A THEORY OF SYNCHRONISED CORAL SPAWNING
By Malcolm Kearns
INTRODUCTION
The occurrence of synchronised coral spawning has been a puzzle for marine
biologists for years. Investigations have established a possible connection
between several factors and this phenomenon. However, no theory setting out
the cause and effect has yet been established.
Observed environmental or exogenous factors which appear to be related to
synchronised coral spawning include the lunar phase, increased temperature,
tidal flow and salinity levels of the water, and increased rainfall. Other factors
mentioned, usually as coincidental, include increased water velocity,
occurrence of a storm and increased activity of marine life.
The following presentation incorporates the above mentioned observations
into a theory to explain synchronised coral spawning in terms of
environmental factors. It is based on the role of changing levels of positively
charged ions (cations or posions) and negatively charged ions (anions or
negions) in both the air and water. Air ions are naturally formed by earth’s
weather, radioactivity, cosmic radiation, warm winds and water turbulence.
Human activity may also affect the creation of air ions. Positive and negative
air ions, having unpaired electrons, are unstable and do not hold their
electronic charge for any length of time. However these ions are capable of
producing a variety of effects on living organisms.
ROLE OF POSITIVELY AND NEGATIVELY CHARGED WATER IONS
A critical factor in creating favourable conditions for synchronised coral
spawning is increased velocity of a flow of warm water, e.g., the East
Australian Current in October, November, and December; and the Leeuwin
Current in March and April. These are the periods of coral spawning on
Queensland’s Great Barrier Reef and Western Australia’s reefs respectively.
An association between sychronised coral spawning and high velocity of the
Leeuwin current has been noted by the Department of Environment and
Conservation and D. Graham:
“Coral mass spawning coincides approximately with the autumn intensification of
the southward flowing Leeuwin Current.” (Exmouth
Visitor Centre) and:
“perhaps it has something to do with the movement of water. The spawning coincides
with intensification of the Leeuwin current.”
(Graham 1990).
Increased water velocity of water involves friction among water molecules,
which create water cations, a critical factor in synchronised coral spawning.
The role of warm water has been demonstrated by Wallach, who suggests
that production of water posions (cations) from water flows is enhanced by
higher water temperature in the man - made environment of a hydrotherapy
pool:
“Water on water friction such as the sub - surface turbulence of fast - moving
streams…or the intense agitation of a hydrotherapy whirlpool (particularly one with
warm water) produce a heavy layer of posions near the surface.”(Wallach
1983),
(emphasis added).
The increased velocity and turbulence of the flow of warm water shears off
negatively charged electrons from water molecules, leaving them unstable
with unpaired electrons, thus becoming cations (posions). The unstable
positively charged water molecules will attract any negatively charged
electrons in order to restore there original stable neutral charge. That is, these
unstable cation water molecules may capture electrons be it from water or air
molecules, or any form of aquatic life.
ROLE OF POSITIVELY AND NEGATIVELY CHARGED AIR IONS
Another critical factor is the ratio of positively charged air molecules (cations
or posions) to negatively charged air molecules (anions or negions).Typically
in a non urban environment, there are approximately 600 cations and 500
anions per cubic centimetre, a ratio of 1.2:1, (Wallach 1983). However this
varies considerably due to changing weather fronts, usually in the form of an
approaching storm or a persistent warm wind. Prior to a storm, the
movements of air masses create friction so that electrons are lost from air
molecules, rendering them positively charged. This situation results in a
significant rise in air cations which could continue for a few days before the
storm arrives:
“the electrical disturbance moves faster than the weather front, so that in the hours or
days before the arrival of an electrical storm the air is overloaded with positive
ions…Not all moving weather fronts bring storms with them …Even so, there is
usually an advance guard of air carrying a heavy positive charge”. (Soyka
and
Edmonds 1978).
In tropical areas, before the onset of the wet season, the build - up in air
cations is usually longer. The typical pre - storm level is 3000 cations, and 800
anions per cubic centimetre, a ratio of 3.75:1, (Wallach 1983). During the
storm, lightning strikes neutralise this build - up of cations, so that for a short
period after the storm, there is usually a level of around 800 cations and 2500
anions per cubic centimetre, a ratio of 0.32:1. Eventually the normal levels of
cations and anions are restored.
ROLE OF LUNAR PHASE
The role of the lunar phase in synchronised coral spawning has been widely
discussed by marine biologists. However, in this study, the moon’s influence
is basically an indirect one, through its impact on the earth’s weather patterns,
rather than its luminance.
Since the 1950’s, there has been growing conclusive evidence of the causal
relationship between phases of the moon and earth’s weather:
“Now the causal connection between the moon and earth’s weather is irrefutable.”
(Katzeff
1981).
One study of thunderstorms in the United States of America (U.S.), concluded
that:
“The greatest number of thunderstorms also occurs after either the new or the full
moon. Evidence suggests that thunderstorm activity reaches a maximum two days
after a full moon and remains high for most of the third quarter. The way that the full
moon reflects extra cosmic radiation into our atmosphere may explain this
phenomenon since this maximum in thunderstorm activity appears to coincide with
maximum levels of cosmic radiation and vice versa.” (Thomas
2004).
Similarly, a survey by Bradley, et al., collected from 1544 North American
weather stations (1900-49), showed:
“That heavy rain occurs most frequently midway through the 1 st and 3rd quarters of
the lunar nodal cycle - in other words, rainfall is heaviest about a half week after a
new moon and again after a full moon.” (Thomas
2004).
Bradley et al. added to their survey other U.S. data from important individual
weather stations and concluded:
“Heavy rainfall had happened most often ‘near the middle of the first and third weeks
of the synodical month, especially in the third to fifth days after configurations of both
new and full moon. The second and fourth quarters of the lunation cycle are
correspondingly deficient in heavy precipitation’… Without doubt, they concluded,
’There is a demonstrable persistence of this lunisolar effect in U.S. weather records
through the history of meteorological observations.’” (Katzeff
A similar situation has been reported in Australia:
1981).
“Two Australian radiophysicists, E.E. Adderley and E.G. Bowen, found this pattern
on the other side of the world. Using data from fifty weather stations, they found that
large rainstorms took place most frequently during the full and new moon phases,
with the highest peak of frequency being in the full - moon phase.”
(Katzeff 1981).
The influence of the moon on weather during these periods should be
considered along with other relevant factors:
“Studies of the moon at its perigee might have different results from those in
apogee. Its effects may be more pronounced in the mid - latitudes, due to the relative
strength of the magnetic fields in these areas, and is more clearly represented in
records during solar minimums when the effect is not obscured by solar activity.”
(Thomas 2004).
The evidence cited above indicates that in the period after the moon’s syzygy
phase there is a greater probability of storm activity. It is in the pre - storm
environment, that air cations rise significantly and have a contributing role in
synchronised coral spawning. However, marine biologists have only made
passing reference to the fact that storms have occurred around the time of
coral spawning.
INTERACTION BETWEEN POSITIVELY CHARGED AIR AND WATER MOLECULES
When these two conditions are present, that is, a higher than normal ratio of
cations to anions in both the water and air, the higher than normal level of
water cations cannot be reduced by acquiring negatively charged electrons
from the air. Furthermore, both the water turbulence and spray release
electrons into the air where they combine with the pre - storm abundance of
positively charged air ions (cations). This is an example of Lenard’s effect,
alternatively called the spray electrification or waterfall effect. (Côté 2007).
Dr. P. Lenard, a German physicist, was first to systematically study the impact
of the break - up of water drops in the air, in respect to their electronic charge.
Anions in the air and cations in water are typically produced concurrently in
three locations: where there is quick flowing water, at the base of a waterfall,
and waves breaking on rocks. (Côté 2007).
“Two electronic layers always exist on the surface of a drop of water. The
inner/outer layer is charged negatively/positively respectively. As soon as a newly
formed water droplet has contact with the air, positive ions in the air are absorbed into
the droplets outer layer. As a result the surrounding air is charged negatively and thus
negative air ions are generated.” (Ion
Trading 2007).
This results in a corresponding increase in water cations, which adds to the
already high levels of positively charged water.
EFFECT OF INCREASED WATER CATIONS ON CORAL
The increase in cation water molecules may continue for a few days before
the storm, and in tropical areas, before the onset of the wet season, for longer
periods. When highly positively charged water molecules come in contact with
marine life, such as coral, an electron exchange takes place. That is, the
unstable positively charged water molecule captures a negatively charged
electron from the coral, so that the water molecule reverts to its normal neutral
charge. When the coral loses an electron it becomes positively charged, that
is a cation. This leads to a spike in the production of the chemical serotonin
(C10H12N20) or 5 - hydroxytryptamine, (5 - HT), and possibly some other
chemicals.
Supporting evidence of the impact that air cations has on serotonin
production, come from animal studies by Krueger, who was the first to find:
“that, an excess of positive ions in the air could cause a sudden excessive release of
serotonin into the bloodstream - an effect that was substantially verified by many
other scientific investigations.” (Thomas
2004).
The production of positive air ions (cations), which is usually the result of pre storm conditions or a persistent warm wind, create increased serotonin levels
in a wide variety of life forms. This results in a considerable range of
behavioural changes in these life forms.
Serotonin is found in all animals, and among its several known influences, it
contracts smooth involuntary muscles:
“Serotonin causes ‘smooth muscles’ to contract…and intestinal (relating to the gut)
muscles can all be affected by serotonin.”
(Thomas 2004), and similarly:
“5HT [a precursor to serotonin] causes many smooth muscles (involuntary muscles)
to contract.” (Answers.
com.).
Thus, in the case of coral polyps, the increased serotonin production
stimulated by the high level of water cations, contract the smooth
muscles surrounding the gametes thereby releasing them into the water.
To the extent that this phenomenon occurs over a wide area of the coral
reef, there is synchronisation of coral spawning.
EVIDENCE OF A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A STORM OR HEAVY RAINFALL AND
CORAL SPAWNING
The high levels of air cations associated with pre - storm conditions, boost the
level of high water cations (Lenard’s effect), to produce the conditions
required for synchronised coral spawning. Other factors affecting air cations
include solar insolation, warm winds, and reflected moon radiance.
Evidence from various marine biologists of an association between stormy
weather and coral spawning, has been incidental to their main studies, that is,
there has not been an attempt to find a causal link between storms and coral
spawning. However, the limited evidence available is consistent with, and
supportive of, the theory outlined here in this paper, but more evidence is
required to resolve the issue.
The available evidence may be classified under one of the following: coral
spawning prior to the start of the wet season; storm conditions creating
difficulties for marine biologists investigating coral spawning; and a storm
causing serious damage to the spawn slick.
Under the first classification, coral spawning prior to the start of the wet
season, the following observations were made:
“Spawning in Moorea [2002] occurred…prior to the onset of the wet season.”
(Carroll et al., 2006).
Similarly:
“In Jamaica, spawning occurred most frequently after the September full moon and
prior to the period of heaviest rainfall (October);”, and “Kenyon (1995), working in
Yap stated that ‘local residents are aware of the mass synchronous spawning of
corals…just before the wet season.’” and, “In locations where there is little year round variation in [water] temperature (e.g., Maldives, Guam, Solomon Islands,
Yap, and Palau);…spawning always occur prior to the peak in annual rainfall.”
(
Mendes and Woodley 2002).
Mendes and Woodley claim it is not adequate to explain synchronised coral
spawning in terms of increased water temperature alone. The inclusion of
rainfall levels as an additional variable improves the statistical association.
However, rainfall usually follows synchronised coral spawning, and is not a
causal variable.
Under the second classification, where due to storm activity, marine biologists
have experienced difficulty determining the precise days of spawning; at
Mudjimba Island, Queensland, spawning occurred between 8/12/93 and
17/12/93. Sampling of different colonies occurred until 8/12/93. But:
“Bad weather prevented further sampling until 17/12/93.” (Banks
1995).
and Harriott
Also, on the Solitary Islands, N.S.W., the following similar observation was
made:
“In most cases, it was not possible to determine whether these colonies released
gametes on the same night, as sequential samples were taken many days apart due
to rough weather conditions.” (Wilson
and Harrison 2003).
Another example from the U.S. indicates the difficulty experienced, off the
Florida coast, by Dr. M. Miller who had tried to establish new reefs:
“The efforts are limited to the once - a - year spawning season and have been
hindered the past couple of years [2003, 2004] by hurricane activity.” (Care
2).
Under the third classification, where storms cause serious damage to the
spawn slick on Magnetic Island, Queensland, 1981, propagules on the
surface were destroyed:
“when a heavy rain squall coincided with spawning.” (Harrison
et al.,1984).
Off the coast of Western Australia a similar case occurred:
“last year [1989], the spawning turned into a major natural disaster. Strong winds
from a cyclone hovering about 500 kilometres out to sea blew the larvae into shore
where it decayed.” (Graham1990).
Since a possible connection between storm activity and spawning is not
generally recognised, it is unlikely that an ordinary storm around the time of
spawning would have been recorded. The available evidence, while not
conclusive, supports the claim that pre - storm levels of high air cations and
synchronised coral spawning are causally linked.
SUMMARY
To summarise, the forces leading to synchronised coral spawning are:
Firstly, increased water velocity assisted by increased water temperature,
produces a high level of water cations. Secondly, an increase in air cations
occurs prior to an approaching storm, which is more likely to happen after the
moon’s syzygy phase. Thirdly, due to water turbulence, water droplets lose
negatively charged electrons to the abundance of air cations, so that the level
of water cations rises further. Fourthly, when the high level of water cations
come in contact with coral and other marine life, an electron exchange takes
place. The water cations capture electrons from the coral, so that the water
reverts to its usual neutral charge, while the coral now takes on a positive
charge (cation). Finally, the coral cation level stimulates the production of
serotonin which contracts the polyp muscles thus releasing gametes into the
water. This set of conditions operating over a wide area results in
synchronised coral spawning.
THE EFFECT OF WATER CATIONS ON OTHER MARINE LIFE
It has been commented upon by three writers that immediately prior to the
coral spawning, several marine species become agitated. On the Great
Barrier Reef in 2006, it was noted that:
“As a prelude to the spawning, reef life, little fish and shrimps become wildly
agitated. Then, small pink balls can be seen bulging from the polyp mouths of the
corals.
‘They glow pink’, Jones explained. ‘Everything around the reef gets very excited and
you know it will happen within half an hour’.” (Hammond
2007).
Similarly, at Looe Key reef in the Florida Keys in 2005:
“Before the spawn, the water has an oily coating and fishy smell at the surface and
the fish below start darting around, as if they, too, are watching all the corals and
trying to decide which would start spawning. The coral polyps themselves are full and
bloated - looking.”
(Slimak 2005).
Furthermore, when examining one species at Culebra Island, Puerto Rico,
2005, Hernandez - Delgado found:
“The exact spawning time was correctly predicted in situ exactly 2 minutes before
based on the behavior of brittle stars. Somehow, brittle stars are capable of detecting
some kind of chemical clue [sic] and become very active simultaneously climbing to
coral surfaces. Again, this was an unequivocal signal that spawning is about to
occur.” (Hernandez
- Delgado 2005).
These observations by marine biologists of increased activity of marine
species correspond to that shown by animals and insects prior to a storm,
when there is an overload of positive ions in the air:
“It is these [air overloaded with positive ions] that cause animals to be restive and
insects to erupt suddenly with an explosion of energy and become a plague instead
of just a nuisance. It is part of the lore of humanity everywhere that if livestock is
restless and the bugs begin to bite more than usual, then a storm is probably on the
way. Scientists have now provided the scientific reason why: Pos-ion overdoses
affect the body chemistry of all creatures.” (Soyka
and Edmonds1978).
Anecdotal observations by those in regular contact with animals and insects
confirm the view that they exhibit increased stress related behaviour prior to a
storm, when air cations are high.
OTHER RELATED ISSUES
The main factor in this paper’s theory of synchronised coral spawning is the
high velocity flow of warm water. This factor may also explain the related
questions: why does synchronised coral spawning occur at different months of
the year at various locations in the world’s oceans?; what role does water
temperature play in synchronised coral spawning, given the inconsistent
evidence?; and why at certain locations, is spawning less synchronised and
extends over a longer time period?
It is the varying months of high velocity water flow that explain the different
timing patterns of spawning among geographical areas. For example, the
months of high velocity of the East Australian Current during spring, create
high levels of water cations which result in spawning on the Great Barrier
Reef during October, November or December. In contrast the corresponding
spawning period off the coast of Western Australia is due to the high velocity
of the Leeuwin Current during March and April. This difference in the timing of
spawning occurs despite a similar annual water temperature cycle within
these regions.
This example, plus the experience of mass spawning in different locations off
the west coast, raise questions as to the impact water temperature has on
spawning. Spawning occurs at widely separated areas during March and/or
April, despite significant differences in water temperature:
“The similarity in the timing of the mass spawning between the Abrolhos reefs and
tropical reefs in Western Australia, despite marked differences in temperature
regimes in the two regimes…, provide further evidence (Simpson 1985) that there is
no simple, direct, proximate relationship temperature and spawning in corals
(Harrison et al., 1984). Mean monthly sea temperatures peaked one or two months
before spawning at both locations, but absolute values differed by 5 - 7º C.”
(Babcock
et al.,1994).
The theory outlined in this paper maintains that the increase in water cations
is mainly due to increased water velocity and that increased water
temperature assists in this process. That is, water temperature plays a
secondary role.
The phenomenon of less synchrony in, or asynchronous, coral spawning, with
an extended spawning season, may be explained by variations in the velocity,
direction and temperature of the flow of water. The theory predicts that when
there is consistency in these water flow characteristics, there would be a high
degree of synchronisation in spawning. Similarly, when these characteristics
are lacking, less synchronous spawning over an extended season would be
expected. Geographic factors, such as islands and bays are likely to result in
variation in the velocity, direction and temperature of the water flow even
within a small area.
One example of less synchrony in spawning has occurred in the Solitary
Islands region, where considerable variation in the East Australia Current has
been reported:
“While the East Australian Current (EAC) brings warm tropical water to the Solitary
Islands region, it impinges on the islands and coastline on a sporadic basis (J. Wilson
& G. Cresswell unpubl. data). This probably explains the large variation in water
temperatures within the Solitary Islands Marine Park, as the EAC moves on - and
offshore.” (Wilson
and Harrison 2003).
Furthermore, the writers add:
“Oceanographic data obtained from the Solitary Islands during the periods of coral
spawning suggest that, while at times southward currents are strong …at other times
currents are weak and oscillate in a north - south direction along the coast (Wilson
1998).” ( Wilson
and Harrison 2003).
Given the variable nature of the East Australian Current in the Solitary Islands
region, it would be expected that coral spawning would be less synchronised,
and to occur over an extended time period, when compared to a situation
where the East Australian Current was more consistent, such as on the Great
Barrier Reef. Such a result was reported by Wilson and Harrison:
“Spawning periods were staggered among species and among colonies within
some species. Spawning in massive species was generally more synchronous and
predictable than for acroporid species. Massive coral species spawned from 8 to 12
nights after a full moon, whereas there was no obvious lunar periodicity of
spawning among acroporid corals. This asynchronous pattern of reproduction
contrasts with the highly synchronous spawning of more than 140 coral species
during mass spawning periods on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in October to
December each year. The delay in the timing of coral spawning at the Solitary
Islands compared with the GRB coincides with the delayed rise in sea temperatures
in the subtropics. In addition, the highly variable nature of sea temperatures at the
Solitary Islands around the time of gamete maturation and spawning may
account for the less synchronous pattern of reproduction in this high - latitude coral
community.” ( Wilson
and Harrison 2003).
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
The theory outlined in this paper provides an explanation of synchronised
coral spawning based mainly on the velocity, direction and temperature
characteristics of the water flow which create the necessary high levels of
water cations. The high levels of air cations that exist in a pre - storm
environment assist in this process. This situation occurs more frequently in
the days following the moon’s syzygy phase.
Other aspects of coral spawning may also be explained by the theory. The
critical factor is the variation in water flow characteristics which are relevant to
an understanding of differences in spawning periods among various
geographical areas, asynchronised coral spawning, extended spawning
periods, and minor spawning outside the main spawning period.
To test this theory, there would firstly need to be obtained accurate
information on the local characteristics of the water flow. Secondly, there
would need to be a measure of ion levels of the air and water under normal,
pre - spawning, and post - spawning conditions. The limited available
evidence is supportive, so that an investigation to test the theory is warranted.
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