy were analyzed.
During the analyzed week the hot issue was pollution in large Italian cities. This may
have lead to undercoverage on health or science, and overcoverage of environment in
the media.
PRINT RUN AND AUDIENCE
DAILY
Corriere della Sera
La Repubblica
Il Giornale
PRINT
RUN
(monthly
data)
298.606.613
276.488.359
120.168.718
AUDIENCE
(annual data)
236.495.444
215.893.911
78.882.488
*Source: “Federazione Italiana Editori Giornali”, 1999
NEWS ITEMS PER TOPIC
Environment
Health
Science
TOTAL = 46
Corriere della Sera
La Reppublica
Il Giornale
Total
5
3
15
23
2
7
2
11
0
9
3
12
6
19
20
46
Articles/newspaper/da
y
2
Articles/day
6,5
SOURCES= 47
No SOURCES/ARTICLE = 47:46 = 1
Institutions
Scientists
Experts
Publications
Agencies
Other
3
39
0
5
0
0
NEWSITEMS/DAY OF THE WEEK
Newspape
r
Corriere
Reppublic
a
Giornale
Total
Monda Tuesd
ay
y
Wednesd
ay
Thursd Friday
ay
Saturd
ay
Sunday
2
1
1
2
2
2
4
1
1
15
2
3
7
1
7
5
7
1
18
3
1
2
3
1
SCIENCE/HEALTH/ENVIRONMENT SUPPLEMENTS
131
Newspape
r
Corriere
Reppublica
Giornale
Supplement Section
No
No
No
Science
Science, Medicine
Comment
During the analyzed week there was an informative boom on
pollution in large Italian cities. This however did not significantly
affect our sampling, given that most of these news items covered
associated political or social aspects. Of the three topics health issues
dominated the scene that week. In fact, a good number of the news
items on this topic appeared in a science section in Sunday’s Corriere
della Sera. Health news items appeared throughout the week proving
this is the most interesting topic for Italian readers.
132
PORTUGAL
Print run and audience data for the Portuguese daily press are listed in the
accompanying table. According to the European Media Landscape, both Diario de
Noticias and Público are considered the reference newspapers in Portugal, explaining
why these were the dailies chosen for the study. Daily access to Jornal de Noticias, the
newspaper with the largest print run was not guaranteed, and thus the authors chose to
follow Correo de la Mañana in its place.
PRINT RUN AND AUDIENCE
DAILY
Jornal de Noticias
Correo de la Manhà
Diario de Noticias
Público
PRINT RUN
(daily data)
101.448
89.021
65.544
53.222
*: European Media Landscape, 2000; Obercom, 1999
News items per topic
de Publico
Diario
Noticias
Environment
Health
Science
TOTAL = 117
14
37
17
68
14
20
11
45
Correio de la Total
Manhà
0
4
0
4
28
61
28
117
Articles/newspaper/da
y
5,5
Articles/day
16,7
SOURCES = 162
No SOURCES/ARTICLE = 162 : 117 = 1,37
Institutions
Scientists
Experts
Publications
Agencies
Other
32
20
23
21
6
23
NEWSITEMS/DAY OF THE WEEK
Newspap
er
DN
P
CM
Total
Monda
y
Tuesda
y
Wednesd
ay
Thursd
ay
Friday
Saturda Sund
y
ay
10
4
0
14
7
6
0
13
12
10
2
24
9
6
1
16
12
8
1
21
10
5
0
15
133
8
6
0
14
DN= Diario de Noticias, P= Público, CM= Correo de la Manhà
News items per topic
Environment
Health
Science
Others
Diario
Noticias
18
0
24
26
de Publico
13
3
18
11
Correio de la TOTAL
Manhà
0
31
0
3
0
42
4
41
SCIENCE/HEALTH/ENVIRONMENT SUPPLEMENTS
Newspaper
Diario de Noticias
Publico
Correio de la Manhà
Supplement Section
No
Science and
environment
No
Science
No
No
None of the three analyzed topics dominated among the many news
items published during the analyzed week. Notice Correio de la
Manhà published very little science information, bringing down the
Portuguese percentage average.
134
UNITED KINGDOM
Various British dailies and weeklies were selected representing UK’s three media
categories: popular dailies (The Mirror and The Sun), average quality (Daily Express)
and quality dailies (The Guardian and The Times). During the analyzed period, the
number of science and environmental news pieces was low, and most frequently news
items had to do with health issues. Coverage on the crisis the National Health Service
was not included as it focuses on political, political party differences, and did not refer
to specific scientific or health issues. One Sunday newspaper per segment was included
in the study.
PRINT RUN AND AUDIENCE
PUBLICATION
(semester data)
DAILY
Popular
The Mirror
The Sun
Average quality
Daily Express
High quality
The Guardian
The Times
Weekly
Sunday Mirror
Sunday Express
The Sunday Times
2.179.236
3.469.196
961.754
416.066
721.838
1.832.787
855.275
1.398.220
*Sources: Audit Bureau of Circulations, National Newspaper Data for the six months of: August 2001 to
January 2002 (www.abc.org.uk), UK. (see ANNEX).
News items per topic
Environme
nt
Health
Science
TOTAL
=
65
Articles/day
9.2
The
Mirror
The Daily
The
Sun Expres Guardia
s
n
The
Time
s
Sunda
y
Mirror
0
0
0
2
3
6
2
8
4
2
6
9
1
10
8
0
10
16
2
21
Articles/newspaper/da
y
1.9
135
Sunda
y
Times
Tot
al
0
Sunda
y
Expres
s
0
1
6
2
0
2
2
0
2
4
1
6
51
8
65
SOURCES= 111
ARTICLES= 65
No SOURCES/ARTICLE = 111:65 = 1.7
Institutions
Scientists
Experts
Publications
Agencies
Other
16
23
37
6
1
26
NEWSITEMS/DAY OF THE WEEK
Mond
Newspape ay
r
The Mirror/ 2
Daily
Mirror*
The Sun
2
Daily
0
Express/
Sunday
Express*
The Times/ 4
Sunday
Times*
The
2
Guardian
Total
10
* Sunday data refers
Tuesd
ay
Wednesd
ay
Thursda
y
Friday
Saturd
ay
Sunday
0
0
4
2
0
2
2
4
0
1
1
3
1
2
0
0
0
2
0
2
9
4
2
6
1
2
2
1
2
0
10
4
10
7
5
19
to weeklies such as "Sunday"
SCIENCE/HEALTH/ENVIRONMENT SUPPLEMENTS
Newspaper
Supplement
The Mirror
The Sun
Day
Issue
Health Zone
Thursday
Health
n/r
n/r
n/r
Wednesda
y
Tuesday
Environment
The Guardian
Daily Express
Section
Environment
Life good Health
Health
Comment
The crisis the National Health Service was experiencing was one of the hot issues
during the analyzed week, and also mentioned equivalent crisis in France and specific
cases of patients affected by the situation hospitals were undergoing. The information
generated by the crisis was not included as health news pieces as most of these pieces
mainly referred to political aspects. It may well be that health coverage was affected by
this situation and restricted the presence of “other” health articles. However, care was
taken in analyzing who signed the articles and it was seen that many of the journalists
writing on this national health issue worked for the Politics department rather than the
136
science area. During the analyzed period several articles were published concerning
specific diseases but rather than from a health or science point of view, from a criminal
or high sensationalist perspective. These were also excluded from the study.
ANNEX 2
137
138
ANNEX 3
THIS DOCUMENT IS AVALAIBLE IN CIRCA, IN THE LIBRARY OF OUR
BENCHMARKING EXERCISE IN THE MEDIA FIELD UNDER THE NAME “SCIENCE ET
TÉLÉVISION”, POSTED ON 22/10/2001. MUST BE ADDED HERE....
ALSO AVALAIBLE IN
http://www.csa.fr/html/dos139-1.htm
139
ANNEX 4
Public Trust in Scientific Information
By: Peder Jensen, IPTS (14/9/2000)
Abstract
It has been said that the public's trust in scientists, and indeed in science, is
dwindling. This paper sets out to explore this assumption by looking at
available evidence of the level of trust in science, scientists, scientific
information and in scientific institutions. The study is based entirely on
already published material and is therefore confined to analysis of the
response to questions asked in previous surveys. Especially the
establishment of time-series is therefore difficult as very few longitudinal
studies exist in the area. Time-series results should therefore be viewed as
merely indicative of trends.
Based on evidence from Europe, it is shown that indeed there is a tendency
towards a reduction in trust in scientific information as well as in other
institutions. This reduction is coupled with a shift in focus of trust seemingly
shifting towards mainstream NGO's and away from some of the more
radical organisations. This is thought to be the footprint of a population
maturing in its view on technology. Technology is not viewed as good or
bad, but rather as a wide range of opportunities and threats. Thus an
important question to ask is whether trust is in it self especially important
or if a differentiated opinion based on knowledge is better.
Based on evidence from USA there seems here to be a slightly more stable
trust in science. The figures used to indicate the level of trust are derived
from studies on trust in people running various institutions. This may,
however, not be the same as trust in the information provided by such
institutions. In Canada there are indications that the situation is very similar
to Europe. Given the great similarity between USA and Canada in most
other areas, it is assumed that the development in North America is in
reality similar to Europe but at a slower pace. This corresponds well with the
observation that the public in USA has been less critical towards GM foods,
but that the resistance is now growing.
Finally sporadic evidence from Asia/Pacific indicates that the situation there
is very similar to the situation in Europe. There is, however, a greater
140
tendency towards trusting government scientists. The difference is thought
to be explained by the recent BSE crises in Europe, leading to an extremely
low confidence in government scientists, especially in UK.
Due to lack of truly comparable data it is not possible to make a graph
capturing the full range of development. An indicative figure of trends is,
however, within reach.
141
The outcome of the analysis is that openness is the key to uphold trust, as
it helps promote open discussion, participation and knowledge building in
the public.
142
Introduction
It seems to be a widely held view that the public do no longer trust
scientists or the information they provide. In fact it has come to the point
where this is not considered a point of view but rather a fact that is no
longer questioned. Newspapers regularly report on the issue80 referring to
the growing gap, the existing gap, etc. Thus something is definitely not
right, since so many sources state that it isn't.
Also in scientific magazines and journals this view can be found. In the
debate columns of Nature81 a debate has been going on for some time
regarding public trust in science. Under the heading "How to restore public
trust in science" two leading members of Greenpeace set out to help science
get into closer contact and trustful partnership with the public. Their view is
that science should be much more attentive to public opinion, and much
less act as an appendix to government and industry.
Whether such suggestions would have any impact on public perception is
not the issue of this paper. The paper merely sets out to gauge whether
there has actually been a change in public perception, especially related to
trust in science, and to the extent possible to shed light on who and what
the public trust if it does not trust science. The notion is interesting,
however, because it points towards the role of science, which has changed
significantly over the past 100 years.
100 years ago science had a limited volume in terms of GDP and a
comparatively smaller impact on people's daily life. Scientists may well have
been viewed as trustworthy experts, but it mattered little to most people as
they seldom came in close contact with science. Up through the first half of
the 20th century the role of science changed gradually, and especially World
War II speeded up this change dramatically. Discoveries and developments
such as the Atomic Bomb, Cyclon B and certain medical experiments on
human beings carried out during the war spurred discussions on the ethical
responsibility of scientists, and marked a gradual departure from the view
that science was innocent, pure and "value free".
The decades after the war, where the Cold War was raging, saw a very
strong focus on science as an important tool or rather a weapon of the war.
Developments such as the H-bomb, satellites, manned space flight, micro
electronics, bio-warfare products, etc. are all products of the arms race.
These developments in many cases have produced spin-off technology,
which has transformed our daily life at an ever-increasing pace. Personal
computers, Internet, cellular phones, satellite television, medical discoveries
are all examples of "science products" which now affects all of us every day.
Thus the experience of the public is that of science evolving over a period of
100 years from a position of obscurity to a position at the centre stage of
80
The Daily Telegraph in reporting on a report by the Select Committee on Science and Technology
refers to the lack of confidence, due to e.g. BSE crises and debate on GM foods. Another example is The
Guardian reporting on Tuesday March 14 that "Scientists must talk to public".
81
Nature. October 7, 1999. Commentary.
143
societal development. Over the same time people have experienced a
mixture of blessings and curses brought on by science in conjunction with
industry, government, military, etc. Science today takes on enormous
proportions claiming in the range of 2-3% of GDP in major industrialised
countries82.
The effects are felt every day by people using high-tech products, just as
well as the adverse effects of our science based industrial society are
becoming more and more visible. Many effects may in reality not be the
effects of science, but rather the effects of our use and disposal of products
of science and industry. However, also here science plays a role, as it is
often scientists, who warn the public of the danger. E.g. scientists have
been strongly involved in the identification of ozone depletion, global
warming, endocrine disrupters, etc. just to mention a few recent examples.
Thus a significant role of scientists today is that of heralds of bad tidings.
A number of parallel developments may have affected the public perception
of science during the second half of the 20th century:

Science at the universities has been matched by science in companies.
These companies have a vested interest in results, which helps them
develop their products, and in some cases in suppressing evidence of
potential harmful effects of use of their products. This has fostered
discussions regarding definition of reasonable doubt83, which is crucial in
science, but potentially difficult for people to understand.
 Over the past 20 years a growing influx of private capital into
universities has blurred the distinction between "objective" university
science and "subjective" privately funded research. In a number of cases
this has led to arguments about publication of results not favourable to
the sponsoring organisation84.
 The hunt for funds for universities has led some universities to publicise
research findings, which had not undergone the proper peer-review
process of the scientific community. In cases where findings were later
found to be erroneous this has generated a view of science as rather
speculative, and not founded in common sense85.
 General confidence in governments and authorities has decreased over
the last half-century. As scientists in many cases work for governments
this also reflects on the confidence in the advice given by these
scientists. Recent examples such as BSE have accelerated the decrease
in confidence in governments in some countries.
82
Reported in COM (2000) 6, quoting Eurostat.
The most publicized case is probably the discussion on the harmful effects of smoking. Here industry
has been charged with withholding evidence concerning health-related problems. The view of science in
this case is that of participating in the cover-up, and as that of adding to endless discussions about
reasonable doubt in scientific results.
84
In a recent case a Danish oral hygiene chewing gum manufacturer was charged with trying to suppress
results of sponsored research which showed that the gum was not as effective as claimed in
advertisement.
85
The best publicized case is probably the case of cold fusion, where two well esteemed researchers at a
press conference told about their experience with fusion a room temperature in some palladium electrodes
immersed in heavy water. As it has been difficult to replicate the findings, it is easy for the public to
dismiss such research as beyond common sense. The fact the most research to some extent defies
common sense matters less, as most research is not publicized as highly as the cold fusion.
83
144

The role of NGO's as a filter between the increasingly complex findings
presented by scientists and the public, may have added to the decrease
in confidence in authorities as these organisations are in many cases
able to match the scientific skills of some scientists. Thus the discussion
of e.g. reasonable doubt between science and the public (represented by
NGO's) takes on a rather scientific style.
All in all science today plays a much larger role than it did early in the last
century. Science today serves many masters (governments, industry,
NGO's, etc). This in turn may have affected how the public view science.
The object of this paper is to look into available studies and try to
summarise the most visible trends.
145
Analysis
Major reference studies
Very few studies exist, which explicitly set out to explore the public trust in
science. Therefore this study relies on studies of other aspects parallel to
the issue at stake. The studies are presented by region.
Europe
The Eurobarometer study series is a semi-annual study carried out to
evaluate a range of topics of interest to European organisations. In addition
to establishing very long time-series on a number of core-issues the studies
focus on issues relevant for the present debate, e.g. the implementation of
the Euro. From time to time themes such as public trust are treated as well.
Eurobarometer 52.1, (15-3-00)86
This Eurobarometer theme study was conducted in November-December
1999 and reported in early 2000. It is the fourth study on Europeans'
attitudes towards science and technology.
In this survey people have been asked specifically about their trust in
information originating from different sources concerning modern
biotechnology. People have been asked to identify the source they trusted
the most, and to indicate whether they trusted other types of organisations.
Thus this question is not about science in general, but limited to
biotechnology. This leads to the following table87:
86
In all 16082 people have been interviewed in this survey covering all 15 EU member states.
Eurobarometer 35.1, (autumn 91), Eurobarometer 39.1, (spring 1993),
Eurobarometer 46.1, (autumn 1996) These three studies have covered the same
area earlier. The full reports on these studies have, however, not been available online for this survey and because of summer vacation not been possible to obtain
within the timeframe of this study. A number of references are made to them in
Eurobarometer 52.1 and in internal documents. Therefore is has been possible to
report on some key figures.
87
Eurobarometer 52.1 report, page 79. The figures on 1 st choice do not add up to 100%. This is probably
due to rounding off effects.
146
Consumer organisations
Environmental organisations
Animal protection organisations
The medical profession
Farmer' associations
Religious organisations
National public authorities
International institutions (not private
companies)
A specific industry
Universities
Political parties
Television and newspapers
None of these (spontaneous)
Do not know
1st
Others
Total
26
14
4
24
3
2
3
4
29
31
21
29
12
7
12
13
55
45
25
53
15
9
15
17
Classificat
ion
1
3
5
2
9
11
9
8
0
7
0
4
6
6
3
19
3
16
5
12
3
26
3
20
11
18
12
4
12
6
10
7
Consumer organisations (26+29%) and the medical profession (24+29%)
emerge as clearly the trustworthiest entities, with environmental
organisations (14+31%) trailing somewhat behind. Animal protection
organisations (4+21%), universities (7+19%) and the media (4+16%) are
rather low as first choice, but uphold some trustworthiness as secondary
source. Industry (0+3%) and political parties (0+3%) are by far the least
trusted organisations.
Even though there are some minor differences in the formulation of the
questions, as compared with the 1996 study88, an indicative comparison has
been made89:
Consumer organisations
Environmental organisations
Animal protection organisations
The medical profession
Farmer' associations
Religious organisations
National public authorities
International institutions (not private
companies)
A specific industry
Universities
Political parties
Television and newspapers
None of these (spontaneous)
Do not know
1996
20
17
4
16
2
2
4
4
1999
26
14
4
24
3
2
3
4
1
9
0
4
7
9
0
7
0
4
6
6
It can be seen from this comparison that there is a growing trust in
consumer organisations (+6%) and the medical profession (+8%). There is
some reduction in the trust placed in environmental organisations (-3%),
and there is a slightly reduced trust in universities (-2%). For the remaining
organisations differences amount to 1% or less.
88
Eurobarometer 46.1
Eurobarometer 52.1 report, page 82. When comparing it is important to note that columns do not add
up to 100% due to rounding off. Thus differences of 1 or less should be viewed as insignificant
89
147
Looking at the sociodemographic variables there is a tendency among
women, elderly, low-income groups and low education level to place
relatively higher trust in the medical profession. Among men, young people,
high-income groups and those with long education there is a tendency to
place relatively more trust in consumer organisations
In a comparison of a number of key figures from several studies the
combined primary and secondary sources to trust have been combined90
Consumer organisations
Environmental
organisations
Universities
Animal
welfare
organisations
National
government
bodies
Religious organisations
A particular industry
Political parties
1991
52
53
1993
55
61
1996
58
56
1999
55
45
37
29
39
32
35
31
25
25
20
17
17
15
10
6
5
8
6
4
12
7
7
8
4
3
It is possible to group these organisations mentioned under primary sources
to trust to get a clearer picture91
NGO's
1996
41
1999
44
8
7
3
3
25
31
6
6
16
12
Consumer org. Environmental org. Animal protection
org.
Governments, etc.
National public authorities, International institutions
Producers
Farmer' assoc. A specific industry
Independent Science
Universities and the medical profession
Other
Religious org. Political Parties, Media
None of these or do not know
Comparing all the figures there seems to be the following indications:
 There is an increase in the group trusting consumer organisation as first
choice but a slight reduction in overall trust. This could indicate that the
respondents are focusing their trust in fewer sources. A significant
decline in trust in environmental organisations and animal welfare
organisations could possibly indicate a shift within the NGO field away
from some of the more radical groups towards the more mainstream
organisations. Due to lack of detailed data analysis in the present study
it is not possible to firmly conclude that this is the case.
90
This is based on an internal note. Actual data from Eurobarometer 35.1, 39.1 and 46.1 were not
available at time of writing. Therefore it has not been possible to verify the wording of the questions
asked.
91
The 1996 figures add up to 99% whereas the 1999 figures add up to 103%. A significant part of
differences should therefore be assigned to rounding off effects. The grouping of responses into 6 groups
cannot be found in the report and is the responsibility of the author of this paper. Unfortunately figures for
1991 and 1993 are not available for comparison.
148



A significant decline in the trust in universities, especially over the past
few years, but on the other hand a strong growth in trust in medicine.
Other studies have indicated that the trust is in reality in the medics.
Thus the personal relation with the local doctor concerning complex
matters may be a contributing factor.
A slow but steady decline in trust in governments and industry.
Finally a varying trust (at a low level) in religious organisations and
political parties.
Select Committee on Science and Technology, House of Lords, UK, Third
Report, (23-2-00)
The Select Committee on Science and Technology (SCST), House of Lords,
UK, is charged with studying the area of science and technology policy.
SCST does this by regularly reporting to the House on relevant policy
issues. The third report, issued early 2000, reports on public attitudes and
values92, understanding of science, trust in different sources of information
and science education.
The report contains a rather detailed discussion regarding the apparent
paradox that many science and technology related products and services
are taken for granted, just as well as popularised books on science sell very
well, whereas people on the other hand are reluctant to embrace many of
the tools deemed necessary for the advancement of science. An example is
animal testing which is rejected on ethical grounds. The report also notes
that rejection of developments is not necessarily a new trend. Electricity,
steam railroads and many other technologies have at one time been
rejected by smaller or larger groups of the public. Thus there is a tendency
towards rejection of new technologies until the public becomes familiar with
them. The main question is then whether this tendency is growing and
intensifying.
In a poll taken in 1996 a group of people were asked to name 2-3 groups to
be trusted as regards the truth about pollution. Since people could name
more than one source the figures does not add up to 100%. The ranking
was the following93:
92
The committee deals with attitudes and values of people living in UK. I does, however, include some
international comparisons. I should be borne in mind that public attitudes towards science in the UK may
have been affected more by the BSE crises than the attitudes in other countries.
93
Select Committee on Science and Technology, Third Report, 23-2-2000, Annex 6, Table 5. Based on
questions to 1015 persons, 16 years and older.
149
Pressure Groups (e.g. Greenpeace or Friends of the
Earth)
Independent Scientists (e.g. university professor)
Television
Government Scientists
Friends or family
Newspapers
Government Ministers
Private companies
Politicians generally
Civil servants
Other
None of these
Don't know
%
61
60
25
23
15
14
6
5
4
3
*
2
2
In a similar question concerning the truth about BSE the ranking was the
following:
Independent Scientists (e.g. university professor)
Farmers
National Farmers Union
Civil Servants at the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food
Government Scientists
Television
Newspapers
Food Manufactures
Family/friends
Supermarkets
Government Ministers
Politicians generally
Other
None of these
Don't know
%
57
22
21
18
17
16
12
11
9
6
4
2
1
4
3
The trend is rather clear. The public trust sources they to some extent
believe to be independent from government and industry. This is
emphasised by reference to a range of other studies, all reaching similar
conclusions.
The report also looks at different international studies of the
interrelationship between supportiveness of science and how well the public
understand science. It is reported94 that better understanding of science
tend to generate less unmitigated enthusiasm for science. This is explained
by the fact that people have a better understanding of positive as well as
negative consequences.
The report contains no specific survey as to the development of trust over
time. However, references are made to the deterioration of public trust in
science. Thus the report provides a good look into the issues affecting trust,
but not the development over time.
94
SCST report paragraph 2.8-2.10
150
North America
National Science Foundation, USA, Science and Engineering Indicators 2000
(13-1-00)95
This study is an annual reporting from National Science Foundation to the
US administration. The report covers a wide range of topics ranging from
financial issues in science to education and public confidence in science.
Being an annual study the report contains a description of the development
over time. Thus it is possible to find interesting time series. The most
striking feature of the survey is the great stability in many of the figures
representing trust and confidence issues. This seems to indicate that the US
public does not share the apparent reduction in confidence reported by the
media in Europe.
An interesting time series in this context is a question asked in a general
social survey96. A group of people has been asked about their confidence in
people running various types of institutions. Some of the groups are
relevant in this context.
Public confidence in people running various
institutions in USA
Expressed confidence
70
60
Medicine
50
Science
40
Companies
30
Press
20
Government
10
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
There seems to be a slight tendency towards reduced trust in medicine97
and a marked decrease in confidence in the press. Confidence in scientific
institutions (or rather the people running them), on the other hand, is at
the same level as 25 years ago.
There are similar figures for politicians, military, etc. which are less stable.
This is most likely explained by events such as Watergate, the Vietnam
War, the Gulf War, etc. It does not seem that such issues have affected the
trust in scientific institutions.
95
National Science Foundation, Science and Engineering Indicators 2000
NSF, Appendix table 8-23. Sample sizes vary between 899 and 2011, with an average around 1500.
The graph represents a subset of the options presented to people.
97
There is here a drop over the study period from mid 50s to mid 40s. This, however, is still the most
trusted type of organization of all.
96
151
All in all it is difficult to detect any reduction in trust in science, at least to
the extent that this can be represented by confidence in people running
scientific institutions. There is, however, the possibility that the public trust
the people running the institutions, based on these peoples general
integrity, but still do not trust the advice given by the institutions.
The Pew Research Center, Millennium Survey part 1 and 2, (2-7 99)
The Pew Research Center is an independent opinion research group that
studies attitudes toward the press, politics and public policy issues. Among
the studies are studies on trends in values and fundamental political and
social attitudes.
In the Millennium survey a total of 1546 adults have been asked a range of
questions. One group deals with achievements of America as a nation
during the 20th century. The technological achievements top the list by far
(41%), whereas issues such as winning World War II and securing peace in
general only achieve (7%).
These figures may to some extent be explained by "lack of memory" about
e.g. WW II among younger people. However, it does indicate a great deal of
confidence in science and technology as a way to advance, even though it
does not tell anything specifically about trust in scientists.
Seen in context of the NSF study it seems reasonable to conclude that
Americans are generally optimistic about science and scientific progress. At
the same time they place great trust in people running scientific institutions.
Therefore is appears likely that they are not more likely to mistrust scientific
information today as compared to earlier.
East Asia/Pacific region
Eubios Ethics Institute. Attitudes to Genetic Engineering. Japanese and
International Comparisons. (1992)
The Eubios report sets out to study and discuss ethical questions arising
from human involvement with life. It includes a large survey of Japanese
attitudes towards science in general and biotechnology in particular. In
addition it includes references to a range of international studies of the
same topics.
It is mentioned that the public debate in Japan is mostly confined to a very
little group of decision-makers, industrialists, etc. Thus it is difficult to
assess public opinions, as people are generally not used to being asked98.
98
See section 1.1 of report. Page numbers are not provided as the web based version does not follow the
original pagination.
152
Quoting 3 different surveys published by the Prime Minister's Office99, the
report concludes that the general interest in science and technology has
remained fairly stable over a period of 10 years. The interest is measured
via a specific question in a survey, and very similar to a question asked in
USA. By comparing the surveys it may be concluded that interest in USA is
higher. However, given that there are significant cultural differences in the
way people respond to surveys, it may be difficult to make international
comparisons like this.
Two questions, which were asked as part of the survey, which formed the
basis for the report, dealt with credibility of statements made by scientists
and companies. The public were asked if they would agree or disagree to
believing in a number of statements. One was a statement made by a
government scientist about safety of a research project. Another was a
statement made by a company about the safety of a new product. The
response was as follows100:
Sample
Strongly
disagree/Disagree
Neither
Agree/Strongly agree
Statement made by a
government scientist
about safety of research
project
508
20.5 %
Statement made by a
company about safety of a
new product
44.5 %
35.0 %
46.9 %
16.9 %
510
36.2 %
Based on this survey it seems reasonable to claim that scientists are viewed
as more trustworthy than companies. However, the report does not yield
much information about what the public expect when a government
scientist is mentioned. In the UK case these are the least trusted (because
of the BSE crises). In numerous cases throughout the report surprising
results are explained by the fact that Japanese may use other words than
the words used in this specific survey. Thus the survey does not shed much
light on attitudes in Japan.
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba. Attitudes to
Biotechnology in Japan and New Zealand in 1997, with International
Comparisons. (1997)
In an attempt to update and refine the analysis from 1992 presented above,
the authors have tried to use the Eurobarometer questionnaire101. This has
the advantage of generating readily comparable results, but may potentially
lead to false conclusions, as insufficient adaptation to local conditions can
generate results, which do not reflect reality.
99
Surveys performed in 1981, 1987 and 1990, and published by Prime Minister's Office in 1990. See
section 3.1 of report.
100
Adapted from table 8-1 of the report.
101
The Eurobarometer questionnaire from report 46.1 has been used in Japan and New Zealand with
some minor modifications. Additional results are obtained from Canada, where another revision of the
46.1 questionnaire has been used. Original 46.1 studies were made in 1996. The studies from Japan, New
Zealand and Canada are from 1997.
153
The study deals primarily with biotechnology. Two sets of questions are
considered of interest. One deals with which regulatory body is deemed
most appropriate. The other deals with confidence in information received.
Concerning appropriate regulatory bodies people have been asked to name
such bodies among a number of options. It seems that in some cases the
interviewer has accepted more than one answer. Therefore the table has
been modified in order to indicate the ranking of the different entities,
rather than their absolute score102.
Japan
International organisations, UN or WHO
Scientific organisations
Ethics committees
Public bodies in countries
National Parliament
1
2
3
4
5
New
Zealand
1
2
3
4
5
EU
1
2
4
3
5
Canad
a
1
2
4
3
5
As can be seen the results are very similar. Looking at the specific numbers
ethics committees were a very close runner-up for 3rd place in EU and
Canada103. This seems to indicate at least some trust in the scientific
community in general.
Going a bit further a survey similar to the one presented by Eurobarometer
gauges the most trusted organisations in Japan and New Zealand. The same
groups as used in the presentation of the Eurobarometer study have been
used104
Japan
NGO's
106
New
Zealand
76
7
5
8
1
37
54
3
4
9
5
Consumer org. Environmental org. Animal protection
org.
Governments, etc.
National public authorities, International institutions
Producers
Farmer' assoc. A specific industry
Independent Science
Universities and the medical profession
Other
Religious org. Political Parties, Media
None of these or do not know
Looking at the results one notes a distribution which is very similar to
Europe, where NGO's are the most trusted group in general, and where
independent science come as a clear second far ahead of any other group.
102
A modified version of the Table 8 in the article.
The difference may reflect minor changes in the way the questions were asked. It has not been possible
to evaluate this. However Japan and NZ are very much alike and were studied by one group working
together. Canada and EU on the other hand were studied separately, but also show very similar
characteristics.
104
Table 9 in report. Even though the question asked concerned "the most trusted organization" sums add
up to more than 100%. This must indicate that several cases of multiple answers have been included in
the results.
103
154
There seems therefore to be a public perception of science in Japan and
New Zealand, which is very similar to the public perception in Europe.
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Tsukuba. Biotechnology and
young citizens: Biocult in New Zealand and Japan. (1997)
In a study from 1997 a group of researchers set out to study the attitudes
of teenagers towards biotechnology. Among the questions asked was a
question about trust in different sources of information. The percentages
expressing trust105 are indicated in the following table106:
Teachers
Doctors
Scientists
Environmental
groups
Politicians
Journalists
TV news
Companies
Priests
Japan
41
49
43
47
New Zealand
47
69
66
43
3
15
21
8
9
2
8
18
10
28
These figures are fairly consistent with what we have seen earlier. The only
surprise is that environmental groups actually score in some cases lower
than scientists do. However, science, the medical profession and NGO's
seems to have a much higher credibility than do politicians, companies and
the media.
105
Trust in this case is comprised of two out of five categories. The two used categories are "trust" and
"lot of trust".
106
Table 3 in the report.
155
Discussion
Before attempting to conclude anything on the available material it is
important to note that many of the surveys are not directly comparable.
The US surveys deal with trust in people running various institutions,
whereas the European studies deal with the trust in information coming
from somebody associated with such an institution. Additionally comparison
between Europe and Asia is hampered by the fact that there seems to have
been used other definitions in Asia than in Europe, in spite of the fact that
the same questionnaire has been used in some of the surveys. Also it
should be borne in mind that some of the Asian studies are focused rather
narrowly on biotechnology.
Further to these difficulties in making comparisons it should be noted that
the definitions used may differ from study to study. E.g. in the USA
scientific institutions is used as one group, whereas in Europe a distinction
is made between universities and the governments scientific institutions. In
Europe this reflects the expectation that government scientists may not be
very independent, and therefore not all that trustworthy. As this distinction
has not been made in the US study one must assume that both universities
and government research labs are included in the group.
The general picture of Europe is that of a region where the public is most
likely to trust information coming from a range on NGO's with consumer
protection organisations at the most important group. The trust in these
organisations seems to be changing with respect to which organisations are
trusted. There are indications of an increasing focus of trust on some of the
more mainstream organisations. It should, however, be remembered that
the studies quoted mainly deals with biotechnology. Thus the changes may
also entail a growing maturity in the public knowledge and understanding in
this field. Thus the mainstreaming may actually reflect such a
mainstreaming of biotechnology. People have come to understand that it is
not black and white.
The public also trusts the medical profession. This trust seems to be on the
rise. This is thought to reflect the general relationship of trust most people
have with their general practitioner, thus reflecting a personal relationship
rather than a general point of view. This may entail that general medical
information coming from other sources may not be trusted to the same
extent. This of course is purely speculative, as the sources used do not
cover that level of detail. However, it is thought plausible, as it would
otherwise be difficult to explain some of the diverse findings from around
the world concerning biotechnology and the medical industry. The public
certainly seems able to make a distinction in this case.
The European public still trust universities a great deal, but the trust is
dwindling. This may reflect the fact that much university research is today
funded directly by industry, the discussions on scientists cheating with their
results, etc. Even though the actual cases of fraud are few they generally
receive much publicity, indicating that misuse of trust by scientists are
surprising to many people.
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The public does not trust governments and scientists, working directly for
them. This also holds true for industry and the press. In the case of
governments and their scientists, some of the food scares of the last 5-10
years probably play a significant role, as governments are in some cases
seen (independent of whether it is correct or not) as trying to cover up what
is happening. In the case of industry the source of distrust is most likely the
vested interest an industry has in being portrayed as telling the truth
without respect of whether this is actually the truth. This is of course not
the same as stating that industry generally does no tell the truth, but rather
that many examples exist, where industry may have told only that part of
the truth, which fitted with their business plan.
The lack of trust in the press is interesting as the press plays a dual role.
The press is often seen as an independent watchdog, which can freely
report about issues in the public debate. At the same time the press is for
most people the only access to information about the views of NGO, etc.
Thus some of the very trusted groups connect with the public through a
media the public generally does not trust.
Thus there seems to be a tendency for Europeans to trust people and
groups, which can be considered as independent of major power interests,
or which are "on their side". Thus it is a picture of a population, which
chooses whom to trust after due consideration, and which generally does
not accept "being told what to trust".
The general picture of Japan and New Zealand (and possibly the rest of the
East Asia/Pacific region) is very similar to Europe. The major difference
seems to be that Japanese are more likely to trust government scientists
than Europeans. This may be explained by the recent BSE crises in Europe,
which may have led many Europeans to reject government scientists as
such.
Finally the general picture of USA is that of a country where the public trust
scientists generally, does not trust governments or the press, but which
does to some extent trust companies (or rather the people running them).
No information regarding NGO's in USA is available. It should be borne in
mind that the definitions used are not easily compared with results from the
rest of the world. Therefore comparisons are only indicative. For Canada it
was concluded that it was quite similar to Europe as concerns
biotechnology. It therefore seems reasonable, given the great similarity
between USA and Canada, to assume that trust is dwindling here as well,
however at a slower pace than in other regions.
In spite of the differences the striking feature is really the similarities. In all
regions the public seems to be interested in science, seems to trust
scientists a great deal, and seems to distrust industry and governments. In
biotechnology there is a tendency to a decline in trust. It is not known
whether this is the same for other technology areas.
An interesting question, which is not answered by this survey, is whether
what we detect is simply a natural process at a maturing public. It would
seem reasonable that the public generally trust someone if it has no specific
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reason to distrust him. As a new technology evolves it will be met with
great expectations as well as warnings. Typically none is right. The
technology is neither black nor white, but rather many shades of grey. Very
often the scientists developing technology tend to be overoptimistic, thus
generating the view of the scientist as a risk taker. This would explain a loss
in confidence by the public. As technology matures and more on costs as
well as benefits become known, the views become more differentiated.
Increasingly the question of trust in scientists telling about a technology
becomes meaningless, because the field of application of the technology is
very wide. In some surveys it has been investigated whether people are
able to distinguish between different applications of biotechnology.
Increasingly, it seems, people are able to make the distinction and be
supportive of certain applications, but not of others. This at least serve as
an indication that maturity in understanding of the technology is a key
issue.
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Conclusions
The studies referenced in this overview study indicate that the populations
around the world are all interested in science and technology, but are
somewhat picky when it comes to trusting someone to tell the truth about
the consequences of technology.
The public seems to place most trust in NGO's, probably because they serve
as a balance against the resources of large industries and governments.
However, the public is also picky when it comes to decide which NGO to
trust. There seems to be a tendency towards an increased focus on some of
the more mainstream organisations, and away from some of the more
radical organisations. This is thought to be the footprint of a maturing
population, which slowly but surely realises both the costs and the benefits
of a new field of science and technology.
On the other hand the public place very little trust in governments and
industry, probably owed to the fact that they are viewed as large powers
with a vested interest in a result that may not always be the truth. This can
be pictured as a sort of David and Goliath story.
The policy implication of such a view is that people want the information
needed to make up their own mind, at least to the extent that they choose
who to trust. A government looking for respect among the public should
thus seek to make as much information as possible openly available and
accessible, and should be sensitive to the views and opinions expressed by
the public. This could e.g. be in the form of consensus conferences, citizens'
panels, etc.
Additionally it is important that the work in scientific institutions is
conducted in an open way, enabling the public to participate in discussions
with the researchers about ethical implications of different technologies.
Finally a monitoring more specifically aimed at gauging public trust in
science in general as well as in specific technologies ought to be set up in
order to assess development over time. This monitoring should be sensitive
to the maturing of technologies, meaning that then view on different
applications of the same basic technology may be very different.
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References
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Commission of the European Communities, 18-1-2000, COM (2000) 6,
"Towards a European Research Area". (available on-line)
Daily Telegraph, The. 14-3-2000. "Mistrust threatens future of science".
By Roger Highfield, Science Editor. (available on-line)
Darryl R J Macer, Eubios Ethics Institute, 1992, "Attitudes to Genetic
Engineering. Japanese and International Comparison", (available on-line)
Darryl Macer, et.al. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 7,
1997, "Attitudes to Biotechnology in Japan and New Zealand in 1997,
with International Comparison"
Darryl Macer, et.al. Eubios Journal of Asian and International Bioethics 7,
1997, "Biotechnology and young citizens: Biocult in New Zealand and
Japan"
Eurobarometer 35.1, Autumn 1991, Source only used indirectly via a
quote in an internal document.
Eurobarometer 39.1, Spring 1993, Source only used indirectly via a
quote in an internal document.
Eurobarometer 46.1, Autumn 1996, Source only used indirectly via a
quote in an internal document and via comparison tables in
Eurobarometer 52.1.
Eurobarometer 52.1. 15-3-2000. "The Europeans and Biotechnology".
INRA (Europe) - ECOSA (available on-line)
National Science Foundation, USA, 13-1-2000, Science and Engineering
Indicators 2000, (available on-line)
Nature. October 7, 1999, "How to restore public trust in science",
Commentary by Benny Haerlin and Doug Parr, Greenpeace. (available
on-line)
Pew Research Center, The, 2-7-1999, Millenium Survey part 1 and 2,
(available on-line)
Select Committee on Science and Technology, House of Lords, UK 23-22000, Third Report on Science and Society. (available on-line)
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ANNEX 5
Eurobarometer
161
Eurobarometer
162
ANNEX 6
Declaration of the Second World Conference of Science
Journalists
Budapest, 4 July 1999
We, the participants of the Second World Conference of Science Journalists,
comprising 146 people from 29 countries, meeting in Budapest, Hungary from 2-4
July 1999, and drawing upon the recommendations of the First World Conference of
Science Journalists held in Tokyo, Japan, in 1992;
Recognizing that Article 19 of the United Nations' 1948 Universal Declaration of
Human Rights states that: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and
expression. This right includes the freedom to hold opinions without interference
and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and
regardless of frontiers";
Recognizing that the historic Declaration on the Use of Scientific Knowledge and
Science Agenda - Framework for Action of the World Conference on Science,
Budapest, 26 June-1 July 1999, place science firmly within its social and
international context, and call on scientists everywhere to work on behalf of
humanity;
Recognizing the crucial, democratic and international significance of science
journalism in linking the world of science and technology with the daily life of the
ordinary person;
Recognizing that, in concert with the conclusions of the World Conference on
Science, the duties of science journalism must now be seen to be broadened and
deepened, beyond the crucial clarification of science and technology to the
clarification of their process, politics, ethics, and relations with society;
Recognizing that these duties must be envisioned on an international scale, to
match the globalization of science, technology, economies, politics and cultures;
Recognizing that major social changes have taken place in the last decades of the
20th Century which have directly affected many science journalists; and that these
changes have both helped and hindered science journalists depending on their
national, regional and historical circumstances;
Recognizing that the Internet and the World-Wide Web have contributed
significantly to communication among scientists and have now become important
tools for science journalism, especially by enhancing international communication;
Present the following eight recommendations. We:
1. Call on all journalists of science, including the natural and social sciences
and humanities, and including our colleagues in the closely related field of
health and environment reporting, to recognize our increasing
responsibilities to the people of the world to report accurately, clearly, fully,
independently and with honesty and integrity;
2. Call on all science journalists to report with awareness not only of science
and technology themselves, but of their social, and political contexts and of
their means of production;
3. Call on all colleagues to recognize the international dimensions and effects of
science and technology, to jump the language barriers that divide the world
and make increased efforts to report on and from countries and cultures
other their own;
4. Call on editors, publishers, broadcasting organizations and other
gatekeepers worldwide to recognize not only the wide public interest but
also the increasing democratic and social importance inherent in science
journalism, and to provide more support, space, programme time, staff and
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5.
6.
7.
8.
training for journalists working in' and entering this difficult but fascinating
field;
Call for efforts to develop the information flow on the Internet in languages
other than English;
Warn that while the Internet and the World-Wide Web enhance
communication, the information so provided must - like any source - be
constantly monitored for its quality, accuracy, objectivity and integrity;
Call on UNESCO and other organizations to support: the establishment of a
world federation of science journalists and national and international science
journalists' associations; the convening by this world federation of biennial
international meetings; and the creation by this world federation of a world
community of science journalists through a well-designed, easily accessible,
edited and quality-controlled world-wide web site;
Call on UNESCO and other organizations to do all in their power to support
the establishment of facilities for the training of science journalists, which
should be accessible to all regions and nations; which should fully reflect the
new and wider role of science journalism made evident by the World
Conference on Science; and which should be placed especially at the service
of journalists from countries which can afford little training of their own.
164