The teacher as an expert mediating
learning using cultural artefacts
Introduction
Do you realise that most of you walk around with a computer in your pockets that is more powerful
that the computers that helped to fly astronauts to the moon and back to earth? The Apollo
Guidance Computer (AGC) included 160 kilobytes of memory and ran at a processor speed of 2
megahertz. A modern cell phone, an example of a cultural artefact, has between 15 to 100
megabytes of memory (at least 100 times larger than the AGC), with a processor with speeds up to
1 gigahertz (about 500 times faster) (Hall, 1982).
This is just one example of how, over the past 50 years, the power of technology has
consistently increased. Thinking back on your own school experiences, can you identify how
technology helped you learn about the world you live in?
I would guess that most of you would tell stories about how you found information from the
Internet, used software to write-up a project or maybe practiced some Mathematics problem using
a calculator. In addition, you might have used a music- or video clip, an image, or an oral poem to
enrich your class presentation. In each instance you were using a cultural artefact to communicate
meanings to other people.
All products made by people are referred to as cultural artefacts (man-made items). These
artefacts are described as technological, ideological, or sociological. Technological artefacts extend
our ability to interact with the world and include instruments, for example, related to food
production, farming, architecture, transport, entertainment and a lekgotla. Ideological artefacts are
about legends, literature, oral traditions, philosophy, folk wisdom/inganekwane and value.
Sociological artefacts are about economic, political, religious, and social relationships. We will
concentrate on technological and ideological artefacts in this chapter. In education technological
artefacts are often referred to as educational technology and ideological artefacts as educational
media. It could be argued that today the world it is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish
between a technological and an ideological artefact. Most technology is built from a specific
ideological position and contemporary ideological artefacts are created using technology. We could
therefore suggest that all technology is media and all media is technology. However, I use the
terms technology and media in this chapter to refer to technological and ideological artefacts
respectively.
Technology can be used in different ways in the classroom, including as:
An information stream: The electronic delivery of learning resources and other necessary
information pertinent (appropriate) to learning, research and administration (for example,
medical imagery needed for a project).
An enabler of communication: The use of both synchronous (real time) and asynchronous (any
time) communication modes to support social interactions (for example, video conferencing or a
SMS message).
A facilitator of collaboration: The use of collaborative authoring and other online services to
support co-authorship and co-construction (for example, Google documents allows many
authors to write and edit documents synchronously).
An information transformation tool: Information transformed from one, or many, information
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streams to alternative streams (for example, the creation of a comic from a written novel).
A professionalisation tool: The use of technological tools associated directly with a profession
(for example, the use of computer aided design software by architects).
But what about media?
Maybe it is a good idea to start our exploration on how, in the past, media was viewed as an
educational resource. Definitions of educational media include ideas that media includes all
physical means that represent a set of stimuli to instruct a learner (Briggs, Gange and May); any
person, material or event through which the learners acquire knowledge (Gerlach and Ely); and as
a means used by a teacher to realize a specific outcome (De Cecco). I reject such definitions as
they are closely allied to behaviourism and instructivism. How have media been previously used in
planning lessons?
On the one hand models, replicas, role play and simulations were often used in the classroom to
allow students to explore the concrete, or real, world. However, it could be argued that there are
many cultural ways of viewing the world. On the other hand, diagrams, sound clips, and radio
broadcasts are viewed as more symbolic and abstract. Such a relationship between media and
learning could be challenged as it is not the media per say that support concrete or abstract
thinking, but the way in which the media are used in a lesson to develop concrete or abstract
thinking.
Therefore, can the same categories bed used to describe the use of technology in the classroom
also be applied to media? Of course. For centuries our primary source of information,
communication, collaboration, tools to change our thinking and professional interaction was, and
still is, the written word. Today the written word is used to sculpture all the others types of media
such as video, computer video games, web sites, DVD's etc.
The core question we should ask is how critical are we of, and how do we use, technology and
media in the classroom?
In this chapter, we discuss how the use of technological and media artefacts in the classroom
could mediate1 the development of new knowledge, skills and attitudes. I want to stress that any
cultural artefact, for example a technological tool or a piece of media, while it might be interesting
in itself, it is much more important to teaching and learning when it is examined, explored or used
creatively to develop new ideas. Thus, it is not the artefact that is important, but the way in which
we use the artefact in teaching and learning. In particular, the choice of the artefact
(media/technology) needs to support the curriculum, learning and teaching activities, and learning
outcomes.
The aims of this chapter are to help you develop the knowledge, skills and attitudes to use
cultural artefacts (technology and media) in your lessons. I will make use of many scenarios to
highlight specific issues and will at times ask you to consider a question or a position. I
recommend that you read this chapter with a friend or two. If this is not possible, I suggest that
when I pose a question you phone a friend to discuss possible answers.
So what are we going to do?
We are going to explore some ideas that form a theoretical framework to think about the use of
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The concept of mediation: the teacher mediates learning from the learner’s current position (or existing
knowledge) to their potential position that includes new knowledge, skills and attitudes.
2
media and technology in the design of your lessons, or learning tasks. Thereafter we will critique,
using our framework, existing practices and look at examples of how technology has been
successfully used in the classroom. We will then look at how computer video games, as an
example of contemporary media, could inform teaching and learning practices.
I want to start by outlining the theoretical framework and then highlight three scenarios to
illustrate the importance of the framework concepts.
Three core framework components
Social
Our framework includes three important theoretical concepts
S
involved in learning: the object of the learning task, tool
O
Object
mediation and social collaboration. As you will see later in this
chapter, this framework refers to the notion that learning takes
Tools
T
place in a social context (refer to the section on Vygotsky on
page XX in Chapter 2). While you might not yet understand
these concepts, I will try to explain them through the use of three scenarios. Each highlights a
specific concept. The first scenario about Dave is concerned with the object of the learning task,
the next is about how John Seely Brown supported Xerox technicians with technology (tool
mediation), and the last scenario in this section is about playing computer games together (social
collaboration).
The first narrative is about a young man, Dave, who took on some leadership roles during a
class project as reported by Roth and Lee (2007: 192).
Narrative 1: Challenging learners!
A Grade 7 teacher brought a newspaper article to class. The article described how an
environmental group was concerned with the pollution levels of a local river. Besides a plea for
improving the state of the river, the article called for a better understanding of the ecosystem as a
whole. The teacher challenged his learners to do something about the situation. The learners rose to
the challenge, and immediately began to brainstorm what they could do. Their ideas included
cleaning up the river and documenting the litter that had been thrown away there.
Teachers organised a field trip for learners to explore the area first-hand. They were assisted by
parents and environmentalists. Mediated by teacher questions and inspired by visiting
environmentalists, biologists, water technicians, and local residents, the learners (in small groups)
then designed their own projects to answer the general call of the environmentalists to generate
scientific knowledge and to rescue their river.
Dave, one of the learners, took on many different roles during the investigation. He collected
useful data and presented the information in graphical format. He made presentations to other
classes and taught teachers how to undertake scientific studies in the river. Dave also acted as a
peer tutor during the field trip and during the presentations of learner projects to parents and
community. He discussed environmental research with adults and learners.
Something to Think About
Based on what you have read about Dave, how do you think he did in his Mathematics class?
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[Scenario head]
Narrative 2: Learning with others
John Seely Brown, an expert in tutoring systems, was employed at Xerox to investigate an
approach to improve the problem-solving skills of the technology support engineers who repaired
Xerox copiers and printers. He, in turn, employed a number of social scientists to live among and
work with the technical representatives (tech reps). He learnt the following from one of these
scientists:
Scientist: “John, you’re not going to be happy.”
John: “Why is that?”
Scientist: “Everything you’ve ever written about troubleshooting is wrong. You think you are an
expert at troubleshooting, but do you know how these guys actually do troubleshooting?”
John: “No, tell me, Julian.”
Scientist: “First of all, whenever a tech rep gets stuck he calls in another tech rep. While standing
around the problematic machine, they start to weave a story. First they discuss the particular
symptoms of the machine. And then some fragment of this initial story reminds them of something
else that happened it the past. This suggests a few more measurements to make, which in turn
produces some more data that reminds them of another fragment of a story and so on.
Troubleshooting for these guys is really just weaving together a narrative – a narrative that
eventually explains all the symptoms and test data of this machine. And when they have made
sense of all the data, the narrative is finished and the machine is diagnosed.” (Brown, 1999: 13).
Something to Think About
How do you think John Seely Brown subsequently supported training at Xerox?
We will come back to this question in a short while.
Narrative 3: Playing computer games together
Can one learn through play? If so, are there any conditions to make it effective?
The third example is concerned with young learners playing a computer video game to understand
photosynthesis and respiration2. Working with learners near the University of Zululand one of my
PhD students, Thato Foko (2006), wanted to find out if playing a computer game could overcome
misconceptions related to photosynthesis and respiration. The game used specifically designed
puzzles to directly challenge players’ understanding of these concepts. Most of the learners had
never before played a computer game. Foko used a knowledge test to determine what the learners
knew about photosynthesis and respiration before and after they played the game. Each player
2
Photosynthesis: the production by a green plant of sugars from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight energy
trapped by chlorophyll that it uses as food.
Respiration: the processes of using oxygen and sugars to create energy
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played the game on her/his own computer and at the end of the session most of them had
successfully solved all the game puzzles.
[Scenario head]
Something to Think About
Did the post-test results show an improved understanding of photosynthesis and respiration?
Have you thought about the previous three questions? I will first present what happened in each of
the three cases, which might be contrary to your answers. Thereafter, I will offer some theoretical
explanations. Understanding such theoretical arguments may provide you with insights into the use
of media, technology, or any other artefact, in classroom teaching and learning. Let us now return
to the story about Dave.
Returning to narrative 1: How did Dave do in his mathematics class?
In the Mathematics class Dave was “on task” for only short periods of time and was not able to
concentrate during a lesson. He could not draw graphs, and was often removed from the classroom
for special attention. In fact, due to his apparent inability to function in the Mathematics class,
Dave was diagnosed as suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). How can it
be that in one situation Dave showed strong leadership qualities and above average participation
(he was one of the stars of the show) and in another he was labelled problematic?
Object of activity: An explanation of narrative 1
In the environmental scenario, learners were given the opportunity to decide what
they wanted to do and also the way in which they wished to undertake their
O
investigations. In addition, their research topics and the methods to undertake the
research were discussed with and agreed to by peers and teachers. The learners
therefore chose the object of their activity and, through interactions and
discussions, decided on the appropriate methods to undertake their scientific investigations.
In the Mathematics class Dave was neither able to specify the object of his activity nor was he
able to chose how to undertake the Mathematics task. In addition, in the environmental class Dave
not only was able to mediate his own learning through the interaction with the learning tasks, but
through his involvement with his peers and teachers he mediated the learning of others. This
example illustrates the importance of the learning task, or more precisely, the object of the activity.
Our first theoretical concept is therefore related to an object that is part of some form of activity.
So what is this ‘object of activity’? You may want to try and answer this question (discuss with a
friend) before you continue reading.
The answer is not really difficult. The object of the activity is the true motive of a learning task.
You should now have a better understanding of an object.
The next concept of our framework is about tool mediation. Let us continue with the story about
training at Xerox.
Returning to narrative 2: How did John Seely Brown support training at
Xerox?
Did he build complex tutoring systems to “train” the technicians so that they undertook their tasks
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of troubleshooting in an appropriate way? Or, did he build an online learning system that provided
all the technical information required by the technical staff to do their job? He did neither.
He created a simple system, one that involved using two-way radios and no computers. They
gave every technical representative in their test site a two-way radio. The radios were always on
and the techs had their own private network.
When a tech needed help, others in his community would hear him struggling. If one of them
had an idea, he could move from the periphery (outskirts) to the (auditory) centre. This tech would
add his fragment of story which usually suggested a new test to run or part to replace, and so on.
“And so basically we created a multi-processing, multi-person storytelling process” (Brown, 1999:
13).
This solution worked so well that is saved Xerox million of dollars. The reasons why this
solution worked are many, but I want to concentrate on only one aspect: the use of the two-way
always-on radio.
Tool mediation: An explanation of narrative 2
The two-way always-on radios facilitated the development of a social
community. In this community novice (trainee) members might not contribute to
the conversation soon after joining the group, but lurked on the periphery
listening to the way in which the more experienced technical representatives
solved problems. In this way new reps got “trained” by the more experienced
T
reps.
Return to the paragraph on Vygotsky on page XX in Chapter 2. We can say that the older reps
“mediated” or “scaffolded” the learning of the new reps. One of the problems associated with the
project was that the stories were getting lost. To solve this problem, John Seely Brown created a
web-based system were the reps could collect, vet (test) and refine their stories. So the solution
developed by John Seely Brown to support the Xerox reps included two technological tools: twoway radios and a social network web-based system.
These tools mediated development of knowledge to solve troubleshooting problems in the reps.
More generally, it could be argued that all human activity is mediated through the tools that we
create. Language and culture are part of the tools.
Therefore, our second theoretical concept is that all human activity is tool-mediated. We can
now explore the role of social interactions in learning.
Returning to narrative 3: Did the participants understand photosynthesis and
respiration better?
To our great disappointment, learners playing the game (on page XX) did not in any way improve
their understanding of photosynthetic and respiratory processes. How was this possible? We had
carefully designed all the puzzles in the game to address specific misconceptions related to
photosynthesis and respiration. Yet there was no development of understanding. On further
investigation Foko found that those learners who were unable to solve the puzzles memorised the
puzzle solutions from their peers who could solve the puzzles. Therefore, they did not attempt to
solve the problem but reverted to rote learning. So how did we solve this predicament (difficult
situation)?
Working with another group of learners from the same school, Foko asked them to play in pairs
and to discuss the puzzles to identify possible solutions. He also invited the learners to ask him
questions if they were confused. In this case there was a big difference between the pre- and post6
test performance. Most learnerss overcome many of the misconceptions related to photosynthesis
and respiration. Working together trying to solve problems resulted in a greater understanding of
these concepts.
Social collaboration: An explanation of narrative 3
While trying to solve a problem, social collaboration appears to be an integral
S
part to the development of insights and knowledge development. However, as
you might expect, this is not the whole answer. There appear to be a number of
processes involved when we learn something new. When we discover new
information we attempt to integrate (include) such information into our existing
world view. There are two options available if the information does not fit
comfortable with our existing knowledge, skills, beliefs or attitudes. We either reject the
information or assimilate it and thereby transform our understanding and thus ourselves.
However, we might reject information that might be closer to some form of truth and thus not
develop a clearer understanding of the world we live in. But, if we discuss such information, or
concepts, with our peers, teachers or parents, we might transform our understandings and thus
enrich our world views. Learning therefore includes contradictions that lead to intra-psychological
(within us) and inter-psychological (between people) interactions. Social collaboration is our third
theoretical concept.
You should now have a clearer understanding of the terms object, tool-mediation and social
collaboration as related to learning. Stetsenko (2005: 72) is of the opinion that “[h]uman activity –
material, practical, and always, by necessity, social collaborative processes aimed at transforming
the world and human beings themselves with the help of collectively created tools – is the basic
form of life for people.”
We should now explore how we can use this theoretical framework to investigate the use of
technology and media in the classroom.
Exploring our theoretical model with real experiences
In this section of the chapter, I will use a number of scenarios from the literature on the use of
technology in teaching in learning. We will then discuss each scenario using our theoretical
framework to expose the underlying object of the activity, associated tool-mediated and social
collaboration.
Stories from the Los Angeles public school system
We look at a number of scenarios on the uses of technological spaces in the Los Angeles public
school system (Monahan, 2004).
[Scenario head]
Tough rules
Learners, visiting a computer laboratory for the first time, were subjected to a harsh speech. They
were told that they will be arrested if they damage any of the computers as the computers belong to
government. They were not allowed to bring liquid, food, gum or make-up into the laboratory. And
if they installed software or played games, they were threatened with transfers to other schools.
They were also informed that they were under constant surveillance (via video cameras) when they
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were in the computer laboratory.
Something to Think About
What did the learners learn from this experience? Try and answer the question using our theoretical
framework.
[Scenario head]
Do as I say
A teacher brought her learners to the computer laboratory and even though there were extra
computers available, she proceeded to ask other learners (from other classes) to leave the room
immediately. She instructed her class to convert their notes of the previous day’s lesson into digital
format. One learner was absent the previous day, so did not have the notes. The teacher said that
the printed assignment, a bibliography, was due at the end of the lesson. When the learner informed
her that he was absent and could not complete the assignment, she responded, “Tough!” and
walked away. She left a frustrated learner behind, who then swore at her.
Something to Think About
In this scenario, what is the object of the activity? What else do you think is going on?
To copy and paste
Learners were busy with a project on historical figures and they were required to use Encarta to
find information. They needed to copy and paste information they found into their own document.
One learner told Monahan “that these PowerPoint exercises do not work because he never reads
what he is copying or discusses it with anyone. His project is a series of disconnected images”
(Monahan, 2004: 277). The learner felt that it would be better if learners had to present the material
to the class or engage in collaborative group projects. The teacher rejected the idea of collaborative
group projects because learners needed to learn to copy and paste.
Something to Think About
So what role did the tool, the computer, play in this scenario?
Hint: Did the use of the computer mediate learning or was it the object of the activity?
Torin Monahan suggested that there were a number of interesting dynamics that made up the
practices of technological use in these examples:

Computers were very highly valued, perhaps more so than the learners.

Computers should not be used for exploration, or experimentation, but rather as
instruments of production.

Mindless exercises on the computer taught learners to pretend that they are busy.

Learners’ ideas and problems were disregarded.
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
Teachers neither support learning with technology nor acknowledge that learners could
make meaningful contributions through group activities.
In these examples the object of the activity has clearly nothing to do with knowledge creation and
everything to do with computer use and production of educationally meaningless artefacts. The
computer functions as the object and learners acted passively as they supposedly learnt new skills.
Little tool-mediated production occurred as learners undertook mundane (ordinary) tasks that did
not require any language, or other skills, to develop new ideas for themselves and thereby change
their ideas about the world. Lastly, social collaboration was banished as it was easier to manage a
class of “busy” learners doing senseless tasks, than managing a number of different group projects.
In addition, in these classrooms, the adults exercised absolute power over the learners and negated
(ignored) all their ideas. Could it be that in these examples the computer is used as a power tool to
subjugate (subdue) the learners?
Our next example is totally different to the previous ones that used technology in a most
unproductive manner. We will examine how an international competition encourages integrated
learning.
[Scenario head]
Making F1 racing cars
The aim of the competition is to introduce young people to engineering in an engaging and fun
way. Young girls and boys aged 11 to 18 race miniature cars designed using computer-aided
design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) software, built from balsa wood and
powered by a carbon dioxide cylinders. The competition is run in 26 countries, including South
Africa. To build and race these cars, participants need to:

Develop a business plan that details a budget allowing them to find sponsorship.

Design a Formula One race car of the future using 3D computer aided design software.

Analyse the aerodynamics of the car in a virtual reality wind tunnel using computational
fluid dynamics software.

Make the car using 3D computer aided manufacture software.

Test the aerodynamics of the built car in wind and smoke tunnels.
 Race the car in national and international competitions.
Team Flash from St Alban’s College in Pretoria was twice placed second in the international
competition. Ron Beyers from Young Engineers and Scientists of Africa wrote: “To be recognised
as a Top Team in these competitions requires equal attention to the design portfolio (as a trail of
evidence), scrutinising of cars for compliance with the competition rules, a poster presentation of
the team’s findings, and an oral presentation with all members equally involved. The true test of
the programme … is not measured in academic performance but rather to provide each learner with
a real-life learning experience of what it means to be an engineer”.
The design of this learning task is complex and involves many different skills and makes use of
complex software in the design, testing and production of the miniature racing cars. Can you
identify the object of the activity, tool-mediation, and social collaboration that contribute to this
project?
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So what is the object of the activity? Might it be the racing a model car, or is it rather the design
of the car? I think that there is one object, racing a miniature car. But this object is associated with
many activities that include the development of a business plan and the design, analysis, building
and testing of the car. Can you identify the learning outcomes associated with these activities?
Clearly at every stage of the development of the car team members work together using complex
software tools to learn about how to fund a complex project, engineering and manufacturing
principles, and about how to test design and models. Therefore, the project clearly supports toolmediated, social-collaborative learning.
The “F1 in Schools” project attracts many more teenage boys than girls. Our next story
concerns the use of technology in a community by a number of teenage girls.
[Scenario head]
In service of a community
Sarietjie Musgrave (from the all-girls Eunice High School in Bloemfontein) asked her Grade 10
Computer Application Technology learners to investigate disabilities in their community. Using
their knowledge of hardware and software they worked in groups to create artefacts to help the
disabled. The project included a number of phases:

Plan, advertise and manage a special school assembly so disabled learners could relate
their experiences (photographs were required).

Define a research topic using brainstorming and documentation (word processing).

Plan their research using class discussions to create a digital mind-map.

Undertake research on different disabilities using the library and online searches.

Design of survey in Word to determine the types of disabilities in the community.

Analyse the survey results using Excel.

Create a solution using any software, or hardware, tool available

Present findings in the form of a storyboard created in PowerPoint.

Submit a final report that included reflection of what they did, using Word.
Examples of the learners’ work included the use of drawing to help a dyslexic3 pupil learn to read
and write, teaching a grandmother how to use email so that she could re-connect with her overseas
family, working with charities to raise awareness about disabilities through the use of animations
that were distributed via cellphones and helping a mute (unable to speak) 43-year-old man talk
using Clicker.
In this project 64 learners helped 300 disabled community members. For all their efforts, Sarietjie
was the 2008 winner of Microsoft Innovative Teachers, Community category and went on to be
placed second at the international competition in Hong Kong. Sarietjie said about her learners: “I
3
Dyslexia is a learning disorder that manifests itself primarily as a difficulty with reading and spelling.
Although dyslexia is thought to be the result of a neurological difference, it is not an intellectual disability.
Dyslexia is diagnosed in people of all levels of intelligence: below average, average, above average, and
highly gifted. (Wikipedia)
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was just amazed at their creativity and willingness,” and continued, “this reminds me of why I
began teaching: to share my love of learning new things and to change people’s lives”.
The “Spread the Sunshine” project included many activities. Can you identify the object of the
activity, describe tool-mediated knowledge construction and recognise the social collaboration
between the learners, the teacher and community members that are integral (necessary) to this
project?
Without the appreciation of the social domain of the project, the research would have been
meaningless. The learners needed to understand how to work together and how to interact with a
disabled community to define the kinds of projects they wished to do. In addition, they worked in
groups. Therefore, social collaborations were part of the design of this activity.
In many ways this project is very similar to the environmental project on page XX. In both
these examples the context is about making the world a better place to live in. Therefore, the object
of the activity is about developing solutions for a community. Nearly every phase of the project
required that the learners use a different tool to achieve an outcome. In every instance the tool, be it
a word processor, a cellphone, Excel, mind-mapping software, was used to mediate a product or
develop some understanding. Just as boys can build and race motor cars, so girls can develop
technological solutions to help disabled members of a community. But girls can also race cars and
boys help create solutions to community-based problems.
So far we have discussed the use of technology in the classroom. What about the use of
different media to support teaching and learning? Could our theoretical framework be applied to all
kinds of media? One way to possibly address such questions is to look at the use of computer video
games in the classroom.
Computer video games are not only technological products, but are also one of the most
recently developed media products that today generate more income than does the movie industry.
The next section includes a number of scenarios related to the use of computer video games in the
classroom to highlight some of the issues associated to the use of media in the classroom.
The games we play - an expose of media
In this section we are going to look as how computer video games are used and created in
educational settings. As you read the following scenarios, I would like you to think about the
following questions:

Who constructs media objects?

Do media convince us of their “truth”?

What “reality” is constructed by the media?

How do we read media?
While you might be very familiar with computer video games, these artefacts generate more
revenue that the music industry does and can cost just as much to make as films. Video games are
one of the most important 21st century media. Another important change that is a direct result of
the development of the Internet is that we are now both consumer and producer of media. When
you read news on the Internet you are acting as a consumer. When you post news onto the Internet,
for example through your own blog, you are acting as a producer. While I have used computer
games to look at the consumption and production in the classroom, any other form of media could
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be subjected to the same critiques. Remember, media is always created for a specific purpose and
audience. The following stories look at how games are consumed and produced for a male market.
The stories
The popular media are full of stories of how video games, mostly played by young men, glorify
gratuitous (unnecessary) violence and support anti-social behaviours. However, video games
include hierarchies based on power, masculine views of economic competition, racism and sexist
beliefs. We will look at two examples from the work of Kathy Sanford and Leanna Madill. The
first example is about how young men negotiate institutional authority and masculinity during
game play (Sanford & Madill, 2006). The second account delves into the games made by young
men (Sanford & Madill, 2007).
[Scenario head]
Masculinity and game play - consumption
Researchers Sanford and Madill observed and interviewed adolescent males (from a secondary
school) and young adult men who played video games. They were interested in the relationships
between game play and institutional authority, masculine identities, and femininity. They found
that adolescent and young adult males played games to overcome boredom, or to zone out, and in
these fantasy worlds they were “heroic, active, and respected” (2007: 294). They also “learned tons
about history, tons and tons, from Civilization 3. You just learn lots of stuff, and you don’t really
think about it” (2007: 295). With respect to masculinity, the participants told how they enjoyed
shooting and killing in Halo and how they represented their characters as well-built men with sixpack (flat, well-defined) stomachs. During game play the participants felt it was dangerous to
associate themselves with the feminine. Sanford and Madill concluded that “[r]esistance to the
video game representation of gender, race, and sexual orientation are generally uni-dimensional
and highly stereotypical” and therefore reinforced societal prejudices [bias].
So if young men reproduced and consumed masculine stereotypic identities during game play,
what type of games would they create?
Gender and game play - production
Nine adolescent males, aged between 11-16 years, participated in game design camps. They
worked with experienced game players to design and build their own games. The young boys used
Stagecast to create their two-dimensional video games. The software allowed game designers to
build different kinds of games and simulations (adventures). Sanford and Madill wrote that the
games created by the group included many examples of “domination through physical power and
violence, control and power for its own sake” and “no alternative ways of responding to situations
created in the video games, only on-going and relentless use of weapons, violent actions, and
power to arrive at the endpoint in the game – winning” (2007: 293).
Something to Think About
Do you think that the news, both written and on TV, could be used to
explore similar ideas related to masculinity enacted violence?
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The young men who participated in the above study made games that included violence and
stereotypical masculinities. But this need not be the case. The next example is from the research
undertaken by Judy Robertson and Cathrin Howells (2008) who worked with much younger
children in an environment including children, parents, teachers and the researcher who worked
together to create games.
Making games - production
Robertson and Howells reported on an eight week study. A class of ten-year-olds made their own
computer games using the game engine from Neverwinter Nights, a Dungeons and Dragons style
3D role-playing game. An equal number of girls and boys participated in the study. They worked
on their own; worked cooperatively with teachers, researchers and parents; gave and received
constructive criticism to and from their peers respectively; and were supported through sharing of
ideas and encouragement. Robertson and Howells wrote: “the children in this study were motivated
and enthusiastic; they showed determination to achieve and were able to learn collaboratively and
alone; and they also showed evidence of being able to link and apply their learning to new
situations” (2008: 576).
Something to Think About
Why were the learning outcomes of the Robertson and Howells’ study with
young children different from those of the Sanford and Madill’s study?
These stories related to video games illustrate that players learn about the world through game
production and game play. However, such learning is uncritical. For example, through the play of
Civilization, the players learn history and accept as “truth” all information represented in the game.
However, we all know that history is about interpreting events from the past from different
positions. Does such uncritical interaction with games reflect how we consume all forms of media?
If so, then how can we use media in the classroom?
The next example in this section is from my own work using an adventure game, designed by
one of my past students, Robert Seagram (2005), to present information and puzzles on the biology
of HIV/Aids, tuberculosis, cancer and virus infections.
[Scenario head]
Playing games - consuption
A number of 14 to19-year-old orphans from Soweto were asked to participate in a project to
develop their computer literacy skills. Groups of three participants, which included both sexes,
played the adventure game made by Seagram for at least six hours, kept a personal reflective
journal during - and after game play, answered a knowledge test and participated in a Round Robin
discussion. Three researchers provided support and helped the participants navigate through the
game. During game play we stressed the important of discussing possible solutions to the puzzles
found in game. All groups, except for one group whose members chose not to play collaboratively,
completed the game. The secondary school participants in this study scored similarly to first-year
Biology students and understood many concepts that non-Biology students did not. They were also
able to clearly articulate (express) that by playing the game they came to understand the biology of
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the diseases, especially HIV/Aids and tuberculosis. Such understanding, they told us, was a result
of trying to solve the puzzles collaboratively and that learning was a process of engagement in the
game puzzles. Not only did they enjoy playing the game, but they felt that their experience
empowered them to support their community.
Something to Think About
Can you identify the components that were included in the
design of the learning task using the game on HIV/Aids?
The explanations
The stories in this section on video games, as an example of educational media, meandered (moved
in a circular course) through two main themes: replication of specific beliefs systems (for
example, masculinities) and generation of knowledge (for example, understanding the biology of
HIV/Aids).
Let us first discuss the replication of specific belief systems in the media. The narratives told by
Kathy Sanford and Leanna Madill highlighted the role of masculine identities in the games played
and created by young men. These stories offered young men a way to act in violent ways without
any critique of such violence.
We could argue that when game play is the object of the activity then game play is about
replication of existing positions. However, when a game functions as the tool to investigate some
situation such as violence, then the representation of violence during game play mediates an
answer to the role of violence in society. Media literacy is therefore not only knowing how to
navigate through all the different kinds of media, but also to understand who creates such media,
why such media are made and how to be critical of the media.
Robertson and Howells’ story about how young children made video games is very different to
the story about how young men developed their games as told by Sanford and Madill. There could
be a number of reasons for these differences. First, the tools used to make the games were
different. The young children used a tool from the fantasy game Neverending Nights while the
young men used Stagecast. Second, the social support structures were different. The young
children collaborated with their peers, teachers, parents and researchers on the design of their
games, but the young men were assisted by experienced game players. Therefore, while the object
of the activity was similar (design of a game) in both instances, the outcomes (the tool that
mediated and the social interactions that supported game production) were different.
In teaching and learning, game play should therefore never be the object of the activity, but
should rather function in a way to support tool-mediated knowledge construction. Sanford and
Madill told us how young men consumed masculine stereotypic identities during game play. My
work with the orphans from Soweto showed how through collaborative play they learnt about the
biology of HIV/Aids and tuberculosis. The first example illustrates the use of games as the object
of the activity, and in the second the game (and embedded puzzles) function as a tool-mediated
knowledge construction.
And finally, some conclusions about media
These few examples illustrate that media use in the classroom is complex. All television,
newspapers, film, radio, advertisements, magazines, games and music are products created by an
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individual who hold specific beliefs. All media are therefore part of a symbolic system that creates
a “reality” of the world. As a result, we must read these products actively and not just blindly
accept media representations as the one and only truth.
The easiest way to expose media biases is to use more than one source to mediate knowledge
construction. Media must thus function, not as the object, but as a tool. You should also take notice
of what David Buckingham (2003: 314) had to say about the use of media in the classroom:
“Teachers’ attempts to impose cultural, moral, or political authority over the media that children
[learners] experience in their daily lives are unlikely to be taken seriously. They are often based on
a paternalistic contempt for children’s [learners] tastes and pleasures and are bound to be rejected.
The notion that students [learners] might be somehow weaned off what they perceive as their own
popular culture in favor of the teacher’s cultural or political values would seem to be increasingly
impossible. Even where teachers have sought more positive engagements with students’ [learners]
media cultures, they have often sought to colonise students [learners] for their own purposes.”
Something to Think About
How do you think you could use our framework if you do
not have access to technology in your classroom
Hint: We have also been talking about media.
?
Conclusion
We have been examining the use of cultural artefacts (technology and media) in teaching and
learning using a framework that identifies the object of activity, tool-mediation and social
interactions. In our complex world it appears that every day there is a new technology, or a new
product, that will solve all our teaching and learning problems. But be mindful, you need to be
critical of these products when you integrate them into your teaching to mediate learning.
Therefore, our object-tool-social framework should provide you with a means to integrate any
cultural artefact (technological, ideological and sociological) into your teaching. It is really very
easy. When you consider the use of an artefact as part of your lesson plans, think about how
collaboration and these products could mediate the learning outcomes that are part of the
curriculum.
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