THE GLOBAL 200:
A REPRESENTATION APPROACH TO CONSERVING
THE EARTH’S DISTINCTIVE ECOREGIONS
David M. Olson, Eric Dinerstein, Robin Abell, Tom Allnutt, Christopher Carpenter,
Loren McClenachan, Jennifer D’Amico, Patrick Hurley, Ken Kassem, Holly Strand,
Meseret Taye, and Michele Thieme
Conservation Science Program, World Wildlife Fund-US
1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC, 20037 USA
E-mail: david.olson@wwfus.org / eric.dinerstein@wwfus.org
October 2000
SUMMARY
Much conservation attention has focused on the preservation of tropical moist forests (rain forests)
because they harbor an estimated 50 percent of species on Earth. However, a comprehensive strategy for
conserving global biodiversity should strive to save the other 50 percent of the species and the distinctive
ecosystems that support them. Tropical dry forests, tundra, temperate grasslands, lakes, polar seas, and
mangroves all contain unique expressions of biodiversity with characteristic species, biological
communities, and distinctive ecological and evolutionary phenomena. Some of these major habitat types
(i.e., biomes), such as tropical dry forests and Mediterranean-climate shrublands, are on average more
threatened than are tropical moist forests and require immediate conservation action.
To better incorporate representation of the Earth’s distinctive ecosystems in conservation strategies, we
conducted an analysis of ecoregions representing the Earth’s 30 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine major
habitat types. Based on a comparative global analysis and synthesis of five extensive regional studies, we
identified 238 ecoregions as priority targets for conservation action because they harbor the most
outstanding and representative examples of the world’s diverse ecosystems. These 238 ecoregions—the
Global 200—are comprised of 142 terrestrial, 53 freshwater, and 43 marine ecoregions. Selection of
ecoregions was based on analyses of species richness, species endemism, unique higher taxa, unusual
ecological or evolutionary phenomena, and global rarity of major habitat types. We selected outstanding
ecoregions within each major habitat type from each of the world’s biogeographic realms and ocean
basins to better capture the variation in species assemblages around the world.
The representation approach, accepted by a
growing number of conservationists, is soundly
based in conservation biology. It integrates the
goal of maintaining species diversity (the
traditional focus of biodiversity conservation) with
another level of conservation action—the
preservation of distinct ecosystems and
evolutionary phenomena. While it is true that more
than half of all species are likely to occur in the
world’s tropical moist forests, the other 50% of all
species are found elsewhere. To conserve this half,
a full representation of the world’s diverse
ecosystems must be the goal.
INTRODUCTION
The current extinction crisis requires dramatic
action to save the Earth’s biological diversity
(biodiversity), that is, the variety of life expressed
at many levels. These levels include the genetic
diversity within species as well as the array of
genera; families, and still higher taxonomic levels
that, taken together, comprise communities of
organisms within particular habitats and physical
conditions that form entire ecosystems. Because
funding for conservation action aimed at
preserving biodiversity is limited, governments,
donors, and conservation groups must be strategic
and earmark the greatest amount of resources for
protecting the most outstanding and representative
areas for biodiversity. Most conservation
biologists recognize that although we cannot save
everything, we should at least ensure that all
ecosystem and habitat types are represented within
regional conservation strategies (Hummel 1989,
Caldecott et al. 1994, Krever et al. 1994, Noss &
Cooperrider 1994, BSP et al. 1995, Dinerstein et
al. 1995, UNEP 1995, Ricketts et al. 1999, Abell
et al. 2000).
Tundra, tropical lakes, mangroves, and temperate
broadleaf forests are all unique expressions of
biodiversity. Although they may not support the
rich communities seen in tropical rain forests or
coral reefs, they contain species assemblages
adapted to distinct environmental conditions and
reflect different evolutionary histories. To lose
representative examples of these assemblages and
the evolutionary phenomena they contain, would
represent an enormous loss of biodiversity.
Although conservation action typically takes place
at one of several governmental levels—whether it
be the local, state/federal, national, or even
multinational level (e.g., the European Union)—
patterns of biodiversity and ecological processes
(e.g., migration) do not conform to political
boundaries. Thus, we used ecoregions as the unit
of analysis in creating the Global 200. We define
an ecoregion as a relatively large unit of land or
water containing a characteristic set of natural
communities that share a large majority of their
species, dynamics, and environmental conditions
(Dinerstein et al. 1995, TNC 1997). Ecoregions
function effectively as conservation units at
regional scales because they encompass similar
biological communities and their boundaries
roughly coincide with the area over which key
ecological processes most strongly interact (Orians
1993, Noss 1996).
The “representation” approach has been applied at
a number of geographical scales, from single
watersheds to entire continents (UNESCO 1974,
Hummel 1989, Nicoll & Langrand 1989, Bedward
et al. 1992, Scott et al. 1993, Pressey & Logan
1994, Pressey et al. 1994, Cox et al. 1994,
MacKinnon 1994, Dinerstein et al. 1995,
Fearnside & Ferraz 1995, Johnson 1995, Noss &
Peters 1995). Here we introduce the Global 200,
the first attempt to achieve representation of all
major habitat types at a global scale. Our primary
objective is to promote the conservation of
distinctive terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems harboring globally important
biodiversity and ecological phenomena. The
Global 200 addresses this goal by identifying the
world’s most outstanding examples within each
major habitat type (e.g., tropical dry forests, large
lakes, coral reefs).
2
and Sonoran deserts include the centers of
diversity for cacti, a family absent from African
and Asian deserts. Also, continental ecoregions of
Asia are some of the richest on Earth for terrestrial
mammals (Lidicker 1989, Corbett & Hill 1992,
Wikramanayake et al. in prep.), but include no
species in the mammalian orders of marsupials
(Peremelina and Diprotodontia). In contrast, the
marsupials are a dominant order of mammals in
the ecoregions of New Guinea and Australia,
where eutherian species are less abundant.
METHODS
An objective hierarchy for selecting the
Global 200
To maintain representation of biodiversity at a
global scale, we first stratified ecoregions by
realm (terrestrial, freshwater, and marine). We
further divided realms by Major Habitat Types
(MHTs) which describe different areas of the
world that share similar environmental conditions,
habitat structure, and patterns of biological
complexity (e.g., beta diversity), and that contain
communities with similar guild structures and
adaptations. MHT classifications are roughly
equivalent to biomes. We identified 14 MHTs in
the terrestrial realm, seven in the freshwater realm,
and nine in the marine realm (only five of these
were assessed for this edition). Each MHT was
further subdivided by biogeographic realm (e.g.,
Nearctic, Indian Ocean) in order to represent
unique faunas and floras on different continents or
ocean basins. Finally, we identified ecoregions,
and in a few cases ecoregion complexes (see
Appendix 4), that represent the most distinctive
examples of biodiversity for a given MHT (Table
1).
Third, assessments of the relative intactness and
degree of threat (conservation status) of
ecoregions can be made more accurately if
ecoregions are categorized within a framework of
MHTs. This allows us to better address the
patterns of biodiversity, ecological dynamics, and
responses to disturbance that are specific to
different MHTs.
Delineation of ecoregions
Terrestrial Ecoregions
The boundaries of terrestrial ecoregions for the
Global 200 are taken from intensive regional
analyses of biodiversity patterns across five
continents undertaken by the World Wildlife Fund
(WWF) Conservation Science Program and others
(e.g. Victor 1955, Freitag 1971, Zohary 1973,
Miyawaki 1975, Yim 1977, Chinese Vegetation
Map Compilation Committee 1979, New Zealand
Department of Conservation 1987, Noirfalise
1987, Changchun Institute of Geography &
Chinese Academy of Sciences 1990, Kurnaev
1990, Bohn 1994, Krever et al. 1994, Dinerstein et
al. 1995, Ecological Stratification Working Group
1995, Gallant et al. 1995, Hilbig 1995, Omernik
1995, Thackway & Cresswell 1995, Mongolian
Ministry for Nature and the Environment et. al.
1996, European Topic Centre on Nature
Conservation 2000, Ricketts et al. 1999,
WWF/IUCN 1994, 1995, 1997, Bohn & Katenina
1996, S. Gon, pers. comm., Wikramanayake et al.
unpublished data). These assessments were
conducted in collaboration with hundreds of
regional experts and included extensive literature
reviews. The resulting Terrestrial Ecoregions of
the World map (in press) is a compilation of the
separate regional maps. Thus, the Global 200 is a
selected subset of this global map of all
ecoregions.
This hierarchy is based on biogeographic and
ecological principles. First, to set priorities, we
only want to compare the biodiversity value of
ecoregions that share the same MHT. Employing
species richness and endemism as a discriminator
among ecoregions is much more powerful if the
MHTs are analyzed separately, because the
relative magnitude of these parameters varies
widely among MHTs. For example, a comparison
of tree richness between tropical moist forest
ecoregions and desert or grassland ones would
yield little useful information.
Second, incorporating biogeographic realms
addresses another important aspect of global
representation: ecoregions that share the same
MHT, but occur on different continents, support
different species assemblages. To illustrate, the
deserts of central and northwestern Australia
support over 150 species of reptile, all of which
are endemic to Australia (Cogger 1992). Using
biogeographic realms also addresses higher-order
taxonomic diversity. For example, the Chihuahuan
3
Olson et al. 1999, Ricketts et al. 1999,
Wikramanayake et al. in prep). Within each MHT
and biogeographic realm, ecoregions are classified
by their biological distinctiveness at one of four
levels: globally outstanding, regionally outstanding
(e.g., Neotropics), bioregionally outstanding (e.g.,
Caribbean), or locally important.
Ecoregions are most finely delineated in tropical
moist forests. Complexity is high within and
among tropical moist forest ecoregions, as is
turnover of species along environmental gradients
or with distance (beta diversity). By contrast,
tundra and boreal forests show only slight
longitudinal or latitudinal variation and are
therefore delineated as larger units.
Biological distinctiveness, as a discriminator,
evaluates the relative rarity of different units of
biodiversity. It can be used to estimate the urgency
of action based on the opportunity for conservation
that exists. The criteria we used to prioritize
ecoregions for the Global 200 are similar to those
used for the regional assessments.
Freshwater ecoregions
Separate analyses of freshwater and terrestrial
ecoregions were conducted because the
distribution of freshwater biodiversity in many
cases diverges from terrestrial patterns. Freshwater
ecoregions were based on several regional
analyses and consultations with regional experts
(Hocutt & Wiley 1986, Frest & Johannes 1991,
WCMC 1992, Maxwell et al. 1995, Oberdorff et
al. 1995, Kottelat & Whitten 1996, Olson et al.
1999, Abell et al. 2000, Thieme et al. in prep.).
On a global scale, and within each biogeographic
realm, we chose the set of ecoregions with the
greatest biological distinctiveness based on the
following parameters:
Marine ecoregions
Marine ecoregions delineated by the Global 200
are nested within a large marine ecosystem
framework, derived from several global and
regional analyses (e.g., Hayden et al. 1984, IUCN
1988, Sherman 1990, Croom et al. 1992, Ray &
Hayden 1993, Kelleher et al. 1995, Groombridge
& Jenkins 1996, Ormond et al. 1997, Sullivan &
Bustamante 1996) and review of the available
literature. The delineation of marine ecoregions is
intended to highlight general regions within which
characteristic animals, plants, ecological
interactions, and biophysical processes occur.
Relative to most terrestrial ecoregions, these are
more spatially and temporally dynamic ecological
and biogeographic units (Sherman et al. 1990).

species richness,

endemism,

higher taxonomic uniqueness (e.g., unique
genera or families, relict species or
communities, primitive lineages),

extraordinary ecological or evolutionary
phenomena (e.g., extraordinary adaptive
radiations, intact large vertebrate
assemblages, presence of migrations of
large vertebrates), and

global rarity of MHT
Selection criteria
Biodiversity features were weighted and measured
in the regional analyses as illustrated in Appendix
1 using the method employed for terrestrial
ecoregions of North America. The weight assigned
to these parameters also varied by MHT.
For five of the continents, detailed regional
priority-setting analyses have been conducted by
the WWF Conservation Science Program in
collaboration with a host of regional experts and
supplemented with extensive literature reviews.
Thus, the final Global 200 is not just an
interpretation of coarse global reviews. It draws
heavily from the results of intensive regional
analyses of biodiversity conducted over the last
several years (Krever et al. 1994, Dinerstein et al.
1995, Abell et al. 2000, Burgess et al. in prep.,
Families and genera comprise higher hierarchical
levels—above the species level—in the taxonomy
of living organisms. Accordingly, the presence of
an endemic higher taxon would contribute more to
an ecoregion’s biotic distinctiveness than would an
endemic species. Naturally rare representatives of
relict or primitive genera, families, or orders also
contribute to the distinctiveness of an ecoregion’s
biota, and its urgency for conservation action. In
other words, some ecoregions are noted for biotas
that contain unique taxa at higher taxonomic levels
4
than species (Vane-Wright et al. 1991, Williams
1991, Gaston & Williams 1993, Forey et al. 1994,
Williams & Humphries 1994). For example, most
families and genera of birds and mammals in
Australia are unique to the continent. Moreover,
the moist forests of northeastern Australia,
northern New Zealand, and New Caledonia are
recognized as having a number of the most
primitive lineages of conifers and flowering plants
in the world. Madagascar, another long-isolated
island, is often considered a seventh continent
from a biogeographic perspective because of its
uniqueness at higher taxonomic levels.
phenomena such as the extraordinary adaptive
radiations seen in Hawaiian plants, birds, and
insects, the radiation of Galapagós finches, relict
taxa of the Greater Antilles, and the radiation of
cichlids in Rift Valley lakes of Africa—also
elevated some ecoregions to the Global 200. Some
level of radiation within taxa characterizes the
biotas of many ecoregion, but here we highlight
extensive adaptive radiations of species in one or
more higher taxa.
All ecoregions in globally rare MHTs are highly
distinctive at this analytical scale. This criterion
encompasses ecological and evolutionary
phenomena, but it also addresses those
characteristics at the scale of whole ecosystems
and biotas, as well as structural features of
ecosystems and habitats. The species that manage
to live in these habitats often have unusual
adaptations to specialized conditions. For this
reason, their community structures, assemblages,
and ecological processes are highly distinctive at a
global scale. We counted only naturally occurring
rarity for the distinctiveness analyses, although
human-induced rarity is an important condition to
assess when developing conservation strategies.
Examples of rare MHTs include the Mediterranean
woodlands and scrub (there are six worldwide, and
all of limited area) and the temperate rain forests
that occur in seven relatively localized areas
around the world. Paramos, or wet tropical alpine
shrublands, occur in restricted distributions in the
Andes, on a few East African mountain peaks, and
in New Guinea.
Species richness and endemism are poor
discriminators among the more depauperate
terrestrial ecoregions found in boreal forests and
tundra, the two northernmost terrestrial MHTs. For
these MHTs and for some ecoregions of subSaharan Africa, we gave greater weight to
extraordinary ecological phenomena—in these
cases, examples of extensive intact habitats and
large vertebrate assemblages, particularly those
that still sustain top predators, large herbivores,
and larger frugivores that are highly sensitive to
human disturbance and fragmentation. Large
blocks of natural habitat where species populations
and ecological processes still fluctuate within their
natural range of variation are rapidly disappearing
around the world (WCMC 1996, Bryant et al.
1997, Dinerstein et al. 1997). Therefore, remaining
intact ecosystems represent rare opportunities for
conservation, even though this aspect of their
distinctiveness was once widespread but is now
rare due to the prevalence of human disturbance
around the world. In assessing the intactness of
habitat and faunal assemblages for ecoregions, the
presence of larger blocks of habitat is emphasized
because principles of landscape ecology and
conservation biology suggest that biodiversity is
best maintained within such areas (Noss &
Cooperrider 1994). Strategies that emphasize the
conservation of large vertebrates and the full
complement of migratory species help conserve
intact faunal assemblages (e.g., Balmford et al.
1995, Dinerstein et al. 1997). Naturally occurring
extraordinary ecological phenomena, such as longdistance caribou migrations or the tremendous
seasonal fish migrations and fish frugivory in the
flooded forests of the Amazon (varzea forests)
(Goulding 1980, Goulding et al. 1996), were also
given due recognition. Unusual evolutionary
For ecoregions with similar biological
distinctiveness in the same MHT, we selected the
ecoregions that had relatively more intact habitats
and biotas based on assessments of their
conservation status (Dinerstein et al. 1995,
Wikramanayake et al. in prep., Burgess et al. in
prep., Ricketts et al. 1999). Ecoregions that were
identified as being relatively more intact in these
comparisons did not necessarily exhibit a degree
of intactness that would qualify them as displaying
unusual ecological phenomena, the fourth
distinctiveness criteria.
We did not use ecological function, conservation
feasibility (i.e., political, social, economic, cultural
factors), or human utility as discriminators to
identify the Global 200 for reasons explained in
5
Appendix 3. We reiterate that the Global 200 is
focused on biological values as the critical first
step in setting global conservation priorities.
Dinerstein et al. 1995, Harcourt et al. 1996,
MacKinnon & Bunting 1996, Bryant et al. 1997,
Dinerstein et al. 1997, Dobson et al. 1997, Abell et
al. 2000, Burgess et al. in prep., Ricketts et al.
1999, Wikramanayake et al. in prep.). For the
Global 200, we confined our assessment to
terrestrial ecoregions. We classified ecoregions
into one of three broad categories:
critical/endangered, vulnerable, or relatively
stable/relatively intact over the next forty years.
For terrestrial ecoregions, the most prominent
contributor to conservation status is habitat loss,
followed by the size of remaining habitat blocks,
degree of fragmentation, degree of degradation,
and degree of protection. For a more a detailed
discussion of scoring ecoregions for conservation
status, see Appendix 1, Dinerstein et al. (1995),
and Ricketts et al. (1999).
Criteria for aggregating ecoregions
The Global 200 map guides users to the general
location of relatively large geographic units of
biodiversity, defined here as ecoregions. At this
scale, the specific location and configuration of
boundaries of some ecoregions do not present an
exact target area for a regional conservation
strategy. The regional analyses upon which much
of the Global 200 is based depict ecoregions at a
higher level of resolution (see Krever et al. 1994,
Dinerstein et al. 1995, Abell et al. 2000, Burgess
et al. in prep., Olson et al. 1999, Ricketts et al.
1999, Wikramanayake et al. in prep.)
Given the goal of representing the Earth’s diverse
ecosystems and species assemblages, keeping the
number of priority ecoregions to a manageable
number required aggregating a few ecoregions that
were delineated for regional conservation
assessments (for the Neotropics, Russia, North
America, Africa, and Asia). The ecoregions that
were lumped are adjacent, related by habitat type,
and are biogeographically similar at a global scale.
Other conservation targets
The conservation of large-scale ecological
phenomena, such as bird and butterfly migrations,
often requires hemispheric coordination of
activities that transcends ecoregion-level
conservation efforts. Habitat conservation within
Global 200 ecoregions can contribute to this effort,
but identification of critical stopover, breeding,
feeding, wintering, and resting sites for migratory
birds, bats, butterflies, and cetaceans is necessary.
Effective habitat conservation within Global 200
ecoregions can help conserve regional-scale
terrestrial mammal migrations, such as those of
caribou and wildebeest, and altitudinal movements
of birds, insects, bats, and some larger mammals.
Widespread and dynamic pelagic ecosystems have
not been adequately mapped up to this point
(Angel 1993), nor have hydrothermal vent
communities and other abyssal ecosystems and
cave and groundwater ecosystems (Gage & Tyler
1991, Grassle 1991, Grassle & Maciolek 1992, D.
Culver, pers. comm.). These gaps in information
preclude their consideration in the analysis.
Conservation status of the Global 200 ecoregions
Ecoregions vary greatly not only in their biological
distinctiveness, but also in their conservation
status. Conservation status represents an estimate
of the current and future ability of an ecoregion to
maintain viable species populations, to sustain
ecological processes, and to be responsive to short
and long-term environmental changes.
Conservation status assessments of the Global 200
ecoregions were based on landscape or aquascapelevel features, such as total habitat loss, the degree
of fragmentation, water quality, and estimates of
future threat. From a practical perspective,
conservation status sheds light on the relative
opportunity we have to conserve biodiversity in a
particular ecoregion or major habitat type, as well
as on the urgency, kinds of conservation activities,
and level of effort needed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Global 200 Ecoregions
We identified 238 ecoregions whose biodiversity
and representation values are outstanding at a
global scale (Table 1). They represent the
Again, we drew heavily from regional
conservation assessments to estimate conservation
status (Krever et al. 1994, BSP et al. 1995,
6
terrestrial, freshwater and marine realms, and the
30 MHTs nested within these realms. Among the
three realms, 142 (60%) are terrestrial, 53 (22%)
are freshwater ecoregions, and 43 (18%) are
marine. Terrestrial ecoregions outnumber those of
the other realms largely because there is more
localized endemism in terrestrial than in marine
biotas. Gaps in biogeographic information for
freshwater and marine biodiversity also account
for some of the variation.
towering emergents are the realm of hornbills,
toucans, and the harpy eagle. The canopy is home
to many of the forest's animals, including apes and
monkeys. Below the canopy, a lower understory
hosts to snakes and big cats. The forest floor,
relatively clear of undergrowth due to the thick
canopy above, is prowled by other animals such as
gorillas and deer. All levels of these forests
contain an unparalleled diversity of invertebrate
species, including New Guinea’s unique stick
insects and bird wing butterflies that can grow
over one foot in length. These forests are under
tremendous threat from man. Many forests are
being cleared for farmland, while others are
subject to large-scale commercial logging. An area
the size of Ireland is destroyed every few years,
largely due to commercial logging and secondary
impacts. Such activities threaten the future of these
forests are the primary contributor to the extinction
of 100-200 species a day on average over the next
forty years (exotics on islands and loss of island
habitats are other major factors). At the current
rate of deforestation, more than 17,000 species
will go extinct every year, which is more than
1,000 times the rate before man arrived on this
planet.
Terrestrial Realm
A total of 14 Major Habitat Types reflect the
diverse array of organisms adapted to life on land.
These habitats range from the wettest of forest
types to the driest and hottest desert conditions.
Moreover, terrestrial communities represented
here include the full extent of continental
topographic relief: from mangrove forests by the
sea to the alpine meadows of the Himalayas.
1. Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf
Forests
Generally found in large, discontinuous patches
centered on the equatorial belt and between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Tropical and
Subtropical Moist Forests (TSMF) are
characterized by low variability in annual
temperature and high levels of rainfall (>200 cm
annually). Forest composition is dominated by
semi-evergreen and evergreen deciduous tree
species. These trees number in the thousands and
contribute to the highest levels of species diversity
in any terrestrial MHT. In general, biodiversity is
focused in the forest canopy, although five layers
typify the forest structure: overstory canopy with
emergent crowns, a medium layer of canopy, lower
canopy, shrub level, and finally understory.
These forests are home to more species than any
other terrestrial ecosystem: Half of the world's
species may live in these forests, where a square
kilometer may be home to more than 1000 tree
species. These forests are found around the world,
particularly in the Indo-Malayan Archipelagos, the
Amazon Basin, and the African Congo. A
perpetually warm, wet climate promotes more
explosive plant growth than in any other
environment on Earth. A tree here may grow over
75 feet in height in just five years. From above, the
forest appears as an unending sea of green, broken
only by occassional, taller "emergent" trees. These
Among the 13 terrestrial MHTs, the largest
number of ecoregions by far falls within the TSMF
(50 ecoregions or 35% of all terrestrial ecoregions)
(Table 1). The high number of ecoregions within
this MHT reflects the biological richness and
complexity of tropical moist forests. Although
there are more TSMF in the Indo-Malayan
Biogeographic realm (17) than in the Neotropics
(12), this is partly due to the archipelagic
distributions of Asian tropical moist forests and
their characteristic biotas (Whitmore 1986, 1990,
Whitten et al.1987ab, 1996, Wikramanayake et al.
in prep.). Four of the Asian TSMFs are small
island systems, and the original extent of all of the
Asian ecoregions fit easily within the area covered
by western Amazonian moist forests.
The most diverse terrestrial ecoregions occur in
the Western Arc forests of the Amazon Basin, with
close rivals in the Atlantic Forest ecoregion of
Brazil, the Chocó-Daríen ecoregion of
northwestern South America, and Peninsular
Malaysia and northern Borneo forest ecoregions.
The montane forest biotas of the Northern Andes
are remarkable for their globally high rates of beta7
diversity and extraordinary local endemism
(Terborgh & Winter 1983, ICBP 1992, Hamilton
et al. 1995, Wege & Long 1995). The forests of
the Guayanan region and Cuba are remarkable for
their endemism and unusual biogeographic
relationships (Hedges 1986, Whitmore & Prance
1987, Borhidi 1991, Dinerstein et al. 1995,
Steyermark et al. 1995). The Congolian coastal
forests are likely the most diverse in the
Afrotropics, although diversity information is
scarce for several ecoregions in the central Congo
Basin (Oates 1996, Kingdon 1997, Burgess et al.
in prep.). The Guinean moist forests support many
species not found in the Central African region
(IUCN/UNEP 1986a, IUCN 1990, Martin 1991,
IUCN 1992b). The Albertine Rift montane forests
are extremely rich for some taxa, such as birds,
and have a high degree of endemism (Collar &
Stuart 1988, Kingdon 1989, WWF/IUCN 1994).
The distinctiveness of the Eastern Arc Montane
and East African Coastal Forests is attributable to
their great age and isolation (Hamilton & BenstedSmith 1989, Lovett & Wasser 1993, Hamilton et
al. 1995, Burgess et al. in prep.). Madagascar
forests and shrublands are also highly distinctive at
global scales, even at higher taxonomic levels
(Nicoll & Langrand 1989, Preston-Mafham 1991,
WWF/IUCN 1994). Tropical moist forests of New
Guinea and New Caledonia are highly distinctive
at global scales (Brooks 1987, Flannery 1990,
1994, WWF/IUCN 1994, Mittermeier et al. 1996,
Wikramanayake et al. in prep.), although
Australian moist forests do share many affinities
with New Guinea. The forests of Sulawesi are
noted for the regionally high degree of endemism
in a range of taxa, a phenomenon also seen in the
Philippines moist forests (IUCN/UNEP 1986b,
BirdLife International 1996, Wikramanayake et al.
in prep.) and in the Lesser Sundas Semievergreen Forests (IUCN 1991, ICBP 1992,
Wikramanayake et al. in prep.). The Western
Ghats and southwestern Sri Lankan moist forests
are distinctive due to their isolation and long
history. Tropical moist forests on oceanic islands
are often highly distinctive due to high rates of
endemism, extraordinary radiations of taxa and
adaptive radiation, and relictual or unique higher
taxa (Dahl 1986, IUCN/UNEP 1986c, Mitchell
1989, Johnson & Statterfield 1990, Flannery 1994,
Kay 1994, WWF/IUCN 1994, Wagner & Funk
1995).
Biodiversity Patterns
These habitats may display high beta diversity,
particularly between isolated montane areas and
along altitudinal gradients; local and regional
endemism can be pronounced in some regions.
Minimum Requirements
Large natural landscapes required in some regions
because larger vertebrates track widely distributed
seasonal or patchy resources; water sources and
riparian vegetation important for wildlife in drier
regions.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
These fragile habitats are highly sensitive to
plowing, overgrazing, and excessive burning due
to their challenging climatic and soil conditions;
larger vertebrates sensitive to even low levels of
hunting.
2. Tropical and Subtropical Dry Forests
Tropical and Subtropical Dry Forests are found in
southern Mexico, southeastern Africa, the Lesser
Sundas, central India, Indochina, Madagascar,
New Caledonia, eastern Bolivia and central Brazil,
the Caribbean, valleys of the northern Andes, and
along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru. Though
these forests occur in climates that are warm yearround, and may receive several hundred
centimeters or rain per year, they deal with long
dry seasons which last several months and vary
with geographic location. These seasonal droughts
have great impact on all living things in the forest.
Deciduous trees predominate these forests, and
during the drought a leafless period occurs, which
varies with species type. Because trees lose
moisture though their leaves, the shedding of
leaves allows trees such as teak and mountain
ebony to conserve water during dry periods. The
newly bare trees open up the canopy layer,
enabling sunlight to reach ground level and
facilitate the growth of thick underbrush. Though
less biologically diverse than rainforests, tropical
dry forests are still home to a wide variety of
wildlife including monkeys, large cats, parrots,
various rodents, and ground dwelling birds. Many
of these species display extraordinary adaptations
to the difficult climate.
The most diverse dry forests in the world occur in
southern Mexico and in the Bolivian lowlands
(Parker et al. 1993, Bullock et al. 1996, Gentry
8
1996). The dry forests of the Pacific Coast of
northwestern South America support a wealth of
unique species due to their isolation (Parker &
Carr 1992, WWF/IUCN 1994, Bullock et al.
1996). The subtropical forests of MaputolandPondoland in southeastern Africa are diverse and
support many endemics (Cowling & Hilton-Taylor
1994, WWF/IUCN 1994). The dry forests of
central India and Indochina are notable for their
diverse large vertebrate faunas (Corbett & Hill
1992, Stewart & Cox 1995). Dry forests of
Madagascar and New Caledonia are also highly
distinctive (pronounced endemism and a large
number of relictual taxa) for a wide range of taxa
and at higher taxonomic levels
(IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1987, Preston-Mafham 1991,
WWF/IUCN 1994, Wikramanayake et al. in
prep.).
needles are adapted to deal with the variable
climatic conditions. Many migratory birds and
butterflies winter in tropical and subtropical
conifer forests. These biomes feature a thick,
closed canopy which blocks light to the floor and
allows little underbrush. As a result, the ground is
often covered with fungi and ferns. Shrubs and
small trees compose a diverse understory.
Mexico harbors the world’s richest and most
complex subtropical coniferous forests (Perry
1991, Peterson et al. 1993, Ramamoorthy et al.
1993, WWF/IUCN 1994). The conifer forests of
the Greater Antilles contain many endemics and
relictual taxa (Borhidi 1991). Subtropical conifer
forests of Indochina are incorporated into the dry
and moist forests of the region.
Biodiversity Patterns
Considerable local endemism and beta diversity
occurs in some ecoregions in invertebrates,
understory plants, and lichens, particularly in
moister forests or on unusual soils; some larger
vertebrates and dominant tree species may have
widespread ranges; may have extremely floras;
altitudinal specialization occurs.
Biodiversity Patterns
Species tend to have wider ranges than moist
forest species, although in some regions many
species do display highly restricted ranges; most
dry forest species are restricted to tropical dry
forests, particularly in plants; beta diversity and
alpha diversity high but typically lower than
adjacent moist forests.
Minimum Requirements
Disturbance regimes such as fire, windthrow, and
epizootics can vary considerably within this MHT,
but the extremes are typically of sufficient size and
frequency as to make small patches of natural
forest have only limited conservation value; many
species highly specialized on late-successional
forests; larger carnivores very wide-ranging with
large home ranges; some species track resources
that vary widely in space in time (e.g., epizootic
outbreaks, fire events, cone production) requiring
large natural landscapes.
Minimum Requirements
Large natural areas are required to maintain larger
predators and other vertebrates; large areas are
also needed to buffer sensitive species from
hunting pressure; the persistence of riparian forests
and water sources is critical for many dry forest
species; periodic fires require larger blocks of
intact forest to be able to aborb occassional large
events.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Dry forests are highly sensitive to excessive
burning and deforestation; overgrazing and exotic
species can also quickly alter natural communities;
restoration is possible but challenging, particulary
if degradation has been intense and persistent.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Larger carnivores highly sensitive to human
activities including low intensity hunting; large
number of species highly sensitive to logging and
fragmentation of natural forests, particularly latesuccessional species; late-successional species and
features typically regenerate slowly; many
temperate forests require periodic fires to maintain
successional processes and many species; exotic
species can have extensive and significant impacts
on natural forest communities.
3. Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests
Found predominantly in North and Central
America, these tropical regions experience low
levels of precipitation and moderate variability in
temperature. Consequently, Tropical and
Subtropical Coniferous Forests are characterized
by diverse species of conifers—trees whose
9
cross deforested areas; restoration potential for
these forests is high; exotic species can have
extensive and significant impacts on native
communities; the loss of large native predators has
many cascading impacts on forest structure and
ecology.
4. Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests
Forests in the temperate world experience a wide
range of variability in temperature and
precipitation. In regions where rainfall is broadly
distributed throughout the year, deciduous trees
mix with species of evergreens. Species such as
oak (Quercus spp.), beech (Fagus spp.), birch
(Betupa spp.), and maple (Acer spp.) typify the
composition of the Temperate Broadleaf and
Mixed Forests (TBMF). Structurally, these forests
are characterized by four layers: a canopy
composed of mature full-sized dominant species
and a slightly lower layer of mature trees, a shrub
layer, and understory layer of grasses and other
herbaceous plants. In contrast to tropical rain
forests, most biodiversity is concentrated much
closer to the forest floor.
5. Temperate Coniferous Forests
Temperate evergreen forests are found
predominantly in areas with warm summers and
cool winters, and vary enormously in their kinds of
plant life. In some, needleleaf trees dominate,
while others are home primarily to broadleaf
evergreen trees or a mix of both tree types.
Temperate evergreen forests are common in the
coastal areas of regions that have mild winters and
heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or
montane areas. Many species of trees inhabit these
forests including pine, cedar, fir, and redwood.
The understory also contains a wide variety of
herbaceous and shrub species. Temperate conifer
forests sustain the highest levels of biomass in any
terrestrial ecosystem and are notable for trees of
massive proportions in temperate rainforest
regions.
TBMF are richest and most distinctive in central
China and eastern North America, with some other
globally distinctive ecoregions in the Caucasus,
the Himalayas, southern Europe, and the Russian
Far East (Table 2) (Zhao et al. 1990, Martin et al.
1993, Oosterbroek 1994, WWF/IUCN 1994,
MacKinnon & Hicks 1996, Ricketts et al. 1999).
Structurally, these forests are rather simple,
consisting of two layers generally: an overstory
and understory. However, some forests may
support a layer of shrubs. Pine forests support an
herbaceous groundlayer that may be dominated by
grasses and forbs that lend themselves to
ecologically important wildfires. In contrast, the
moist conditions found in temperate rain forests
favor the dominance by ferns and some forbs.
Biodiversity Patterns
Most dominant species have widespread
distributions, but in many ecoregions there can be
a large number of ecoregional and local endemics;
beta diversity can be high for plants, invertebrates,
and some smaller vertebrates in some ecoregions;
unusual soils can harbor many specialist plants and
invertebrates; some ecoregions can have very high
alpha and gamma diversity for plants, particularly
understory species and herbaceous floras.
Altitudinal specialization occurs but is less
pronounced than in the tropics.
Temperate rain forests only occur in seven regions
around the world - the Pacific Northwest, the
Validivian forests of southwestern South America,
the rain forests of New Zealand and Tasmania, the
Northeastern Atlantic (small, isolated pockets in
Ireland, Scotland, and Iceland), southwestern
Japan, and those of the eastern Black Sea (Kellogg
et al. 1992, WWF/IUCN 1994). Forest
communities dominated by huge trees (e.g., giant
sequoia, Sequoiadendron gigantea; redwood,
Sequoia sempervirens; mountain ash, Eucalyptus
regnans), an unusual ecological phenomena, occur
in western North America, southwestern South
America, as well as in the Australasian region in
such areas as southeastern Australia and northern
New Zealand. The Klamath-Siskiyou ecoregion of
Minimum Requirements
Larger native carnivores require large natural
landscapes to persist, periodic large-scale
disturbance events such as fire necessitate the
conservation of large blocks of forest; many
species of plants, lichen, fungi, and invertebrates
depend upon late-successional forests.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Certain species are highly sensitive to habitat
fragementation, such as breeding songbirds
exposed to parasitism or elevated nest predation;
many forest understory species are also unable to
10
western North America harbors diverse and
unusual assemblages and displays notable
endemism for a number of plant and animal taxa.
Low levels and variation of species richness and
endemism are characteristic of circumboreal and
circumpolar ecoregions (Tables 2 &3) (USSR
Academy of Sciences 1988), thus the presence of
intact ecological phenomena selected outstanding
ecoregions. Large-scale migrations of caribou, or
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and intact predator
assemblages can still be found in some regions, as
well as relatively unaltered natural disturbance
regimes. For example, the Northern Cordillera
boreal forests of Canada have been identified as
the “Serengeti” of the Far North due to its
abundance and diversity of large vertebrates
(Ricketts et al. 1999). Extensive tracts of boreal
forest and taiga still exist in the northern Nearctic
and Palearctic, the largest expanses being in
central and eastern Russia (Stewart 1992, Krever
et al. 1994).
Biodiversity Patterns
Most tree species and larger vertebrates have
relatively widespread distributions; considerable
local endemism and beta diversity occurs in some
ecoregions in invertebrates, understory plants, and
lichens, particularly in rain forests or on unusual
soils; may have extremely diverse invertebrate
faunas or herbaceous floras; altitudinal
specialization occurs but is less pronounced than
in the tropics.
Minimum Requirements
Disturbance regimes such as fire, windthrow, and
epizootics can vary considerably within this MHT,
but the extremes are typically of sufficient size and
frequency as to make small patches of natural
forest have only limited conservation value; many
species highly specialized on late-successional
forests; larger carnivores very wide-ranging with
large home ranges; some species track resources
that vary widely in space in time (e.g., epizootic
outbreaks, fire events, cone production) requiring
large natural landscapes.
Biodiversity Patterns
Most species tend to have widespread
distributions; low alpha and beta diversity.
Minimum Requirements
Large natural landscapes of taiga are critical to
maintain populations of species that track
resources that vary considerably in space and time
(e.g., epizootic insect events, hare irruptions),
viable populations of large carnivores require
extensive natural areas because of large home
range sizes; disturbance events such as fire and
epizootics can cover extremely large areas - even
whole landscapes; fire and epizootic events
required for some successional processes; largescale linkages of natural habitat are required to
permit migrations of larger vertebrates and
associated predators in response to seasonal
changes or disturbances.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Larger carnivores highly sensitive to human
activities including low intensity hunting; large
number of species highly sensitive to logging and
fragmentation of natural forests, particularly latesuccessional species; late-successional species and
features typically regenerate slowly; many
temperate forests require periodic fires to maintain
successional processes and many species; exotic
species can have extensive and significant impacts
on natural forest communities.
6. Boreal Forests and Taiga
Low annual temperatures characterize northerly
latitudes; precipitation ranges from 40-100 cm per
year and may fall mainly as snow. This
combination, along with nutrient poor soils—
largely a result of permafrost and the resultant
poor drainage—favors the preponderence of
conifer species (Abies, Picea, Larix, and Pinus),
although species of deciduous trees are also rather
common: Betula spp. and Populus spp. Ground
cover in Boreal Forests and Taiga is dominated by
mosses and lichens.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Regeneration of mature forests takes very long
periods of time due to the challenging climate and
soil conditions; many larger vertebrates are
sensitive to human presence or low intensity
hunting; very sensitive to acid rain and other forms
of pollutants.
11
also necessitate the conservation of larger natural
landscapes; some large predators, such as wild
dogs of Africa, require large natural areas to
persist due to home range size and sensitivity to
humans; sources of water are critical for many
species.
7. Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands,
Savannas, and Shrublands
Large expanses of land in the tropics do not
receive enough rainfall to support extensive tree
cover. The Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands,
Savannas, and Shrublands are characterized by
rainfall levels between 90-150 cm per year.
However, there may be great variability in soil
moisture throughout the year. Grasses dominate
the species composition of these ecoregions,
although scattered trees may be common. Large
mammals that have evolved to take advantage of
the ample forage typify the biodiversity associated
with these habitats.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Restoration potential in these systems is high; but
plowing, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and
excessive burning can quickly degrade and alter
natural communities; alteration of surface water
patterns can have significant impacts on the
persistence of many vertebrate species; many
species are highly sensitive to low intensity
hunting or other human activities.
These large mammal faunas are richest in African
savannas and grasslands. The most intact
assemblages currently occur in East African
Acacia savannas and Zambezian savannas
comprised of mosaics of miombo, mopane, and
other habitats (McClanahan & Young 1996).
Large-scale migration of tropical savanna
herbivores, such as wildebeest (Connochaetes
taurinus) and zebra (Equus zebra), are continuing
to decline through habitat alteration and hunting.
They now only occur to any significant degree
only in East Africa and the central Zambezian
region. Much of the extraordinary abundance of
Guinean and Sahelian savannas has been
eliminated, although the savannas in the Sudd
region are one of the last places where large-scale
migrations of Ugandan Kob still occur. Both the
Cerrado and the Llanos are noted for complexity
of habitats and the unusually high levels of
endemism and beta diversity in plants for tropical
savannas. The tropical savannas of northern
Australia and southern New Guinea exhibit
distinct species assemblages and higher taxa.
8. Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and
Shrublands
Known as prairies in North America, pampas in
South America, veld in Southern Africa and steppe
in Asia, Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and
Shrublands differ largely from tropical grasslands
in the annual temperature regime as well as the
types of species found here. Generally speaking,
these regions are devoid of trees, except for
riparian or gallery forests associated with streams
and rivers. However, some regions do support
savanna conditions characterized by interspersed
individuals or clusters of trees. Biodiversity in
these habitats includes a number of large grazing
mammals and associated predators in addition to
burrowing mammals, numerous bird species, and
of course, a diversity of insects.
The vast expanses of grass in North America and
Eurasia once sustained vast migrations of large
vertebrates such as buffalo (Bubalus bubalis),
saiga (Saiga tatarica), and Tibetan antelopes
(Pantholops hodgsoni) and kiang (Equus
hemionus). Such extraordinary phenomena now
occur only in isolated pockets, primarily in the
Daurian Steppe and Tibetan Plateau (see Montane
Grasslands MHT)(Krever et al. 1994, Hilbig 1995,
Finch 1996). The extraordinary floral communities
of the Eurasian steppes and the North American
Great Plains, have been largely extirpated through
conversion to agriculture. Nonetheless, as many as
300 different plant species may grow on less than
3 acres of North American tallgrass prarie, which
also may support more than 3 million individual
insects per acre. The Patagonian Steppe and
Biodiversity Patterns
Diverse large mammal assemblages in abundant
aggregations can be a characteristic feature; most
vertebrates display relatively widespread
distributions; plant alpha diversity is typically low,
but in some regions beta diversity and gamma
diversity can be very high.
Minimum Requirements
Large natural landscapes are necessary to allow
large grazers and their associated predators to
track seasonal rainfall or to migrate to new areas
during periodic droughts; large-scale fire events
12
Grasslands are notable for distinctiveness at the
generic and familial level in a variety of taxa.
Some globally outstanding flooded savannas and
grasslands occur in the Everglades, Pantanal,
Sahelian flooded savannas, Zambezian flooded
savannas, and the Sudd. The Everglades are the
world’s largest rain-fed flooded grassland on a
limestone substrate, and feature some 11,000
species of seed-bearing plants, 25 varieties of
orchids, 300 bird species, and 150 fish species.
The Pantanal, one of the largest continental
wetlands on Earth, supports over 260 species of
fish, 700 birds, 90 mammals, 160 reptiles, 45
amphibians, 1000 butterflies, and 1600 species of
plants. The flooded savannas and grasslands
selected are generally the largest complexes in
each region.
Biodiversity Patterns
Relatively low alpha, beta, and gamma diversity,
except for some exceptionally rich floras in some
regions; most species have relatively widespread
distributions; some larger vertebrate species may
occur in great abundance.
Minimum Requirements
Many vagile species require large natural
landscapes to be able to track seasonal or patchy
resources, or to move from areas impacted by
large-scale disturbances such as fire; the presence
of water and riparian vegetation important for
many species; large natural areas are needed to
maintain natural fire regimes which are important
for maintaining community structure and
composition.
Biodiversity Patterns
Most terrestrial species have relatively widespread
ranges in these habitats; alpha and beta diversity
are not pronounced; endemism in terrestrial
species is low.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Plowing of grasslands, savannas, and shrublands
can drastically alter species compositions and the
restoration potential of natural communities;
excessive burning or fire suppression can
dramatically alter community structure and
composition; loss and degradation of riparian or
gallery forest habitats and water sources has
significant impacts on wildlife; overgrazing causes
significant community changes, erosion, and
reduction in restoration potential; loss of keystone
species such as buffalo, saiga, and prairie dogs can
have major impacts on animal and plant
communities.
Minimum Requirements
Maintaining hydrographic integrity is critical to
these habitats; many species track flooding
patterns and seasonal abundance of resources;
riparian and gallery habitats important for many
species.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Diversion and channelization of water flow greatly
impact the integrity of these habitats; loss of
riparian and gallery habitats can impact wildlife
populations; sensitive to water quality changes
from pollution and eutrophication; alteration of
natural fire regimes may shift composition and
structure of communities.
9. Flooded Grasslands and Savannas
Common to four of the continents on Earth are
large expanses or complexes of flooded
grasslands. These areas support numerous plants
and animals adapted to the unique hydrologic
regimes and soil conditions. Large congregations
of migratory and resident waterbirds may be found
in these regions.
10. Montane Grasslands
This major habitat type includes high elevation
(montane and alpine) grasslands and shrublands,
including the puna and paramo in South America,
subalpine heath in New Guinea and East Africa,
steppes of the Tibetan plateaus, as well as other
similar subalpine habitats around the world. They
are tropical, subtropical, and temperate.The plants
and animals of tropical montane paramos display
striking adaptations to cool, wet conditions and
intense sunlight. Around the world, characteristic
plants of these habitats display features such as
rosette structures, waxy surfaces, and abundant
pilosity. The paramos of the northern Andes are
However, the relative importance of these habitat
types for these birds as well as more vagile taxa
typically varies as the availability of water and
productivity annually and seasonally shifts among
complexes of smaller and larger wetlands
throughout a region.
13
the most extensive examples of this major habitat
type. Although ecoregion biotas are most diverse
in the Andes, these ecosystems are highly
distinctive wherever they occur in the tropics. The
heathlands and moorlands of East Africa (e.g., Mt.
Kilimanjaro, Mt. Kenya, Rwenzori Mts.), Mt.
Kinabalu of Borneo, and the Central Range of
New Guinea are all limited in extent, extremely
isolated, and support highly endemic plants and
animals. Drier, yet distinctive, subtropical montane
grasslands, savannas, and woodlands include the
Ethiopian Highlands, the Zambezian montane
grasslands and woodlands, and the montane
habitats of southeastern Africa (Werger 1978,
White 1983, Huntley 1989, 1994, Timberlake &
Müller 1994, WWF/IUCN 1994). The montane
grasslands of the Tibetan Plateau still support
relatively intact migrations of Tibetan antelope
(Pantholops hodgsoni) and kiang, or Tibetan wild
ass (Equus hemionus). A unique feature of many
tropical paramos is the presence of giant rosette
plants from a variety of plant families, such as
Lobelia (Africa), Puya (South America), Cyathea
(New Guinea), and Argyroxiphium (Hawai’i) –
these plant forms can reach elevations of 45004600m above sea level.
region's long, dry winters feature months of total
darkness and extremely frigid temperatures.
Structurally, the Tundra is a treeless expanse that
supports communities of sedges and heaths as well
as dwarf shrubs. Vegetation is generally scattered,
although it can be patchy reflecting changes in soil
and moisture gradients. Most precipitation falls in
the form of snow during the winter while soils
tend to be acidic and saturated with water where
not frozen.
Biodiversity Patterns
These habitats may display high beta diversity,
particularly between isolated montane areas and
along altitudinal gradients; local and regional
endemism can be pronounced in some regions.
Minimum Requirements
Vast natural habitats are required to allow many
species to track patchy resources that vary in
location from one year to the next (e.g., lemming
irruptions), the presence of varied habitats and
associated resources is critical for the survival of
many vagile vertebrates; migration corridors for
large vertebrates must remain intact to allow largescale seasonal movements (e.g., caribou).
Tundra ecoregions were selected primarily
because of extraordinary seasonal concentrations
of breeding waterfowl and shorebirds, as well as
caribou (Stewart 1992, Krever et al. 1994, Ricketts
et al. 1999). Relatively intact tundra ecoregions
were chosen, wherever possible. Some tundra
ecoregions such as Chukotsky are distinctive in
that they display an appreciable level of regional
plant endemism (Knystautas 1987, USSR
Academy of Sciences 1988, WWF/IUCN 1994).
Biodiversity Patterns
Species typically have widespread distributions,
except for some herbaceous plants; low alpha
diversity, low beta diversity.
Minimum Requirements
Large natural landscapes required in some regions
because larger vertebrates track widely distributed
seasonal or patchy resources; water sources and
riparian vegetation important for wildlife in drier
regions.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Groundcover and surface water flow is highly
sensitive to disturbance with very poor resiliency;
many vertebrates highly sensitive to the presence
of humans or to low intensity hunting; polar
ecosystems are particulary sensitive to changes in
climatic parameters associated with global climate
change; toxins and other compounds tend to
sequester and break down only slowly in polar
ecosystems.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
These fragile habitats are highly sensitive to
plowing, overgrazing, and excessive burning due
to their challenging climatic and soil conditions;
larger vertebrates sensitive to even low levels of
hunting.
11. Tundra
The tundra is a treeless polar desert found in the
high latitudes in the polar regions, primarily in
Alaska, Canada, Russia, Greenland, Iceland, and
Scandinavia, as well as sub-Antarctic islands. The
12. Deserts and Xeric Shrublands
Worldwide, Deserts and Xeric Shrublands vary
greatly in the amount of annual rainfall they
receive; generally, however, evaporation exceeds
14
rainfall in these ecoregions, usually less than 10
inches annually. Temperature variability is also
extremely diverse in these remarkable lands. Many
deserts, such as the Sahara, are hot year-round but
others, such as Asia's Gobi, become quite cold in
winter. Temperature extremes are a characteristic
of most deserts. Searing daytime heat gives way to
cold nights because there is no insulation provided
by humidity and cloud cover. Not surprisingly, the
diversity of climatic conditions—though quite
harsh—supports a rich array of habitats. Many of
these habitats are ephemeral in nature—reflecting
the paucity and seasonality of available water.
diverse; local endemism may be quite pronounced
in some regions.
Minimum Requirements
Many species track seasonally variable and patchy
resources and require large natural landscapes to
persist; water sources and riparian habitats are
critical for the persistence of many species.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Highly sensitive to grazing, soil disturbance,
burning, plowing, and other cover alteration;
restoration potential can be very low and
regeneration very slow; exotic species may be a
serious problem.
Woody-stemmed shrubs and plants characterize
vegetation in these regions. Above all, these plants
have evolved to minimize water loss. Animal
biodiversity is equally well adapted and quite
diverse.
13. Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and
Scrub
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub
ecoregions are characterized by hot and dry
summers, while winters tend to be cool and moist.
Most precipitation arrives during these months. .
Only five regions in the world experience these
conditions: the Mediterranean, south-central and
southwestern Australia, the fynbos of southern
Africa, the Chilean matorral, and the
Mediterranean ecoregions of California. Although
the habitat is globally rare, it features an
extraordinary biodiversity of uniquely adapted
animal and plant species, which can adapt to the
stressful conditions of long, hot summers with
little rain.Most plants are fire adapted, and
dependent on this disturbance for their persistence.
The Namib-Karoo deserts of southwestern Africa
support the world’s richest desert floras (Cowling
& Hilton-Taylor 1994, Maggs et al. 1994,
WWF/IUCN 1994), while the Chihuahuan Desert
and central Mexican deserts are a close second and
are the richest Neotropical deserts (Cowling et al.
1989, Hernandez & Barcenas 1995, Ricketts et al.
1999). Australian deserts support the richest
reptile faunas. The Carnavon Xeric Scrub of
western Australia is a regional center of endemism
for a range of taxa. Unusual desert communities
dominated by giant columnar cacti occur in the
Sonoran and Baja deserts of North America
(Brown 1994), while the spiny deserts and
shrublands of southwestern Madagascar are
globally unique in terms of structure and taxa
(although some Baja California communities are
partially convergent in structure). The Atacama
Desert ecoregion of western South America (as
well as the adjacent transition area of the
Monte/Puna/Yungas) and the Horn of Africa
deserts were recognized as some of the more
outstanding regional centers of richness and
endemism. The Central Asian deserts, while not
nearly as rich as Afrotropical or Neotropical
deserts, are representative of the region’s deserts.
All five Mediterranean-climate ecoregions are
highly distinctive, collectively harboring 20
percent of the Earth’s plant species (Cody 1986,
Kalin Aroyo et al. 1995, Picker & Samways 1995).
Phytogeographers consider the Fynbos as a
separate floral kingdom because 68% of the 8600
vascular plant species crowded into its 90,000 km2
are endemic and highly distinctive at several
taxonomic levels (Cowling et al. 1989, 1996,
Cowling & Hilton-Taylor 1994). In terms of
species densities, this is equivalent to about 40
percent of the plant species of the United States
and Canada combined, found within an area the
size of the state of Maine (N. Myers, pers. comm.).
The Fynbos and Southwest Australia shrublands
have floras that are significantly more diverse than
the other ecoregions, although any Mediterranean
shrubland is still rich in species and endemics
Biodiversity Patterns
Deserts and xeric shrublands may have
extraordinarily rich floras with very high alpha and
beta diversity; reptile faunas may also be very
15
relative to other non-forest ecoregions (Cowling et
al. 1996, Oosterbroek 1994).
Mangrove forests on the western coast of
Madagascar support a number of endemic bird
species that are endangered. In some tropical
countries, such as India, the Philippines, and
Vietnam, over 50 percent of mangrove ecosystems
have been lost in this century.
Biodiversity Patterns
Regional and local endemism is common, with
some species with highly restricted ranges; high
alpha and very high beta diversity, particularly in
plants; specialization on soils is common.
Biodiversity Patterns
Most species typically have relatively widespread
distributions; low diversity floras but overall alpha
diversity very high when terrestrial and aquatic
species are considered; very low beta diversity and
low ecoregional endemism; some highly localized
species exist; strong zonation along gradients;
several distinct mangrove habitat formations.
Minimum Requirements
Blocks of natural habitat need to be large enough
to sustain regular fire events such that unburned
patches are left to act as source pools and refugia
for vagile species; some species undertake
seasonal movements in response to resource
availability, thus diverse habitats and natural
linkage habitats are important; riparian habitats
critical for survival of many species.
Minimum Requirements
Mangroves require relatively intact hydrographic
and salinity regimes, without these conditions
remaining within natural ranges the persistence or
restoration of mangroves is difficult or impossible.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Natural communities are highly sensitive to habitat
fragmentation, grazing, and alteration of fire
regimes (overburning or fire suppression), native
species are particularly at risk from exotic plants
and animals that establish and spread with ease in
these communities; restoration of communities is
feasible but fire regimes must be restored and
exotics controlled effectively.
Sensitivity to Disturbance
Alterations of hydrography and substrate have
considerable impact, but restoration potential is
high; mangroves are susceptible to pollution,
particulary oil and other petroleum compounds;
alteration of salinity levels can have dramatic
impacts on mangroves.
14. Mangroves
Mangroves occur in the waterlogged, salty soils of
sheltered tropical and subtropical shores. They are
subject to the twice-daily ebb and flow of tides,
fortnightly spring and neap tides, and seasonal
weather fluctuations. They stretch from the
intertidal zone up to the high-tide mark. These
forests are comprised of twelve genera comprising
about 60 species of salt-tolerant trees . With their
distinctive nest of stilt and prop-like roots,
mangroves can thrive in areas of soft, waterlogged,
and oxygen-poor soil by using aerial and even
horizontal roots to gain a foothold. The roots also
absorb oxygen from the air, while the tree's leaves
can excrete excess salt. Associated with the tree
species are a whole host of aquatic and salttolerant plants. Together they provide important
nursery habitats for a vast array of aquatic animal
species.
Freshwater Realm
Small river basins are represented by 21
ecoregions, large lakes by four ecoregions, small
lakes by seven, xeric basins by three ecoregions,
large river headwaters by five, large river deltas by
six ecoregions, and large rivers by seven
ecoregions (Table 1). The most diverse vertebrate
assemblages on Earth occur in freshwater
communities of the Amazon and the Orinoco River
basins. Over three thousand species of fish are
estimated to occur in the Amazon Basin alone
(Goulding 1980).
15. Large Rivers
Faunas adapted to high flow regimes of large
rivers are uncommon and best developed in the
Yangtze, Colorado, lower Mississippi, and lower
Congo rivers. A relatively small area of rapids in
the latter region supports 22 endemic species of
rapid specialist fish (Lowe-McConnell 1987). The
Mekong, Congo, Paraná and Amazon-Orinoco
Mangrove ecosystems are most diverse in South
Asian seas and least diverse in the Caribbean
(MacNae 1968, Lacerda 1993, Olson et al. 1996).
16
Rivers harbor the four great large tropical river
fish faunas (Mori 1936, Roberts 1975, Hocutt &
Wiley 1986, Lowe-McConnell 1987, Kottelat &
Whitten 1996). The waters of the Lower
Mississippi River contain outstanding examples of
large river fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and
invertebrates, including glacial relicts and many
endemics (Abell et al. 2000).
Greater Sundas, the Greater Antilles, Sri Lanka,
and New Caledonia (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1987,
Zakaria-Ismail 1987, 1994, Allen 1991, PrestonMafham 1991, Oberdorff et al. 1995). The
Southwest Australian Rivers and streams
ecoregion is a center of endemism, while also
harboring a number of primitive higher taxa and
several species with highly unusual freshwater life
histories. (McDowall 1996, State of the
Environment Advisory Council 1996). Rivers and
streams along the Gulf of Guinea harbor some of
the richest and most endemic riverine freshwater
biotas in Africa (Kingdon 1989, Lévêque et al.
1992, Thieme et al. in prep.). The Salween River
in Vietnam is recognized for its rich and endemic
16. Large River Headwaters
Species, assemblages, and processes in headwater
areas are distinct from those of their larger
mainstems. The Mississippi Piedmont, Guayanan
highlands, Upper Amazon, Upper Paraná,
Brazilian Shield, Congo Basin Piedmont harbor a
tremendous array of species, including numerous
endemics adapted to life in these waters. In turn,
these river systems ultimately feed a number of the
world’s largest and richest rivers (Hocutt & Wiley
1986, Kottelat & Whitten 1996, Thieme et al. in
prep.).
freshwater fish fauna (WCMC 1998).
19. Large Lakes
The Global 200 also identifies the most
outstanding examples of diverse and endemic
freshwater faunas in large lakes found in temperate
and tropical regions, many displaying
extraordinary species flocks and adaptive
radiations in fish taxa. Some particularly notable
lake biotas include those of the African Rift Lakes
and Lake Tana in Ethiopia, Lake Baikal, Lake
Biwa of southern Japan, the high altitude lakes of
the Andes, and the highland lakes of Mexico
(Myers 1960, Roberts 1975, Hocutt & Wiley 1986,
Allen 1991, Stiassny 1992, WCMC 1992,
Nagelkerke 1995, Kottelat & Whitten 1996, Olson
et al. 1999, Thieme et al. in prep.).
17. Large River Deltas
Delta complexes of several large temperate and
polar rivers are identified, including the
Mesopotamian, Volga, and Lena river deltas. The
Niger, the most extensive river delta in Africa,
is characterized by high species richness
(Davies and Walker 1986, Wetlands International
& The World Bank 1996, Thieme et al. in prep.).
The extensive deltas of the Orinoco and Amazon
rivers are covered by their respective large river
ecoregions (see above).
20. Small Lakes
Similarly, a number of lentic systems represented
smaller lakes around the world host extraordinary
expressions of freshwater biodiversity. Lake
Kutubu of New Guinea, Yunnan Lakes &
18. Small River Basins
The Mississippi River embayment, the Mobile
River basin, and numerous coastal streams and
rivers of southeastern North America together
support one of the Earth’s richest temperate
freshwater biotas (Hocutt & Wiley 1986, Hackney
et al. 1992, Abell et al. 2000). The headwater
streams and rivers of the Yangtze River in central
China are also extremely diverse (recognized as a
large river major habitat type in this analysis)
(Mori 1936, Nicholls 1943, Taki 1975). Secondary
centers of temperate diversity occur in the rivers
and streams of southeastern North America, the
western coast of North America, and the Russian
Far East (Zhadin & Gerd 1961, Lee et al. 1980,
Hocutt & Wiley 1986, Abell et al. 2000). Several
freshwater biotas on islands are highly distinctive,
including those of Madagascar, New Guinea, the
Streams, Mexican Highland Lakes, the
Cameroon Crater Lakes, Lake Lanao of the
Philippines, Lake Inle in Myanmar, and Central
Sulawesi Lakes have been selected for their
globally outstading biodiversity features.
21. Xeric Basins
Little permanent surface water and a relative
abundance of springs characterize ecoregions
in this MHT. Extraordinary freshwater
biodiversity in desert regions occurs in the
Chihuahuan, Anatolian, and Central Australian
freshwater ecoregions (Hocutt & Wiley 1986,
17
Balik 1995, Abell et al. 2000). The Cuatro
Ciénegas spring and pool complex in the
Chihuahuan Desert is unique in its high richness,
extreme endemism, and unusual evolutionary
adaptations (Contreras-Balderas 1978ab, Hocutt &
Wiley 1986). As well, rivers in the Anatolian
region of Turkey support many endemic species
adapted to these waters (Balik 1995).
other Global 200 ecoregions, the lack of an
accepted classification, and the limited
biodiversity information for these ecosystems (see
Appendix 5 for brief descriptions of these areas).
Large biogeographic units have been identified for
pelagic and abyssal biotas (e.g., Brinton 1962,
Longhurst 1998, Pierrot-Bults 1997, Vinogradova
1997), but their scale is several orders of
magnitude greater than most Global 200
ecoregions. These larger units may be
biogeographically and dynamically logical for
open ocean environments. However, the vast size
and dynamic nature of these MHTs also precluded
delineating biogeographic subunits at an
appropriate level of resolution for the Global 200.
Marine Realm
The distribution of marine biodiversity varies
widely throughout ocean basins (Briggs 1974;
Elder & Pernetta 1991; Angel 1992, 1993; Clarke
1992; Kendall & Aschan 1993; Kelleher et
al.1995; Groombridge & Jenkins 1996; Ormond et
al. 1997). The abundance and diversity of most
taxa tends to be highest near continental and island
margins that are less than 2,000 m deep (Ray 1991,
Johannes & Hatcher 1986, Gray 1997). These
areas experience nutrient enrichment from
upwelling processes and terrestrial runoff (Ray
1988, Norse 1995). Areas where significant
upwelling occurs are often extraordinarily
productive in tropical, temperate, and polar
regions. Within MHTs, species richness and
endemism also vary enormously around the globe
Moreover, knowledge of biogeographic boundaries
and biodiversity information for these MHTs is
limited at this time. The pelagic MHTs are
characterized by widespread distribution of many
species. In contrast, sizable proportions of the
ocean trench biotas (hadal) surveyed to date are
endemic to single trenches. Our limited knowledge
reduces our confidence to undertake comparative
analyses.
26. Polar
Low temperatures, low salinity, high plankton
levels and correspondingly green color generally
characterize Polar marine waters. Extensive ice is
also typical of the polar ocean, both in terms of
cover by sheets and in the form of drift ice and
icebergs carried by polar currents. Ice provides
important habitat in the form of breeding platforms
from which seals breed and search for food. Polar
bears in the Arctic, and penguins in the Antarctic,
also rely on the ice for habitat. Species diversity is
enhanced in the Polar seas by a system of warm
water upwellings that create breaks in the ice. The
corresponding open areas support numerous
invertebrates, fish, sea birds, and marine
mammals—the result of a broad based food chain.
Species endemism tends to be less pronounced in
marine ecosystems than in terrestrial or freshwater
ecoregions, but several regional centers of
endemism are recognized, including the southern
coast of Australia, New Caledonia, Lord Howe
and Norfolk Islands, the northern coast of South
America, the Yellow and East China Seas, the Red
Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Cortez, the
Great Barrier Reef, and tropical Pacific Islands
such as Hawai’i, Marquesas, the Tuamotus and
Societies, and Easter Island (Robbins 1991, Lieske
& Myers 1996, Vernon 1995, Groombridge &
Jenkins 1996). In general, marine ecoregions
associated with isolated islands and enclosed seas
tend to display higher levels of endemism
(Kelleher et al.1995, Groombridge & Jenkins
1996).
The Weddell Sea and Peninsular Antarctica were
identified as the most productive and diverse
ecoregions of the Antarctic large marine
ecosystem (Van Mieghen & Oye 1965, Knox
1989), while the Bering, Beaufort, & Chukchi Seas
and Barents Sea ecoregions are arguably the two
most diverse and productive Arctic marine
ecosystems (USSR Academy of Sciences 1988,
Reeves & Leatherwood 1994).
The marine real includes a total of 10 MHTs.
However, pelagic (trades [22] and westerlies [23]),
abyssal [24], and hadal [25] MHTs were not
assessed for the Global 200 marine analysis
because of the scale of these units compared to
18
support short, relatively uncomplicated food
chains. Species diversity is variable and often
includes species entrained from deep upwelled
water. These regions are largely characterized by
low precipitation, and adjacent terrestrial
ecoregions are often arid.
27. Temperate Shelf & Seas
The Temperate Shelf and Seas are highly
productive regions of great biological importance,
supporting resident as well as migratory species
during various life cycle stages. The relative
shallowness of these regions (the continental shelf
extends to an average maximum depth of 150
meters) leads to warmer temperatures and seasonal
stratification of the water column based on
temperature. Seasonal variability, along with
freshwater influxes from coastal streams and tidal
action, contribute to very heterogeneous habitats
and a corresopondingly high diversity of
organisms: fish, invertebrates (productive benthic
communities), marine mammals, and numerous
marine bird species.
29. Tropical Upwelling
Similar to Temperate Upwelling areas, Tropical
Upwelling habitats are characterized by high
productivity resulting from the upwelling of
nutrient rich bottom waters. These regions are
distinct from other tropical waters in that the
bottom waters bring cool water and nutrients to the
surface. Contrasted with the warm, highly saline,
and nutrient poor waters typical of tropical marine
ecosytems, Tropical Upwelling habitats support
distinctive species and systems. The combination
of high productivity and tropical climates produce
unique communities that often support a high level
of endemism as well as high levels of productivity.
Large numbers of fish and sea birds are found
here, as are a diversity of sea turtles and marine
mammals.
Some of the most productive marine ecosystems
occur in the Grand Banks and New Zealand plus
the Patagonia ecoregions. The South Australian
coastal waters are remarkable for unusually high
levels of endemism in invertebrates, in addition to
the diverse marine mammal assemblage found
there. Two of the world’s largest temperate
estuaries, the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays and
the Northeast Atlantic Shelf are elevated to the
Global 200 due to their size, productivity, and
habitat diversity. Two of the most distinctive
enclosed temperate seas, the Mediterranean Sea
and the Yellow and East China Seas, are
recognized in the Global 200.
The Humboldt Current along the West Coast of
South America and the Canary Current along the
West Coast of Africa bring rich nutrients to the sea
surface where they support highly productive
marine systems. In addition, important tropical
upwelling and current areas occur in the Panama
Bight ecoregions.
28. Temperate Upwelling
Important coastal upwelling areas occur along the
West Coast of North America where the California
Current moves southward. Along the Southwest
coast of Africa the Benguela Current exhibits
similar dynamics.
30. Tropical Coral
The greatest known species diversity of any
marine ecosystem is found in coral reefs; their
vertical growth and complexity provides numerous
niches for different species to fill. In addition to
the calcium carbonate structure that the diverse
corals species provide, numerous species of
attached sponges and algae help to give the reefs
their form. Tropical Coral reefs are fragile and
diverse habitats that exist in sunlit waters along
continental and island margins, with diversity
greatest near the Equator.
Temperate Upwelling regions are continental
margins characterized by the consistent welling up
of nutrient rich bottom waters to the surface. These
regions are remarkably productive and are
associated with large fisheries and correspondingly
large populations of seabirds. Fish populations are
generally enormous, schooling, and characterized
by great amounts of biomass but relatively few
species of small fish (e.g., the Peruvian
anchovetta). The high productivity in Temperate
Upwelling regions is based on large quantities of
low diversity phytoplankton communities that
Southeast Asian seas support over 450 species of
scleractinian corals, the western Indian Ocean
around 200, and the Caribbean only 50 species
(Vernon 1995). Variation in reef fish and noncoral invertebrate diversity follosw a similar
biogeographic pattern (Lieske & Myers 1994,
19
McAllister et al. 1994). Overall, the coral reef
communities of Southeast Asian seas are the most
diverse in the world, with the Sulu, Sulawesi,
Banda, and Coral sea ecoregions being the most
diverse on Earth (Vernon 1995, Lieske & Myers
1994). The largest barrier reef in the world is the
Great Barrier Reef. Other world-class barrier reefs
include the barrier reefs of New Caledonia, the
Mesoamerican barrier reef, and the large barrier
reefs of Fiji. The largest coral atoll complexes
occur in the Maldive-Lakshadweep ecoregion of
the central Indian Ocean and in Micronesia.
been undertaken, review of relevant literature
facilitated decisions on the levels of threat faced
by native biotas. Worldwide, freshwater organisms
represent a disproportionate amount of endangered
species; thus, it is not suprising that so many
freshwater ecoregions received a critical rating in
the assessment. In particular, seasonally flooded
forests, cataracts, and freshwater communities in
xeric areas, are endangered worldwide (Goulding
et al. 1996, Abell et al. 2000, Olson et al. 1999).
Moreover, most temperate freshwater biotas are
threatened by invasion of exotics, pollution, dams,
and habitat degradation. Of the 53 identified
freshwater ecoregions 31 (58%) were deemed to
be critical or endangered, 10 (19%) were assessed
as vulnerable, and only 12 (23%) to be relatively
stable.
Conservation Status of Ecoregions
Among all terrestrial Global 200 ecoregions (142
in total), 75 ecoregions (53%) are considered
critical or endangered, 39 ecoregions (27%)
vulnerable, and 28 ecoregions (20%) relatively
stable or intact (Table 1). Terrestrial ecoregion
boundaries do not reflect the extensive habitat
loss, fragmentation, and degradation that have
occurred in many of the terrestrial ecoregions. In
ecoregions that have been dramatically altered,
characteristic species and communities survive
only in the few remaining small blocks of habitat
(e.g., Collar & Stuart 1988, Dinerstein et al. 1995).
Among the terrestrial MHTs, ecoregions falling
within the tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf
forests, temperate grasslands, Mediterranean
shrublands, and temperate broadleaf and mixed
forests are the most threatened. Virtually all biotas
on small islands are vulnerable or
critical/endangered due, in large part, due to their
limited habitat area and extreme sensitivity to
anthropogenic disturbance and alien species
(Raven 1988, Wilson 1988, 1992, WCMC 1992,
Sujatnika et al. 1994, Brooks et al. 1997, ReakaKudla 1997). Island ecoregions are projected to
experience a wave of extinctions over the next two
decades given the fragility of island ecosystems,
the sensitivity and endemicity of island species,
and the severe threats native island biotas face
worldwide.
Marine ecoregions have not been assessed as to
their conservation status. In marine MHTs,
upwelling areas are heavily overfished, enclosed
seas are degraded, and coral reefs and mangroves
are severely affected by habitat destruction,
degradation, and overfishing around the world
(Sherman et al. 1990, Suchanek 1994, Suchanek
1994, Kelleher et al. 1995, Bryant et al. 1995,
Olson et al. 1996, Ormond et al. 1997).
Degree of Overlap of Terrestrial, Freshwater,
and Marine Global 200 Ecoregions
The linkages among terrestrial, freshwater, and
marine conservation are often overlooked.
Among the Global 200, thirty-three (23%) of the
143 terrestrial ecoregions overlap extensively with
freshwater ecoregions (i.e., more than 50% of the
original extent of the terrestrial ecoregion is
covered by a freshwater unit). Thirty-four (23%)
of the terrestrial ecoregions share at least 50% of
their coastline with a marine ecoregion. And ten
(6%) of the terrestrial ecoregions do both,
overlapping extensively with a freshwater
ecoregion and sharing at least 50% of their
coastline with a marine ecoregion. The exceptional
terrestrial ecoregions of this third group are the
Madagascar dry forests, Congolian coastal forests,
Greater Antilles moist forests, Pacific temperate
rainforests of North America, Queensland tropical
moist forests, southeastern Australia EucalyptusAcacia forests, New Caledonia moist forests, New
Caledonia dry forests, New Guinea lowland
forests, Sulawesi moist forests, Philippines moist
Assessment of conservation status for freshwater
ecoregions in North America and South America
was based on existing regional analyses (Abell et
al. 2000, Olson et al. 1999). In Africa and Europe,
analyses currently underway (Thieme et al. in
prep.) provided the basis for rankings presented
here. In areas where no regional assessment has
20
forests, Northeast Borneo/Palawan moist forests,
and Russian Far East temperate forests. Carefully
designed conservation activities in these thirteen
units could ultimately affect 39 ecoregions.
the global scale to regional and national-level
conservation strategies, the Global 200 lends
weight to shared priorities and provides a global
perspective for lobbying efforts by local
conservation groups. The Global 200 also can help
major development agencies better recognize and
mitigate the effects of projects that result in land
use change, or forego development activities in
particularly sensitive ecoregions. For these reasons
we see the Global 200 as a map guiding
conservation investments so that a comprehensive
plan eventually can be achieved by the global
conservation community and the world’s nations.
Applying the Global 200 as a Tool for Global
Biodiversity Conservation
The Global 200 is designed to be an effective tool
for (1) targeting distinctive biogeographic units of
biodiversity and (2) promoting ecosystem-level
representation at global scales. The Global 200
broadens the goals of conservation from a primary
focus on preserving species diversity to an
encompassing view of habitat diversity, ecological
and evolutionary phenomena as well as
adaptations of species to different environmental
conditions around the world. In some cases, it also
distinguishes representative ecoregions that are
relatively more intact than other examples,
highlighting the best opportunities for long-term
conservation.
The widespread destruction of the Earth’s
biodiversity occurring today must be matched by a
response an order of magnitude greater than
currently exists. Thus, the Global 200 provides a
necessarily ambitious template for a global
conservation strategy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Like any effort to set priorities, the Global 200
cannot address all aspects of biodiversity
conservation. The Global 200 does not explicitly
target: large wilderness areas (e.g., forest frontiers
- Bryant et al. 1997), functional values of keystone
habitats (e.g., wetlands, coral reefs, gallery forests
- Bryant et al. 1998), large-scale ecological
phenomena, such as migrations of marine
mammals, sea turtles, birds, or fish; intra-tropical
migrations of bats, birds, and insects; widespread
and dynamic pelagic ecosystems; hydrothermal
vent communities; abyssal ecosystems; cave and
groundwater ecosystems; species of special
concern (e.g., tigers and rhinos at risk from trade
in animal parts), or global ecosystem dynamics
such as carbon sequestration. More detailed, finescale analyses are essential to identify important
targets within ecoregions.
We thank the regional experts, biologists, and
conservationists who contributed their time and
knowledge to the conservation analyses that went
into the Global 200. Jim Leape and Chris Hails
have provided critical support for this effort. The
staff of WWF contributed greatly to the regional
assessments from which the map is derived. We
wish to thank the staff of WWF’s Conservation
Science Program for their contribution to the
analysis and preparation of the Global 200,
specifically Wes Wettengel, Emma Underwood,
Eric Wikramanayake, Illanga Itoua, Colby Loucks,
Taylor Ricketts, Steve Walters, Prashant Hedao,
Robin Abell, Patrick Hurley, Tom Allnutt, Holly
Strand, Jennifer, D’Amico, Meghan McKnight,
Meseret Taye, Yumiko Kura, John Morrison,
Karen Carney, George Powell, Jonathan Adams,
Linda Farley, and Rodolfo Werner. James-Martin
Jones and Ulli Lagler helped in innumerable ways
to facilitate the completion of this project. We
thank the staff of WWF-United States and the
numerous staff from the WWF Network, including
all of the national organizations, various field
offices and programs, and associates, for their
review and comments on earlier drafts. Carla
Langeveld provided invaluable assistance in
tracking down source material. Andrea Brunholzl
improved this paper with her comments.
Matching the Challenge of Biodiversity Loss
One tactical concern of the Global 200 is that it is
ambitious, and that by focusing on 238 ecoregions
rather than on a handful of conservation units, we
run the risk of placing less emphasis on the most
diverse and distinct ecoregions. In response, we
argue that the broad geographic reach of the
Global 200 makes almost every nation on Earth a
stakeholder in a global conservation strategy. From
21
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37
Table 1. Global 200 Ecoregions organized by terrestrial and freshwater, major habitat type, and
biogeographic realm. The conservation status for each ecoregion is noted as follows: CE for critical or
endangered, V for vulnerable, and RS for relatively stable or intact. Conservation status for marine areas
has not been assessed.
TERRESTRIAL REALM
Tropical and Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests
Afrotropical
1. Guinean Moist Forests
2. Congolian Coastal Forests
3. Cameroon Highlands Forests
4. Northeastern Congo Basin Moist Forests
5. Central Congo Basin Moist Forests
6. Western Congo Basin Moist Forests
7. Albertine Rift Montane Forests
8. East African Coastal Forests
9. Eastern Arc Montane Forests
10. Madagascar Forests and Shrublands
11. Seychelles and Mascarenes Moist Forests
12. Sulawesi Moist Forests
13. Moluccas Moist Forests
14. Southern New Guinea Lowland Forests
15. New Guinea Montane Forests
16. Solomons-Vanuatu-Bismarck Moist Forests
17. Queensland Tropical Forests
18. New Caledonia Moist Forests
19. Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Forests
Indo-Malayan
20. Southwestern Ghats Moist Forests
21. Sri Lankan Moist Forests
22. Northern Indochina Subtropical Moist
Forests
23. Southeast China-Hainan Moist Forests
24. Taiwan Montane Forests
25. Annamite Range Moist Forests
26. Sumatran Islands Lowland and Montane
Forests
27. Philippines Moist Forests
28. Palawan Moist Forests
29. Kayah-Karen/Tenasserim Moist Forests
30. Peninsular Malaysian Lowland and Montane
Forests
31. Borneo Lowland and Montane Forests
32. Nansei Shoto Archipelago Forests
33. Eastern Deccan Plateau Moist Forests
34. Naga-Manupuri-Chin Hills Moist Forests
35. Cardamom Mountains Moist Forests
36. Western Java Montane Forests
CE
CE
CE
V
RS
V
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
V
V
RS
V
V
CE
CE
Neotropical
37. Greater Antillean Moist Forests
38. Talamancan-Isthmian Pacific Forests
39. Chocó-Darién Moist Forests
40. Northern Andean Montane Forests
41. Coastal Venezuela Montane Forests
42. Guianan Moist Forests
43. Napo Moist Forests
44. Rio Negro-Juruá Moist Forests
45. Guayanan Highlands Moist Forests
46. Central Andean Yungas
47. Southwestern Amazonian Moist Forests
48. Atlantic Forests
Oceania
49. South Pacific Islands Forests
50. Hawaii Moist Forests
CE
RS
RS
CE
V
RS
V
CE
RS
CE
RS
CE
CE
CE
Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forests
Afrotropical
51. Madagascar Dry Forests
CE
Australasia
52. Nusa Tenggara Dry Forests
53. New Caledonia Dry Forests
CE
CE
CE
CE Indo-Malayan
54. Indochina Dry Forests
V 55. Chhota-Nagpur Dry Forests
CE
V Neotropical
V 56. Mexican Dry Forests
57. Tumbesian-Andean Valleys Dry Forests
CE 58. Chiquitano Dry Forests
CE 59. Atlantic Dry Forests
CE
V Oceania
60. Hawai’i Dry Forests
V
CE Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous Forests
CE
CE Nearctic
V 61. Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental Pine-Oak
Forests
RS
CE
Neotropical
62. Greater Antillean Pine Forests
38
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
CE
63. Mesoamerican Pine-Oak Forests
CE
Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands, Savannas, and
Shrublands
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests
Australasia
64. Eastern Australia Temperate Forests
65. Tasmanian Temperate Rain Forests
66. New Zealand Temperate Forests
CE
V
V
Indo-Malayan
67. Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer Forests V
68. Western Himalayan Temperate Forests
CE
Nearctic
69. Appalachian and Mixed Mesophytic Forests
Palearctic
70. Southwest China Temperate Forests
71. Russian Far East Temperate
Forests
RS
Indo-Malayan
91. Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands
CE
V
V
Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and Shrublands
CE
CE
CE
CE
Palearctic
77. European-Mediterranean Montane Mixed Forests CE
78. Caucasus-Anatolian-Hyrcanian Temperate
Forests
CE
79. Altai-Sayan Montane Forests
V
80. Hengduan Shan Coniferous Forests
RS
Boreal Forests/Taiga
Palearctic
83. Ural Mountains Taiga
84. Eastern Siberian Taiga
85. Kamchatka Taiga and Grasslands
Australasia
90. Northern Australia and Trans-Fly Savannas
Neotropical
92. Llanos Savannas
93. Cerrado Woodlands and Savannas
Neotropical
76. Valdivian Temperate Rainforests/Juan Fernández
Islands
CE
Nearctic
81. Muskwa/Slave Lake Boreal Forests
82. Canadian Boreal Forests
V
V
V
CE
V
Temperate Coniferous Forests
Nearctic
72. Pacific Temperate Rainforests
73. Klamath-Siskiyou Coniferous Forests
74. Sierra Nevada Coniferous Forests
75. Southeastern Coniferous and Broadleaf Forests
Afrotropical
86. Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas
87. East African Acacia Savannas
88. Central and Eastern Miombo Woodlands
89. Sudanian Savannas
RS
RS
V
RS
RS
V
V
Nearctic
94. Northern Prairie
CE
Neotropical
95. Patagonian Steppe
CE
Palearctic
96. Daurian Steppe
V
Flooded Grasslands and Savannas
Afrotropical
97. Sudd-Sahelian Flooded Grasslands and Savannas CE
98. Zambezian Flooded Savannas
V
Indo-Malayan
99. Rann of Kutch Flooded Grasslands
CE
Neotropical
100. Everglades Flooded Grassland
101. Pantanal Flooded Savannas
V
CE
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands
Afrotropical
102. Ethiopian Highlands
103. Southern Rift Montane Woodlands
104. East African Moorlands
105. Drakensberg Montane Shrublands and
Woodlands
Australasia
106. Central Range Subalpine Grasslands
39
CE
CE
RS
CE
RS
Indo-Malayan
107. Kinabalu Montane Shrublands
Neotropical
108. Northern Andean Paramo
109. Central Andean Dry Puna
RS
RS
V
Paleartic
110. Tibetan Plateau Steppe
V
111. Middle Asian Montane Steppe and Woodlands V
112. Eastern Himalayan Alpine Meadows
RS
Neotropical
132. Galápagos Islands Scrub
133. Atacama-Sechura Deserts
Palearctic
134. Central Asian Deserts
V
V
CE
Mangroves
Afrotropical Atlantic
135. Gulf of Guinea Mangroves
CE
Afrotropical Indian
136. East African Mangroves
137. Madagascar Mangroves
CE
CE
Australasia
138. New Guinea Mangroves
RS
Indo-Malayan Indo-Pacific
139. Sundarbans Mangroves
140. Greater Sundas Mangroves
CE
CE
Neotropical Atlantic
141. Guianan-Amazon Mangroves
RS
Neotropical Pacific
142. Panama Bight Mangroves
RS
Tundra
Nearctic
113. Alaskan North Slope Coastal Tundra
114. Canadian Low Arctic Tundra
Palearctic
115. Fenno-Scandia Alpine Tundra and Taiga
116. Taimyr and Siberian Coastal Tundra
117. Chukote Coastal Tundra
RS
RS
V
RS
RS
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub
Afrotropical
118. Fynbos
CE
Australasia
119. Southwestern Australia Forests and Scrub
120. Southern Australia Mallee and Woodlands
CE
CE
FRESHWATER REALM
Nearctic
121. California Chaparral and Woodlands
CE
Large Rivers
Neotropical
122. Chilean Matorral
CE
Afrotropical
143. Congo River and Flooded Forests
RS
Palearctic
123. Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub CE
Indo-Malayan
144. Mekong River
Deserts and Xeric Shrublands
Nearctic
145. Colorado River
146. Lower Mississippi River
CE
CE
Neotropical
147. Amazon River and Flooded Forests
148. Orinoco River and Flooded Forests
RS
RS
Palearctic
149. Yangtze River and Lakes
CE
Afrotropical
124. Namib-Karoo-Kaokoveld Deserts
V
125. Madagascar Spiny Thicket
CE
126. Socotra Island Desert
CE
127. Arabian Highland Woodlands and Shrublands V
Australasia
128. Carnavon Xeric Scrub
129. Great Sandy-Tanami Deserts
CE
RS
V
Large River Headwaters
Nearctic
130. Sonoran-Baja Deserts
131. Chihuahuan-Tehuacán Deserts
RS
V
Afrotropical
150. Congo Basin Piedmont Rivers and Streams
40
RS
Nearctic
151. Mississippi Piedmont Rivers and Streams
180. Balkan Rivers and Streams
181. Russian Far East Rivers and Wetlands
CE
RS
CE
Large Lakes
Neotropical
152. Upper Amazon Rivers and Streams
RS
153. Upper Paraná Rivers and Streams
CE
154. Brazilian Shield Amazonian Rivers and Streams V
Large River Deltas
Afrotropical
182. Rift Valley Lakes
CE
Neotropical
183. High Andean Lakes
CE
V
CE
Afrotropical
155. Niger River Delta
CE
Palearctic
184. Lake Baikal
185. Lake Biwa
Indo-Malayan
156. Indus River Delta
CE
Small Lakes
Palearctic
157. Volga River Delta
158. Mesopotamian Delta and Marshes
159. Danube River Delta
160. Lena River Delta
CE
CE
CE
RS
Afrotropical
186. Cameroon Crater Lakes
CE
Australasia
187. Lakes Kutubu and Sentani
188. Central Sulawesi Lakes
RS
V
Indo-Malayan
189. Philippines Freshwater
190. Lake Inle
191. Yunnan Lakes and Streams
CE
V
CE
Neotropical
192. Mexican Highland Lakes
CE
Small Rivers
Afrotropical
161. Upper Guinea Rivers and Streams
162. Madagascar Freshwater
163. Gulf of Guinea Rivers and Streams
164. Cape Rivers and Streams
CE
CE
V
CE
Australasia
165. New Guinea Rivers and Streams
166. New Caledonia Rivers and Streams
167. Kimberley Rivers and Streams
168. Southwest Australia Rivers and Streams
169. Eastern Australia Rivers and Streams
Indo-Malayan
170. Xi Jiang Rivers and Streams
171. Western Ghats Rivers and Streams
172. Southwestern Sri Lanka Rivers and
173. Salween River
174. Sundaland Rivers and Swamps
RS
CE
RS
CE
CE
CE
CE
Streams
V
V
V
Xeric Basins
Australasia
193. Central Australian Freshwater
V
Nearctic
194. Chihuahuan Freshwater
CE
Palearctic
195. Anatolian Freshwater
CE
MARINE REALM
Nearctic
175. Southeastern Rivers and Streams
176. Pacific Coastal Rivers and Streams
177. Gulf of Alaska Coastal Rivers and Streams
CE
CE
RS
Polar
Neotropical
178. Guianan Freshwater
179. Greater Antillean Freshwater
RS
CE
Arctic
197. Bering Sea
198. Barents-Kara Seas
Antarctic
196. Antarctic Peninsula and Weddell Sea
Palearctic
41
Temperate Shelf and Seas
Mediterranean
199. Mediterranean Sea
North Temperate Atlantic
200. Northeast Atlantic Shelf Marine
201. Grand Banks
202. Chesapeake Bay
North Temperate Indo-Pacific
203. Yellow Sea
204. Okhotsk Sea
Southern Ocean
205. Patagonian Southwest Atlantic
206. Southern Australian Marine
207. New Zealand Marine
Temperate Upwelling
North Temperate Indo-Pacific
208. California Current
222. Great Barrier Reef
223. Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine
224. Palau Marine
225. Andaman Sea
Eastern Indo-Pacific
226. Tahitian Marine
227. Hawaiian Marine
228. Rapa Nui
229. Fiji Barrier Reef
Western Indo-Pacific
230. Maldives, Chagos, Lakshadweep Atolls
231. Red Sea
232. Arabian Sea
233. East African Marine
234. West Madagascar Marine
Western Tropical Atlantic
235. Mesoamerican Reef
236. Greater Antillean Marine
237. Southern Caribbean Sea
238. Northeast Brazil Shelf Marine
South Temperate Atlantic
209. Benguela Current
South Temperate Indo-Pacific
210. Humboldt Current
211. Agulhas Current
Tropical Upwelling
Central Indo-Pacific
212. Western Australia Marine
Eastern Indo-Pacific
213. Panama Bight
214. Gulf of California
215. Galápagos Marine
Eastern Tropical Atlantic
216. Canary Current
Tropical Coral
Central Indo-Pacific
217. Nansei Shoto
218. Sulu-Sulawesi Seas
219. Bismarck-Solomon Seas
220. Banda-Flores Sea
221. New Caledonia Barrier Reef
42
Table 2. Estimated richness and endemism of native vascular plant species for temperate coniferous
forest ecoregions around the world. Data for ecoregions of the United States and Canada derived from
the Biota of North America Program databases developed by J. T. Kartesz and A. Farstad (see Kartesz
1994). The estimates for Eurasian ecoregions may be comparatively higher than those for the Americas
because the former typically encompass biogeographic areas that are broader in scope (i.e., they include
non-conifer forest habitats) than ecoregions delineated for the Americas.
________________________________________________________________________
ECOREGION
SPECIES RICHNESS
ENDEMISM
Nearctic (United States and Canada)
Southeastern Conifer Forests
Sierra Nevada Forests
Arizona Mountains Forests
South Central Rockies Forests
Klamath-Siskiyou Forests
Piney Woods Forests
North Central Rockies Forests
Colorado Rockies Forests
Middle Atlantic Coastal Forests
Okanogan Forests
Cascade Mountain Leeward Forests
North Cascades Forests
Central and Southern Cascades Forests
Eastern Cascade Forests
Northern California Coastal Forests
Blue Mountain Forests
Wasatch and Uinta Montane Forests
Central Pacific Coastal Forests
Puget Lowlands Forests
Great Basin Montane Forests
Fraser Plateau and Basin Complex
Florida Sand Pine Scrub
Northern British Columbia Mountain Forests
Northern Transitional Alpine Forests
Alberta/British Columbia Foothill Forests
Alberta Mountain Forests
Northern Pacific Coastal Forests
Queen Charlotte Islands
Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens
3,095
2,373
2,204
1,933
1,859
1,729
1,695
1,626
1,488
1,355
1,328
1,325
1,296
1,224
1,212
1,134
1,109
1,109
1,100
1,043
1,012
951
909
876
740
660
615
459
632
43
>201
51-75
76-110
51-75
111-151
4-10
21-50
76-110
11-20
1-3
11-20
4-10
21-50
21-50
11-20
21-50
51-75
11-20
1-3
21-50
0
21-50
0
0
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-3
1-3
Table 2 (continued). Estimated richness and endemism of native vascular plant species for temperate
coniferous forest ecoregions around the world.
________________________________________________________________________
ECOREGION
SPECIES RICHNESS
ENDEMISM
Neotropics
Valdivian Temperate Rainforests
~450
?
~2,000
~3,500
~3,000
~3,000
~6,000
~5,500
~100
~200
~350
~900
~1,200
~1,500
~1,500
~1,900
?
?
Palearctic
Carpathians
Pyrenees
Alps
Balkan-Rhodope Mountains
Caucasus Mountains
Middle Asia Mountains
(Kopetdag, Tienshan, Pamiro-Alai,
Pamir, Dzhungarian Alatau)
Himalayas Conifer Forests
Central China Mixed-Conifer Forests
44
Table 3. Actual or estimated vascular plant (full species) richness and endemism of some tundra
ecoregions or regions based on data from WWF/IUCN (1994), Ricketts et al. (1999), and J. Kartesz
(pers. comm.).
ECOREGION OR REGION
SPECIES RICHNESS
ENDEMISM
Nearctic
Aleutian Islands Tundra
Beringia Lowland Tundra
Beringia Upland Tundra
Alaska/St. Elias Range Tundra
Pacific Coastal Mountain Icefields
Interior Yukon/Alaska Alpine Tundra
Ogilvie/MacKenzie Alpine Tundra
Brooks/British Range Tundra
Arctic Foothills Tundra
Arctic Coastal Tundra
Low Arctic Tundra
Middle Arctic Tundra
High Arctic Tundra
David Highlands Tundra
Baffin Coastal Tundra
Torngat Mountain Tundra
388
553
538
747
792
617
589
593
580
539
497
371
245
216
135
286
4-10
0
1-3
4-10
0
4-10
4-10
1-3
0
1-3
0
1-3
0
0
0
0
Palearctic
Chukotsky Peninsula
Taimyr Peninsula
939
240
45
~50
5
Appendix 1: Weighting and Measuring Biological Distinctiveness Criteria:
Analyzing Terrestrial Ecoregions of North America as an Example.
The weighting and measurement of the parameters
used to assess the biological distinctiveness of
terrestrial ecoregions of North America is
presented here to illustrate how different
biodiversity features were evaluated as
conservation targets and how analyses were
tailored to different major habitat types.
Comparisons among biodiversity parameters were
only conducted within the set of ecoregions
sharing the same major habitat type.
considered as an endemic. Higher taxonomic
uniqueness—e.g., unique genera or families, relict
species or communities, primitive lineages—was
also considered for identifying globally
outstanding ecoregions from an endemism
perspective.
The actual number of species and endemics for
each taxa found within an ecoregion were log
transformed to reduce the influence of very
species rich groups. The logs were then summed
to derive a single richness and endemism score.
These scores were plotted for the ecoregions
within each major habitat type and the curves
broken subjectively into high, medium, and low
scores. Globally outstanding scores were
determined through comparisons with values for
ecoregions within the same MHT found
throughout the world.
SPECIES RICHNESS*
Globally Outstanding
High
Medium
Low
100
15
10
5
*Only native species were used in species counts.
ENDEMISM
Globally Outstanding
High
Medium
Low
UNUSUAL ECOLOGICAL OR
EVOLUTIONARY PHENOMENA
100
25
15
5
Globally Outstanding
Regionally Outstanding
No Globally or Regionally
Unusual Phenomena
For species richness and endemism, the total
number of species that occurs within each
ecoregion, and the total number of endemic
species was determined for a range of native taxa:
full species of native vascular plants, land snails,
butterflies, reptiles, amphibians, birds, and
mammals. Species distributions were derived from
published range maps and the available literature.
For land snails and native vascular plants, regional
experts compiled the databases. Barry Roth
analyzed land snail distributions for western North
America and John Kartesz analyzed richness and
endemism data for native vascular plants. A
species was considered endemic to an ecoregion if
its estimated range fell entirely within a single
ecoregion, 75% or more of its range fell within a
single ecoregion, or its range was less than 50,000
km2. If a species had a significant distribution
outside of the U.S. and Canada, it was not
100
5
0
Examples of unusual ecological or evolutionary
phenomena at global or regional scales include
relatively intact, large-scale migrations of large
vertebrates such as caribou, intact predator
assemblages, superabundant concentrations of
breeding waterfowl and shorebirds, extraordinary
levels of adaptive radiations, the world’s tallest
temperate grasslands, rain-fed flooded grasslands
on limestone, and conifer forests dominated by
gigantic trees.
46
definition to include change over distance (at very
large distances the rate of change is related more
to gamma diversity).
GLOBAL RARITY OF MHT
Global Rarity
Regional Rarity
Not Rare at Global Scale
100
5
0
TOTAL SCORES FOR DETERMINING
BIOLOGICAL DISTINCTIVENESS INDEX
Major habitat types or secondary major habitat
types that were considered globally rare include
Mediterranean-climate forests, woodlands, and
scrub as well as temperate rainforests.
The points from each criterion were summed to
arrive at a final score. This score was then
translated into a biological distinctiveness
category as follows:
HIGH BETA-DIVERSITY
Globally Outstanding 45, 50, or 55+ points
Regionally Outstanding
30, 35, 40
Bioregionally Outstanding
20, 25
Locally Important
10, 15
0 or 5
This criterion was intended to reflect the relative
complexity of spatial patterns of biodiversity
within ecoregions. Narrowly defined, betadiversity refers to the rate of turnover in species
along environmental gradients. We broaden the
Ecoregions identified as globally outstanding were
subsequently compared with similar ecoregions
around the world to validate their relative status.
47
Appendix 2: Assessing Conservation Status of Ecoregions
Conservation status measures landscape and
ecosystem-level features and relates these to the
ecological integrity of ecoregions, namely, how
with increasing habitat loss, degradation, and
fragmentation, ecological processes cease to
function naturally, or at all, resiliency to
disturbance declines, and major components of
biodiversity are steadily eroded. We assess the
conservation status of ecoregions in the tradition
of IUCN Red Data Book categories for threatened
and endangered species: critical, endangered; and
vulnerable. For ecoregions we used the following
conservation status categories: critical,
endangered, vulnerable, relatively stable, and
relatively intact. Throughout all of the regional
analyses, the specific parameters and thresholds
used for assessing conservation status were
tailored to the characteristic patterns of
biodiversity, ecological dynamics, and responses
to disturbance of different major habitat types.
% Original
Habitat
Heavily
Altered
90-100%
75-89%
50-74%
10-49%
0-9%
40
30
20
10
0
Altered
20
15
10
5
0
An ecoregion receives both a heavily altered score
and an altered habitat score, which represents the
amount of habitat in each category. For example,
consider an ecoregion with 35% heavily altered
habitat (10 points), 55% altered habitat (10
points), and therefore 10% intact habitat. By
combining the two scores, the ecoregion would
receive a total score of 20 points. Different
quantitative and qualitative biodiversity and
landscape ecology characteristics are used to
define intact, altered, and heavily altered states
tailored to the specific patterns and dynamics of
different major habitat types. Total scores for each
of the parameters are summed to give a total
conservation status index score.
Terrestrial Ecoregions
We present the method used to assess
conservation status for the terrestrial ecoregions of
North America to illustrate the approach (Ricketts
et al. 1999). The relative contributions of different
parameters were as follows: 40% - habitat loss,
25% - number and size of remaining blocks of
intact habitat, 20% - degree of habitat
fragmentation, and 15% - degree of protection. A
snapshot conservation status was estimated using
current landscape and ecosystem-level parameters,
using a point range of 0 to 100, with higher values
denoting a higher level of endangerment. The
point thresholds for different categories of
conservation status were as follows: critical 89100 points, endangered 65-88, vulnerable 37-64,
relatively stable 7-37, and relatively intact 0-6.
Total point values were determined by summing
points assigned for each parameter. Individual
parameter point values were associated with
different landscape scenarios. For example, total
habitat loss scenarios were related to points as
follows:
Snapshot scores were subsequently modified by a
20 year projected threat analysis to arrive at a final
conservation status assessment. Ecoregions that
were assessed as facing high threat were elevated
to a more serious conservation status. The threat
analysis estimated the cumulative impacts of all
current and projected threats on habitat
conversion, habitat degradation, and wildlife
exploitation using a point system associated with
different qualitative and quantitative impacts.
Using an index of 0-100 points, pending threats
within an ecoregion were assessed and point totals
assigned for each of the above categories.
Conversion threats were
48
considered to be the most serious, and thus habitat
loss comprised half (50) of all possible points in
the weighting of threats. For example, 50 points
were assigned to conversion threats if 25 or more
of remaining habitat would be categorized as
heavily altered within 20 years. For conversion of
between 10% and 24% of remaining habitat, a
score of 20 points was assigned. The remaining
two threats, habitat degradation and wildlife
exploitation, were assessed using maximum point
totals of 30 and 20 respectively using a scale
based on high, medium, or no threat.
50
Appendix 3: Priority-Setting Discriminators Not Used
Several discriminators sometimes used in
conservation priority-setting were not employed in
the Global 200 analysis. Ecological function has
been effectively applied as a priority-setting
discriminator at local or subregional scales
through identification of habitat types or blocks of
habitat that are important for driving or
maintaining ecological processes (e.g., Barbier
1994, Davies & Giesen 1994). Although future
studies may develop tractable methods for
assessing an ecoregion’s functional importance at
regional or global scales, it is not robust to employ
a function discriminator at global scales because
of the difficulties of identifying standardized
criteria within a meaningful range of spatial and
temporal scales. Moreover, biodiversity is
functionally important at local scales wherever it
occurs. However, some weight was given to
certain habitat types that are recognized as
keystone habitats from a functional perspective,
that is they have an inordinate influence in
maintaining important ecological processes that
sustain the biodiversity of surrounding
ecosystems. Mangroves, coral reefs, gallery
forests, and cloud forests are examples.
cultural, or political factors) at this stage in the
priority-setting process. Conservation feasibility
criteria are important in determining the timing,
location, and sequence of conservation
investments at both regional and local scales. For
these reasons, neither conservation feasibility nor
human utility should be used as discriminators for
global analyses of biodiversity conservation
priorities. Again, both ecological function and
conservation feasibility filters can be effectively
employed to identify the location, timing, and
sequence of specific conservation investments
within ecoregions (e.g., Bedward et al. 1992,
Belbin 1995).
Human utility is often used as a discriminator for
projects that emphasize improving the human
condition. Human utility is often used to engender
support or add justification for biodiversity
conservation efforts, but utility criteria should not
be applied in any strict biodiversity prioritysetting analysis because of their potential lack of
correlation with important biodiversity parameters
(e.g., distinctiveness), the fluidity of human utility
over time and at different spatial scales, and the
risk of modifying priority-setting results away
from critical biodiversity conservation units. It is
also extremely difficult to identify a standard
measure of benefit for comparative purposes, both
in terms of the kind of benefits, the scale of
benefits, and who benefits. As for ecological
function, this is a prohibitive problem at global
scales.
Similar concerns can be made for employing
conservation feasibility (i.e., social, economic,
51
Appendix 4: Aggregating Ecoregions into Ecoregion Complexes
The purpose of this section is to clarify the relationship between the Global 200 and WWF’s Terrestrial
Ecoregions of the World map (hereafter referred to as TEOW). TEOW is the compilation of all
ecoregion maps from the numerous regional analyses. Thus, just as the regional analyses serves as the
base for determining priority ecoregions, TEOW serves as the underlying base map for Global 200
ecoregion boundaries. The Global 200 includes 142 terrestrial ecoregions and ecoregion complexses.
Ecoregion complexes are aggregations of two or more ecoregions from TEOW. These complexes
encompass important areas that, at a global scale, share great affinity with one another. However, at a
regional scale their biotas, and consequently their boundaries, warrant finer delineation.
46 of the 142 terrestrial Global 200 ecoregions appear as a single ecoregion on the TEOW. Another 36
are agglomerations of two TOW ecoregions into a single Global 200 ecoregion. 34 of the remaining
terrestrial Global 200 ecoregions are aggregates of 3-5 regional scale ecoregions. There are two Global
200 ecoregions where we chose to aggregate a large number of regional scale ecoregions: Mediterranean
forests, woodlands, and scrub (27 ecoregions), and Atlantic Forests (14 regional scale ecoregions).
Global 200 ecoregion complexes (and associated map number) are listed below in numerical order,
together with their constiutuent TEOW ecoregions (bullets).
Guinean Moist Forests [1]
 Guinean montane forests
 Eastern Guinean forests
 Western Guinean lowland forests
Albertine Rift Montane Forests [7]
 Albertine Rift montane forests
East African Coastal Forests [8]
 Northern Zanzibar-Inhambane coastal forest
mosaic
Congolian Coastal Forests [2]
 Cross-Sanaga-Bioko coastal forests
 Sao Tome and Principe moist lowland
forests
 Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests
Eastern Arc Montane Forests [9]
 Eastern Arc forests
Madagascar Forests and Shrublands [10]
 Madagascar subhumid forests
 Madagascar ericoid thickets
 Madagascar lowland forests
Cameroon Highlands Forests [3]
 Mount Cameroon and Bioko montane
forests
 Cameroon Highlands forests
Seychelles and Mascarenes Moist Forests [11]
 Granitic Seychelles forests
 Mascarene forests
 Aldabra Island xeric scrub
Northeastern Congo Basin Moist Forests [4]
 Northeastern Congolian lowland forests
Central Congo Basin Moist Forests [5]
 Eastern Congolian swamp forests
 Central Congolian lowland forests
Sulawesi Moist Forests [12]
 Sulawesi lowland rain forests
 Sulawesi montane rain forests
Western Congo Basin Moist Forests [6]
 Northwestern Congolian lowland forests
 Western Congolian swamp forests
Moluccas Moist Forests [13]
 Seram rain forests
 Halmahera rain forests
52
Southern New Guinea Lowland Forests [14]
 Southern New Guinea lowland rain forests
 Vogelkop-Aru lowland rain forests
Taiwan Montane Forests [24]
 Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests
 South Taiwan monsoon rain forests
New Guinea Montane Forests [15]
 Vogelkop montane rain forests
 Central Range montane rain forests
 Huon Peninsula montane rain forests
 Southeastern Papuan rain forests
Annamite Range Moist Forests [25]
 Southern Annamites montane rain forests
 Northern Annamites rain forests
Sumatran Islands Lowland and Montane Forests
[26]
 Sumatran tropical pine forests
 Sumatran lowland rain forests
 Sumatran montane rain forests
Solomons-Vanuatu-Bismarck Moist Forests [16]
 New Britain-New Ireland lowland rain
forests
 Vanuatu rain forests
 Solomon Islands rain forests
 New Britain-New Ireland montane rain
forests
Philippines Moist Forests [27]
 Mindoro rain forests
 Mindanao-Eastern Visayas rain forests
 Mindanao montane rain forests
 Luzon rain forests
 Greater Negros-Panay rain forests
 Luzon tropical pine forests
 Luzon montane rain forests
Queensland Tropical Forests [17]
 Queensland tropical rain forests
New Caledonia Moist Forests [18]
 New Caledonia rain forests
Lord Howe-Norfolk Islands Forests [19]
 Lord Howe Island subtropical forests
 Norfolk Island subtropical forests
Palawan Moist Forests [28]
 Palawan rain forests
Kayah-Karen/Tenasserim Moist Forests [29]
 Tenasserim-South Thailand semi-evergreen
rain forests
 Kayah-Karen montane rain forests
Southwestern Ghats Moist Forests [20]
 South Western Ghats moist deciduous
forests
 South Western Ghats montane rain forests
Peninsular Malaysian Lowland and Montane
Forests [30]
 Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests
 Peninsular Malaysian rain forests
Sri Lankan Moist Forests [21]
 Sri Lanka montane rain forests
 Sri Lanka lowland rain forests
Northern Indochina Subtropical Moist Forests
[22]
 Northern Indochina subtropical forests
 Yunnan Plateau subtropical evergreen
forests
Borneo Lowland and Montane Forests [31]
 Borneo lowland rain forests
 Borneo montane rain forests
Nansei Shoto Archipelago Forests [32]
 Nansei Islands subtropical evergreen forests
Southeast China-Hainan Moist Forests [23]
 Jian Nan subtropical evergreen forests
 South China-Vietnam subtropical evergreen
forests
 Hainan Island monsoon rain forests
Eastern Deccan Plateau Moist Forests [33]
 Eastern highlands moist deciduous forests
53
Naga-Manupuri-Chin Hills Moist Forests [34]
 Northern Triangle subtropical forests
 Mizoram-Manipur-Kachin rain forests
 Chin Hills-Arakan Yoma montane forests
 Meghalaya subtropical forests
 Northeast India-Myanmar pine forests
Rio Negro-Juruá Moist Forests [44]
 Caqueta moist forests
 Negro-Branco moist forests
 Solimoes-Japurá moist forest
 Japurá-Solimoes-Negro moist forests
Guayanan Highlands Moist Forests [45]
 Guayanan Highlands moist forests
 Tepuis
Central Andean Yungas [46]
 Peruvian Yungas
 Bolivian Yungas
 Southern Andean Yungas
Cardamom Mountains Moist Forests [35]
 Cardamom Mountains rain forests
Western Java Montane Forests [36]
 Western Java montane rain forests
Greater Antillean Moist Forests [37]
 Puerto Rican moist forests
 Hispaniolan moist forests
 Jamaican moist forests
 Cuban moist forests
Southwestern Amazonian Moist Forests [47]
 Juruá-Purus moist forests
 Southwest Amazon moist forests
 Purus-Madeira moist forests
 Madeira-Tapajós moist forests
Talamancan-Isthmian Pacific Forests [38]
 Talamancan montane forests
Atlantic Forests [48]
 Ilha Grande mangroves
 Rio Sao Francisco mangroves
 Araucaria moist forests
 Rio Piranhas mangroves
 Bahia mangroves
 Pernambuco coastal forests
 Bahia coastal forests
 Bahia interior forests
 Caatinga Enclaves moist forests
 Paraña-Paraiba interior forests
 Pernambuco interior forests
 Campos Rupestres montane savanna
 Serra do Mar coastal forests
 Atlantic Coast restingas
Chocó-Darién Moist Forests [39]
 Chocó-Darién moist forests
 Eastern Panamanian montane forests
 Magdalena-Urabá moist forests
 Western Ecuador moist forests
Northern Andean Montane Forests [40]
 Magdalena Valley montane forests
 Venezuelan Andes montane forests
 Northwestern Andean montane forests
 Cauca Valley montane forests
 Cordillera Oriental montane forests
 Santa Marta montane forests
 Eastern Cordillera real montane forests
Coastal Venezuela Montane Forests [41]
 Cordillera La Costa montane forests
South Pacific Islands Forests [49]
 Cook Islands tropical moist forests
 Fiji tropical dry forests
 Fiji tropical moist forests
 Tuamotu tropical moist forests
 Tongan tropical moist forests
 Society Islands tropical moist forests
 Samoan tropical moist forests
 Marquesas tropical moist forests
 Tubuai tropical moist forests
Guianan Moist Forests [42]
 Guianan moist forests
 Orinoco Delta swamp forests
 Paramaribo swamp forests
Napo Moist Forests [43]
 Ucayali moist forests
 Napo moist forests
54
Hawaii Moist Forests [50]
 Hawaii tropical moist forests


Madagascar Dry Forests [51]
 Madagascar dry deciduous forests
Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental Pine-Oak
Forests [61]
 Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests
 Sierra de la Laguna pine-oak forests
 Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests
Nusa Tenggara Dry Forests [52]
 Lesser Sundas deciduous forests
 Timor and Wetar deciduous forests
Hawaii tropical dry forests
Hawaii tropical high shrublands
Greater Antillean Pine Forests [62]
 Hispaniolan pine forests
 Cuban pine forests
New Caledonia Dry Forests [53]
 New Caledonia dry forests
Indochina Dry Forests [54]
 Southeastern Indochina dry evergreen
forests
 Central Indochina dry forests
Mesoamerican Pine-Oak Forests [63]
 Chimalapas montane forests
 Central American pine-oak forests
 Sierra Madre del Sur pine-oak forests
 Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt pine-oak
forests
 Sierra Madre de Oaxaca pine-oak forests
 Central American montane forests
Chhota-Nagpur Dry Forests [55]
 Chhota-Nagpur dry deciduous forests
Mexican Dry Forests [56]
 Jalisco dry forests
 Balsas dry forests
 Bajío dry forests
 Chiapas Depression dry forests
 Sonoran-Sinaloan transition subtropical dry
forest
 Southern Pacific dry forests
 Sinaloan dry forests
 Sierra de la Laguna dry forests
Eastern Australia Temperate Forests [64]
 Southeast Australia temperate forests
 Eastern Australian temperate forests
 Tasmanian temperate forests
 Australian Alps montane grasslands
Tasmanian Temperate Rain Forests [65]
 Tasmanian Central Highland forests
 Tasmanian temperate rain forests
Tumbesian-Andean Valleys Dry Forests [57]
 Tumbes-Piura dry forests
 Ecuadorian dry forests
 Patia Valley dry forests
 Magdalena Valley dry forests
 Cauca Valley dry forests
 Marañón dry forests
New Zealand Temperate Forests [66]
 Richmond temperate forests
 Nelson Coast temperate forests
 Westland temperate forests
 Southland temperate forests
 Northland temperate forests
 Fiordland temperate forests
 Northland temperate kauri forests
Chiquitano Dry Forests [58]
 Chiquitano dry forests
Eastern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer
Forests [67]
 Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests
 Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests
 Northern Triangle temperate forests
 Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer
forests
Atlantic Dry Forests [59]
 Atlantic dry forests
Hawaii Dry Forests [60]
 Hawaii tropical low shrublands
55
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Western Himalayan Temperate Forests [68]
 Western Himalayan broadleaf forests
 Western Himalayan subalpine conifer
forests
Rodope montane mixed forests
Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests
Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests
Alps conifer and mixed forests
Caucasus-Anatolian-Hyrcanian Temperate
Forests [78]
 Kopet Dag woodlands and forest steppe
 Caucasus mixed forests
 Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests
 Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous
forests
 Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests
 Elburz Range forest steppe
Altai-Sayan Montane Forests [79]
 Sayan Alpine meadow and tundra
 Great Lakes Basin desert steppe
 Altai montane forest and forest steppe
 Sayan montane conifer forests
 Sayan Intermontane steppe
 Altai alpine meadow and tundra
Appalachian and Mixed Mesophytic Forests
[69]
 Appalachian/Blue Ridge forests
 Appalachian mixed mesophytic forests
Southwest China Temperate Forests [70]
 Qin Ling Mountains deciduous forests
 Daba Mountains evergreen forests
 Sichuan Basin evergreen broadleaf forests
Russian Far East Temperate Forests [71]
 Ussuri broadleaf and mixed forests
 South Sakhalin-Kurile mixed forests
Pacific Temperate Rain Forests [72]
 Northern California coastal forests
 Central Pacific coastal forests
 Northern Pacific coastal forests
 Queen Charlotte Islands
 British Columbia mainland coastal forests
Hengduan Shan Coniferous Forests [80]
 Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer
forests
 Qionglai-Minshan conifer forests
 Nujiang Langcang Gorge alpine conifer and
mixed forests
Klamath-Siskiyou Coniferous Forests [73]
 Klamath-Siskiyou forests
Muskwa/Slave Lake Boreal Forests [81]
 Muskwa/Slave Lake forests
 Northern Cordillera forests
Sierra Nevada Coniferous Forests [74]
 Sierra Nevada forests
Southeastern Coniferous and Broadleaf Forests
[75]
 Southeastern mixed forests
 Southeastern conifer forests
Valdivian Temperate Rain Forests / Juan
Fernández Islands [76]
 Juan Fernandez Islands temperate forests
 Valdivian temperate forests
Canadian Boreal Forests [82]
 Eastern Canadian Shield taiga
 Northwest Territories taiga
 Northern Canadian Shield taiga
Ural Mountains Taiga [83]
 Urals montane tundra and taiga
East Siberian Taiga [84]
 East Siberian taiga
European-Mediterranean Montane Mixed
Forests [77]
 Appenine deciduous montane forests
 Carpathian montane conifer forests
 Crimean Submediterranean forest complex
 Dinaric Mountains mixed forests
56
Kamchatka Taiga and Grasslands [85]
 Kamchatka-Kurile meadows and sparse
forests
 Kamchatka-Kurile taiga
 Kamchatka Mountain tundra and forest
tundra
Patagonian Steppe [95]
 Patagonian steppe
Horn of Africa Acacia Savannas [86]
 Somali Acacia-Commiphora bushlands and
thickets
Sudd-Sahelian Flooded Grasslands and
Savannas [97]
 Saharan flooded grasslands
 Inner Niger Delta flooded savanna
 Lake Chad flooded savanna
Daurian Steppe [96]
 Daurian forest steppe
 Mongolian-Manchurian grassland
East African Acacia Savannas [87]
 Southern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands
and thickets
 Serengeti volcanic grasslands
 Northern Acacia-Commiphora bushlands
and thickets
Zambezian Flooded Savannas [98]
 Zambezian flooded grasslands
Rann of Kutch Flooded Grasslands [99]
 Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh
Central and Eastern Miombo Woodlands [88]
 Eastern Miombo woodlands
 Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands
 Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands
Everglades Flooded Grasslands [100]
 Everglades
Pantanal Flooded Savannas [101]
 Pantanal
Sudanian Savannas [89]
 East Sudanian savanna
Ethiopian Highlands [102]
 Ethiopian montane moorlands
 Ethiopian montane grasslands and
woodlands
Northern Australia and Trans-Fly Savannas [90]
 Cape York tropical savanna
 Trans Fly savanna and grasslands
 Kimberly tropical savanna
 Einasleigh upland savanna
 Carpentaria tropical savanna
 Arnhem Land tropical savanna
Southern Rift Montane Woodlands [103]
 Southern Rift montane forest-grassland
mosaic
East African Moorlands [104]
 East African montane moorlands
 Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands
Terai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands [91]
 Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands
Drakensberg Montane Shrublands and
Woodlands [105]
 Drakensberg montane grasslands,
woodlands and forests
Llanos Savannas [92]
 Llanos
Cerrado Woodlands and Savannas [93]
 Cerrado
Central Range Subalpine Grasslands [106]
 Central Range sub-alpine grasslands
Northern Prairie [94]
 Northern short grasslands
 Nebraska Sand Hills mixed grasslands
Kinabalu Montane Shrublands [107]
 Kinabalu montane alpine meadows
57
Northern Andean Paramo [108]
 Cordillera Central paramo
 Santa Marta paramo
 Cordillera de Merida paramo
 Northern Andean paramo
Chukote Coastal Tundra [117]
 Chukchi Peninsula tundra
 Wrangel Island arctic desert
Fynbos [118]
 Lowland fynbos and renosterveld
 Montane fynbos and renosterveld
Central Andean Dry Puna [109]
 Central Andean dry puna
Southwestern Australia Forests and Scrub [119]
 Jarrah-Karri forest and shrublands
 Southwest Australia woodlands
 Southwest Australia savanna
 Kwongan heathlands
 Esperance mallee
 Coolgardie woodlands
Tibetan Plateau Steppe [110]
 Yarlung Zambo arid steppe
 Tibetan Plateau alpine shrublands and
meadows
 Southeast Tibet shrublands and meadow
 Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe
 Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine
steppe
Southern Australia Mallee and Woodlands [120]
 Naracoorte woodlands
 Eyre and York mallee
 Mount Lofty woodlands
 Murray-Darling woodlands and mallee
Middle Asian Montane Steppe and Woodlands
[111]
 Gissaro-Alai open woodlands
 Pamir alpine desert and tundra
 Tian Shan montane conifer forests
 Alai-Western Tian Shan steppe
 Hindu Kush alpine meadow
 Tian Shan montane steppe and meadow
 Tian Shan foothill arid steppe
California Chaparral and Woodlands [121]
 California coastal sage and chaparral
 California interior chaparral and woodlands
 California montane chaparral and
woodlands
Eastern Himalayan alpine meadows [112]
 Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and
meadows
Chilean Matorral [122]
 Chilean matorral
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub
[123]
 Cyprus Mediterranean forests
 Tyrrhenian-Adriatic Sclerophyllous and
mixed forests
 Iberian conifer forests
 Iberian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous
forests
 Madeira evergreen forests
 Aegean & Western Turkey sclerophyllous
and mixed forests
 Anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed
forests
 Eastern Mediterranean conifersclerophyllous-broadleaf forests
 Northeastern Spain & Southern France
Alaskan North Slope Coastal Tundra [113]
 Arctic foothills tundra
 Arctic coastal tundra
Canadian Low Arctic Tundra [114]
 Low Arctic tundra
Fenno-Scandia Alpine Tundra and Taiga [115]
 Kola Peninsula tundra
 Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and
grasslands
Taimyr and Siberian Coastal Tundra [116]
 Northeast Siberian coastal tundra
 Taimyr-Central Siberian tundra
58
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Mediterranean forests
Canary Islands dry woodlands and forests
Crete Mediterranean forests
Southeastern Iberian shrubs and woodlands
Eastern Anatolian deciduous forests
Italian sclerophyllous and semi-deciduous
forests
Mediterranean High Atlas juniper steppe
Illyrian deciduous forests
Southwest Iberian Mediterranean
sclerophyllous and mixed forests
Southern Anatolian montane conifer and
deciduous forests
Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed
forests
Central Anatolian deciduous forests
Pindus Mountains mixed forests
Central Anatolian steppe
Northwest Iberian montane forests
Mediterranean acacia-argania dry
woodlands and succulent thickets
Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe
Mediterranean woodlands and forests
South Appenine mixed montane forests
Pilbara shrublands
Great Sandy-Tanami Deserts [129]
 Central Ranges xeric scrub
 Gibson desert
 Great Sandy-Tanami desert
Sonoran-Baja Deserts [130]
 Gulf of California xeric scrub
 Sonoran desert
 Baja California desert
 San Lucan xeric scrub
Chihuahuan-Tehuacán Deserts [131]
 Meseta Central matorral
 Tehuacan Valley matorral
 Chihuahuan desert
Galápagos Islands Scrub [132]
 Galápagos Islands xeric scrub
Atacama-Sechura Deserts [133]
 Sechura desert
 Atacama desert
Central Asian Deserts [134]
 Central Asian riparian woodlands
 Central Asian northern desert
 Central Asian southern desert
Namib-Karoo-Kaokoveld Deserts [124]
 Succulent Karoo
 Namib desert
 Nama Karoo
 Namibian savanna woodlands
 Kaokoveld desert
Gulf of Guinea Mangroves [135]
 Central African mangroves
Madagascar Spiny Thicket [125]
 Madagascar succulent woodlands
 Madagascar spiny thickets
East African Mangroves [136]
 East African mangroves
Socotra Island Desert [126]
 Socotra Island xeric shrublands
Madagascar Mangroves [137]
 Madagascar mangroves
Arabian Highland Woodlands and Shrublands
[127]
 Al Hajar Al Gharbi montane woodlands
 Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands
 Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert
 Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna
New Guinea Mangroves [138]
 New Guinea mangroves
Sundarbans Mangroves [139]
 Sundarbans mangroves
Greater Sundas Mangroves [140]
 Sunda Shelf mangroves
Carnavon Xeric Scrub [128]
 Carnarvon xeric shrublands
59

Guianan-Amazon Mangroves [141]
 Amapa mangroves
 Maranhao mangroves
 Para mangroves
 Guianan mangroves
Esmeraldes-Pacific Colombia mangroves
Amazon River and Flooded Forests [147]
 Iquitos varzeá
 Gurupa varzeá
 Rio Negro campinarana
 Marajó Varzeá forests
 Purus varzeá
 Monte Alegre varzeá
Panama Bight Mangroves [142]
 Gulf of Guayaquil-Tumbes mangroves
 Gulf of Panama mangroves
 Manabi mangroves
60
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Appendix 5: Ecoregion Descriptions
AFRICAN) WITH SIGNIFICANT
ENDEMISM SEEN IN A RANGE OF TAXA
Selected Species: Species include chimpanzee
(Pan troglodytes), Cassin’s hawk eagle
(Spizaetus africanus), pygmy hippopotamus
(Hexaprotodon liberiensis), West African
hinged tortoise (Kinixys erosa), Ogilby's
duiker (Cephalophus ogilbyi), zebra duiker
(Cephalophus zebra), West African mahogany
(Khaya grandifolia), and golden cat (Panthera
aurata). Bird species include endemics such
as Gola malimbe(Malimbus ballmanni), blackcapped rufous warbler (Bathmocercus
cerviniventris), little green woodpecker
(Campethera maculosa), and Rufous fishingowl (Scotopelia ussheri).
General Threats: The lowland rainforest in West
Africa has been severely reduced by logging,
clearing for agriculture, and mining activities.
Intensive hunting has significantly reduced
wildlife populations.
Terrestrial
Realm
Tropical And Subtropical Moist Forests
Generally found in large, discontinuous patches
centered on the equatorial belt and between the
Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, Tropical And
Subtropical Moist Forests are characterized by
low variability in annual temperature and high
levels of rainfall (>200 cm annually). Forest
composition is dominated by semi-evergreen and
evergreen deciduous tree species. These trees
number in the thousands and contribute to the
highest levels of species diversity in any terrestrial
MHT. In general, biodiversity is focused in the
forest canopy, although five layers typify the
forest structure: overstory canopy with emergent
crowns, a medium layer of canopy, lower canopy,
shrub level, and finally understory.
Afrotropical
ongolian Coastal Forests [2] – Angola,
Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, São Tomé
& Príncipe, Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: The Atlantic Coast of
Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: The Congolian coastal
forests form part of the vast central African
rainforests, which cover a much larger area
than those of West Africa and support a
greater diversity of species. This region is
known for numerous regional and local
endemic species, including many that are
restricted to the nearby islands São Tomé &
Príncipe. ONE OF AFRICA’S RICHEST
TROPICAL FORESTS WITH VERY HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Mammal species in this
ecoregion include mandrill (Mandrillus
leucophaeus), flightless scaly-tailed squirrel
(Zenkerella insignis), long-tailed pangolin
(Manis tetradactyla), black colobus monkey
(Colobus satanas), northern needle-clawed
bushbaby (Euoticus pallidus), and suntailed
monkey, Cercopithecus solatus. Other species
C
uinean Moist Forests [1] – Benin,Côte
d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone,
Leone, Togo
Geographic Location: Moist forests of West
Africa
Biodiversity Features: Along with the far larger
and more intact Congolian rainforests, the
moist forests that lie along coastal West
Africa from Guinea throughSierra Léone,
Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana, with
pockets in Togo and Benin,form the most
species-rich habitats in West Africa.
Separated from the Central African forests to
the east by the Dahomey Gap in Togo, Benin,
and eastern Ghana, where savannas and
woodlands extend to the coast, the two blocks
of forest have evolved plant and animal
species that are highly distinctive within the
Afrotropical region. Many species maintain
restricted ranges within the forests of this
region. CONTINENTALLY DISTINCTIVE
TROPICAL FOREST BIOTA (WESTERN
G
61
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
include numerous endemic birds such as
Bates’s weaver (Ploceus batesi), Gabon batis
(Batis minima), giant sunbird (Nectarinia
thomensis), Dohrn’s thrush-babbler
(Horizorhinus dohrni), dwarf olive ibis
(Bostrychiabocagei), and the
SãoTomégrosbeak (Neospiza concolor). The
Goliath frog (Conraua goliath) and giant
ginger (Aframomum giganteum) are also
native to this ecoregion.
General Threats: Agricultural expansion, hunting,
commercial logging, and anthropogenic fires
pose significant threat to the ecoregion.
ianthinoxantha; and mammals such as Preuss's
monkey (Cercopithecus preussi), northern
needle-clawed bushbaby (Euoticus pallidus),
Hybomys eisentrauti, and Otomys
occidentalis.
General Threats: Forest loss caused by
unsustainable exploitation of firewood,
overgrazing, fire damage and agricultural
encroachment is the main threat to the biota of
this ecoregion. Some areas, such as the
northern and western slopes of Mount
Cameroon and the mountains of Bioko, are
more intact and still support connectivity
across important elevational gradients.
However, portions of Bioko Island and Mount
Cameroon are also potentially threatened by
fire in grassland habitats within these forests.
C
ameroon Highland Forest [3] – Cameroon,
Equatorial Guinea, Nigeria
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion
encompasses the mountains and highland
areas of the border region between Nigeria
and Cameroon, including such areas as the
Rumpi Hills, the Bakossi Mountains, Mount
Kupe, Mount Nlonako, the Adamawa Plateau,
and the Nambla Plateau plus Mount
Cameroon. These Mountains form part of a
chain of active volcanoes stretching inland
from the sea, striking southwest to northeast.
At least 50 species and three genera of plants
are strictly endemic and 50 more are near
endemic to Mt. Cameroon and associated
lowland forests. Many of these endemic plant
species reflect a recent evolutionary history,
developing unique characteristics and
adaptations in relation to the emergence of
Mount Cameroon. HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM AMONG PLANTS AND
BIRDS, INCLUDING MANY ENDEMICS
RESTRICTED TO ONLY A FEW SITES OR
NARROW ALTITUDINAL BANDS
Selected Species: Among the numerous endemic
species found in this ecoregion are: birds such
as green longtail (Urolais epichlora), whitetailed warbler (Poliolais lopezi), Mount
Cameroon francolin (Francolinus
camerunensis), Fernando Po speirops (Batis
poensis), and Bannerman’s turaco (Tauraco
bannermani), reptiles such as Chamaeleo
montium, Chamaeleo quadricornis,
Hydraethiops laevis, and Leptosiaphos
0
.
5
ortheastern Congo Basin Moist Forests [4]
[4] – Central African Republic, Democratic
Democratic Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: Part of an ancient drainage
basin—influenced by climate desiccation
events during recent Ice Ages—the lowland
forests of this ecoregion contain a number of
narrowly endemic species. The eastern portion
of the Democratic Republic of Congo contains
several forest refugia, areas of the planet with
remnant populations of more ancient species,
many of which are found nowhere else. Of
particular significance are the forests of Ituri
and the lowland forests of the Itombwe
Mountains to the South. These relatively
intact forests rank among the most important
major tropical forest wildernesses left on
Earth. IN ADDITION TO HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM, DISJUNCT AREAS
EXHIBITING HIGH LEVELS OF
RICHNESS CHARACTERIZE THIS
ECOREGION’S BIOTA
Selected Species: The ecoregion is home to a
diverse array of mammals, including such
species as L’hoest i’sguenon (Cercopitheus
l’hoesti), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), Angolan
black-and-white colobus (Colobus
angolensis), okapi (Okapia johnstoni), and
brush-tailed porcupines (Atherurus africanus).
Endemic mammals include Piliocolobus
N
62
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
oustaleti, Dent’s guenon (Cercopithecus
monadenti), aquatic civet (Osbornictis
piscivora), and giant forest genet (Genetta
victoriae). In addition, two birds are restricted
to these forests: Bedford's paradise flycatcher
(Terpsiphone bedfordi) and Turner's
eremomela (Eremomelaturneri). More
characteristic species include lesser stripedswallow (Hirundo abyssinica), and greenbacked woodpecker (Campethera cailliauti).
General Threats: Hunting increasingly threatens
ecosystem dynamics. Conversion of forest for
agriculture is also a major threat.
ecoregion. The Congo peafowl (Afropavo
congensis), endemic to the Congo River basin,
is the only pheasant species not native to Asia.
Other bird species include the Congo weaver
(Euplectes anomala), Congo sunbird
(Nectarinia congensis), Bates’s paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone batesi), Green-backed
camaroptera (Camaroptera brachyura), and
the endemic brown nightjar (Caprimulgus
binotatus).
General Threats: Given the difficulties associated
with reaching these areas—large areas of the
ecoregion are remote and consist of
inaccessible swamp forests—the ecoregion
remains relatively intact. However, there are
no protected areas within the ecoregion. What
little area that has been converted generally
occurs along rivers—the only means of
access.
entral Congo Basin Moist Forests [5] –
Democratic Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: The topography of this
ecorgion is an ancient part of the African
landscape, shaped by erosion processes over
numerous millennia; it consists of low-lying
areas in the central portion as well as areas of
rolling hills toward the Southeast. The eastern
portion of the ecoregion may have been a lake
not long ago, drying out in recent times.
Moreover, the ecoregion is comprised of a
complex mosaic of vegetation types: swamp
forest, seasonally flooded forest, stands of
rainforest, dryland forest, seasonally
inundated savanna, and secondary derived
grasslands. These forests remain relatively
intact. As a result, they support a number of
large mammals, including some found
nowhere else. INTACT AFROTROPIAL
RAINFOREST THAT SUPPORTS A
NUMBER OF LARGE MAMMALS IN
ADDITION TO NUMEROUS OTHER
ANIMALS
Selected Species: Plants include camwood tree
(Baphia spp.) and ground orchid (Eulophia
porphyroglossa). A large number of
mammals, such as the endemic bonobo (Pan
paniscus), Allen’s swamp monkey
(Allenopithecus nigroviridis), African golden
cat (Felis aurata), Beecroft's tree hyrax
(Dendrohyrax dorsalis), giant pangolin
(Manis gigantea), Wolf’s guenon
(Cercopithecus wolfi), and dryas guenon
(Cercopithecus dryas) roam the forests of this
C
estern Congo Basin Moist Forests [6] –
– Cameroon, Central African Republic,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon,
Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: This is the one of the
richest ecoregions in Africa in terms of
biodiversity, supporting many species of
mammals, birds, amphibians, fishes, and
swallowtail butterflies. ONE OF THE
RICHEST AND MOST INTACT TROPICAL
FOREST REGIONS OF THE WORLD
Selected Species: Species include western lowland
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), crowned monkey
(Cercopithecus mona pogonias), and forest
dwelling populations of African elephant
(Loxodonta africana). A number of other
mammals are supported by these forest
habitats. They include the giant forest hog
(Hylochoerus meinertzhageni), the bongo
(Tragelaphus euryceros), and Beecroft's tree
hyrax (Dendrohyrax dorsalis). Bird species
such as forest swallow (Hirundo fuliginosa),
Dja River warbler (Bradypterus grandis),
Bates’s weaver (Ploceus batesi) and African
river martin (Pseudochelidon eurystomina),
characterize the avifauna.
General Threats: Increasing logging activity and
clearing for agricultural expansion threaten
many areas.
W
63
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
ast African Coastal Forests [8] – Kenya,
Somalia, Tanzania
Geographic Location: Eastern coast of Africa.
Biodiversity Features: A belt of lowland forests
that run along the coast of eastern Africa from
southern Somalia to the Mbemkuru River in
southern Tanzania constitute this ecoregion.
Like the forests of the Eastern Arc Mountains,
this moist forest ecoregion has long been
isolated from other regions of tropical moist
forests by expanses of drier savannas and
grasslands. Thus, much of the forest biota is
endemic to the region, and there is significant
local endemism in both plants and animals.
Many of the plant species display remarkable
adaptations to sandy, nutrient-poor soils that
cover much of the ecoregion. BEST
EXAMPLE OF EAST AFRICAN
LOWLAND TROPICAL MOIST FORESTS,
HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE SPECIES AND
GENERA AT CONTINENTAL SCALES
Selected Species: Clarke's weaver (Ploceus
golandi), Sokoke scops owl (Otus ireneae),
Pemba sunbird (Nectarina pemba), Fischer’s
tauraco (Tauraco fishceri) as well as Tana
River cisticola (Cisticola restrictus) comprise
a portion of this ecoregion’s avifauna.
Mammals include a number of endemic
species: Pemba Island flying fox (Pteropus
comorensis), Sokoke dog mongoose
(Bdeogale omnivora), Zanzibar red colobus
(Piliocolobus kirkii), Tana mangabey
(Cercocebus galeritus), Zanzibar galago
(Galagoides zanzibaricus), and Zanj elephant
shrew (Rhynchocyon petersi).
General Threats: Most of this area has been
heavily settled for many years and only a few
blocks of lingering forest remain widely
distributed and isolated throughout the
ecoregion.
E
lbertine Rift Montane Forests [7] –
Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Rwanda, Tanzania ,Uganda
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion of montane
and highland moist forests of Central Africa
supports one of Africa’s distinctive montane
biotas. The western side of the highlands
fringe the lowland Congolian rainforests,
resulting in a diverse transitional flora and
fauna. Rich in species, as compared to other
montane regions in Africa, this area harbors at
least 14 endemic species of butterfly and 37
endemic bird species—the highest figure in
Africa for any equivalent sized area. ONE OF
AFRICA’S FEW MONTANE REGIONS
WITH THE HIGHEST RICHNESS AND
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Characteristic mammals include
mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), plus a
number of endemic species such as Ruwenzori
sun squirrel (Heliosciurus ruwenzori),
Ruwenzori shrew (Ruwenzorisorex
suncoides), chisel-toothed shrew
(Paracrocidura graueri), and two species of
broad-footed thicket rat (Thamnomys kempi
and T. venustus). More than twenty birds are
endemic to this ecoregion and in some cases
surrounding habitats: Rwenzori batis (Batis
diops), Chapin's flycatcher (Muscicapa
lendu), Chapin's flycatcher (Melaenornis
ardesiacus), collared apalis (Apalis
ruwenzorii), Grauer's warbler (Graueria
vittata), and Albertine owlet (Glaucidium
albertinum). Bamboo frog (Callixalus pictus),
copper-colored treefrog (Chrysobatrachus
cupreonites), giant torrent frog
(Phrynobatrachus asper) and Johnston’s
chameleon (Chamaeleo johnstoni) are just
some of the amphibians and reptiles that help
make these montane forests so special.
General Threats: Agriculture, grazing, hunting,
and timber collection threaten the biodiversity
of this ecoregion. Highland forests have been
largely cleared but some sizable blocks of
montane forest still occur in areas such as the
Virunga, Itombwe, and Rwenzori Ranges.
A
astern Arc Montane Forests [9] –
Kenya, Tanzania
Geographic Location: NW-SW range of ancient
mountains in eastern Tanzania.
Biodiversity Features: The few mountainous
regions in Africa are all isolated from one
another by great expanses of lowland habitats.
Over evolutionary time, this has contributed to
E
64
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the highly distinctive nature of the animals
and plants that inhabit each montane region.
The Eastern Arc Mountains consist of a
complex of ranges and peaks that are among
the oldest in Africa, as are the forest
communities of the region. Because of their
close proximity to the Indian Ocean, they have
experienced relatively moist conditions for a
very long time, even as periodic drying trends
affected much of the rest of Africa. The biota
is noted for very high levels of regional
endemism, with many locally endemic species
of plants and animals restricted to single
mountain ranges. The Usambara Mountains of
northeast Tanzania alone have some 50
endemic tree species. ANCIENT TROPICAL
MONTANE FORESTS HIGHLY
DISTINCTIVE AT CONTINENTAL
SCALES EVEN WHEN COMPARED TO
OTHER EASTERN AFRICAN MONTANE
REGIONS
Selected Species: Species include numerous birds,
such as Taita thrush (Turdus helleri),
Usambara akalat ( Sheppardia sharpei),
Usambara eagle-owl (Bubo vosseleri), and
banded sunbird (Anthreptes rubritorques).
This ecoregion supports populations of the
spectacular Usambara violet (Saintpaulia
ionantha), as well as the msambo tree
(Allanblackia stuhlmanni) and a large wild
nutmeg (Cephalosphaera usambarensis).
These forests are also home to mammal
species, including the endemic Abbot's duiker
(Cephalophus spadix), as well as populations
of Angolan black-and-white colobus (Colobus
angolensis), forest-dwelling populations of the
African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and
Harvey’s duiker (Cephalophus harveyi).
General Threats: Few of the mountains have
protected status and all are threatened by
agricultural expansion on lower slopes,
firewood collection, and grazing.
because of its long isolation from Africa.
Most of the island’s plants and animals are
found here and nowhere else, with many
species restricted to small areas of the island.
The rainforests of the east side, both lowland
and montane, are a particularly important
center for species endemism. IN ADDITION
TO UNUSUAL EVOLUTIONARY
PROCESSES, THESE FORESTS SUPPORT
GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM AT THE SPECIES, GENERA,
& FAMILY LEVELS. THE SEVENTH
CONTINENT FROM A BIOGEOGRAPHIC
PERSPECTIVE
Selected Species: Species include numerous
lemurs such as indri (Indri indri), the recently
rediscovered hairy-eared dwarf lemur
(Allocebus trichotis), and ruffed lemur
(Varecia variegata). Traveller’s palm
(Ravenala madagascariensis), tomato frog
(Dyscophus antongili), and leaf-tailed gecko
(Uroplatus fimbriatus) are also found in these
forests. They also support a rich avifauna,
including brown mesite (Mesitornis unicolor),
one of three species of an endemic family of
birds. Among numerous other endemic birds
are Schlegel's asity (Philepitta schlegeli),
Madagascar serpent-eagle (Eutriorchis astur),
Bernier’s vanga (Oriolia bernieri),
Madagascar yellowbrow (Crossleyia
xanthophrys), and red-tailed newtonia
(Newtonia fanovanae).
General Threats: The principle threats to
Madagascar's biodiversity come from the
small-scale but widespread clearing of forests
associated with slash-and-burn agriculture and
secondarily for firewood collection.
eychelles and Mascarenes Moist Forests
[11] – Mauritius, Reunion (France),
Seychelles
Geographic Location: Islands to the north and
east of Madagascar
Biodiversity Features: The Seychelles and
Mascarene Islands include both coral atolls
and large, rugged, granitic and volcanic
islands. The larger islands support unique
rainforests, with most species being endemic
due to the island’s long isolation. The granitic
S
adagascar Forests and Shrublands
[10] – Madagascar
Geographic Location: Eastern and northern
Madagascar
Biodiversity Features: To biogeographers
Madagascar is considered a separate continent
M
65
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Seychelles are fragments of the ancient
supercontinent Gondwana and thus harbor
several relict plants and animals. Smaller
islands, such as Réunion and Rodriques, also
have high endemism. LONG-ISOLATED
ISLANDS OF THE WESTERN INDIAN
OCEAN, THE SEYCHELLES ARE A
REMNANT OF GONDWANA THAT
HARBOR UNUSUAL TAXA AND HIGH
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include Seychelles
sheath-tailed bat, Seychelles kestrel (Falco
araea), Seychelles swiflet (Collocalia
elaphra). The forests of the Seychelles are
also home to the extraordinary Coco de Mer
palm (Lodoicea maldivica), with the world’s
largest nut. On Réunion, species include
Réunion cuckoo-shrike (Coracina newtoni),
Réunion stone chat (Saxicola tectes), and
olivaceous bulbul (Hypsipetes borbonicus).
On Mauritius the Mauritius kestrel (Falco
punctatus) has been successfully captively
bred for reintroduction, and pink pigeon
(Columba mayeri) is also found there. Unique
reptiles and amphibians include Aldabra giant
tortoise (Dipsochelus gigantea) and the
endemic frog family, Sooglossidae.
General Threats: In addition to extensive clearing
of native forests for agriculture and
development, particularly in the lowlands, the
natural communities of the islands are
seriously threatened by exotic plant and
animals.
exoleta), Sulawesi tarsier (Tarsius spectrum),
short-tailed Talaud melomys (Melomys
caurinus), and Sulawesian palm civet
(Macrogalidia musschenbroekii) are found
here and nowhere else. Other species of
interest include Sulawesi tree nymph butterfly
(Idea tambusisiana), swallowtail butterfly,
Graphium androcles, lowland anoa (Bubalus
depressicornis), mountain anoa (B. quarlesi),
sailfin lizard (Hydrosaurus amboinensis), and
reticulated python (Python reticulatus). Sula
scrubfowl (Megapodius bernsteinii), barefaced rail (Gymnocrex rosenbergii), Talaud
kingfisher (Todirhamphus enigma), pied
cuckoo-shrike (Coracina bicolor), cerulean
paradise-flycatcher (Eutrichomyias rowleyi),
Sulawesi hornbill (Penelopides exarhatus),
henna-tailed jungle-flycatcher (Rhinomyias
colonus), and bare-eyed myna (Streptocitta
albertinae) are found only in this ecoregion
and comprise just a small fraction of the
avifauna that occurs in this ecoregion.
General Threats: While many of Indonesia's
larger islands suffer from deforestation,
Sulawesi still supports extensive tracts of both
montane and lowland moist forests. The
island's steep slopes, and the relative lack of
commercially valuable tree species, help
contribute to the still extensive forests that
cover over 60 percent of the island. However,
logging pressure is increasing. Additionally,
burning forest for agriculture is also
increasingly a problem.
Australasia
oluccas Moist Forests [13] – Indonesia
Geographic Location: Archipelago of
Islands to the west of New Guinea
Biodiversity Features: The Moluccan archipelago,
which lies between the islands of Sulawesi
and New Guinea, includes hundreds of islands
ranging in size from 18,000 km2 to
uninhabited islets with an area of only a few
hectares. All told, the islands have an
estimated 56,000 km2 of both lowland and
montane rainforests, covering 80 percent of
the land area. The Moluccas are part of a
biogeographical zone called Wallacea which
contains a mixture of Asian and Australian
fauna including macaques, tarsiers (small
M
ulawesi Moist Forests [12] – Indonesia
Geographic Location: Large island to the
southeast of Borneo in Southeast Asia.
Biodiversity Features: HIGHEST LEVEL OF
MAMMAL ENDEMISM IN ASIA AS WELL
AS HIGH ENDEMISM IN BIRDS AND
PLANTS. SOME OF THE LARGEST
ULTRABASIC FORESTS IN ASIA
Selected Species: Mammal species include the
unusual Sulawesi wild pig or babirussa
(Babyrousa babyrussa), plus the endemic
Celebes black (Macaca nigra), and moor
(Macaca maura) macaques. In addition,
Sulawesi barebacked fruit bat (Dobsonia
S
66
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
nocturnal primates), squirrels, and cuscuses
(possum-like arboreal marsupials). These
forests contain many interesting species of
cockatoos and other parrots. THIS UNIT
WHICH COMBINES HALMAHERA BURU,
AND SERAM ISLANDS HAS PERHAPS
THE HIGHEST LEVELS OF BIRD
ENDEMISM FOR ITS SIZE ANYWHERE
IN THE WORLD.
Selected Species: Moluccan tree species include
damar (Agathis spp.), batai (Albizzia falcata),
Pterocarpus indicus, and Octomeles
sumatran. Mammal species endemic to these
forests include Moluccan flying fox (Pteropus
chrysoproctus), Ceram bandicoot
(Rhynchomeles prattorum), Mansuela
melomys (Melomys fraterculus), and the
largest native mammal, ornate cuscus
(Phalanger ornatus). Among the numerous
bird species found only here are salmoncrested cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensis),
Moluccan woodcock (Scolopax rochussenii),
and flame-breasted flowerpecker (Dicaeum
erythrothorax), blue-and-white kingfisher
(Todirhamphus diops), and grey-collared
oriole (Oriolus forsteni). Wider-ranging
species, such as Moluccan scrubfowl
(Megapodius wallacei) and cinnamon-chested
flycatcher (Ficedula buruensis), occur here as
well.
General Threats: Many parts of this ecoregion
include intact forests. However, besides
logging, threats include tapping of damar trees
and illegal collection of biological resources.
Selected Species: Species include the endemic
lowland tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus spadix),
lowland ringtail (Pseudocheirus canescens),
dorcopsis (Dorcopsis luctosa), D'Albertis
ringtail (Pseudochirops albertisii), and
Papuan tiger orchid (Grammatophylum
papuanus). Bird species include little
paradise-kingfisher (Tanysiptera
hydrocharis), and painted quail-thrush
(Cinclosoma ajax).
General Threats: Threats to this ecoregion include
logging, especially in coastal areas; road
construction, shifting cultivation and
agricultural expansion; and plantation
development.
ew Guinea Montane Forests [15] –
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: The island of New Guinea
north of Australia
Biodiversity Features: New Guinea, the largest
and highest tropical island, has an
extraordinary diversity of ecosystems and
some of the most remarkable birds, marsupial
mammals, insects, and flowering plants on
Earth. HIGHLY RICH & ENDEMIC ISLAND
BIOTA, VERY DISTINCTIVE AT A
GLOBAL SCALE
Selected Species: Species include the world's
largest butterfly, Queen Alexandra's birdwing
(Ornithoptera alexandrae), king bird of
paradise (Cicinnurus regius), the rare black
sicklebill (Epimachus fastuosus) and the
endemic blue bird of paradise (Paradisaea
rudolphi). Mammal species include Doria's
tree-kangaroo (Dendrolagus dorianus), striped
bandicoot (Microperoryctes longicauda),
long-tailed pygmy possum (Cercartetus
caudatus), the endemic coppery ringtail
(Pseudochirops cupreus), Stein's cuscus
(Phalanger vestitus), mountain cuscus (P.
carmelitae), the endemic Telefomin
horseshoe-bat (Hipposideros corynophyllus),
and long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bruijni).
General Threats: Threats include logging, road
construction, shifting cultivation and
agricultural expansion, and related livestock
activities.
N
outhern New Guinea Lowland Forests
[14] Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: The island of New Guinea
north of Australia
Biodiversity Features: New Guinea is considered
to support a very unusual biota at global
scales, with many endemic species, unique
higher taxa, and unusual ecological
phenomena. The lowland forests harbor over
1,200 species of trees, and one of the richest
and most varied bird faunas in the world.
HIGHLY RICH AND ENDEMIC ISLAND
BIOTA, VERY DISTINCTIVE AT A
GLOBAL SCALE
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
in these forests. THE ONLY TROPICAL
MOIST FORESTS OF AUSTRALIA, WITH
HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE BIOTA AT A
GLOBAL SCALE
Selected Species: Australian king parrot Bennett’s
tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus bennettianus),
Lummholz’s tree kangaroo (D. lumholtzi), and
proserpine rock wallaby (Petrogale
persephone) are among the endemic
marsupials found in this ecoregion. More
widespread species with populations in this
ecoregion include agile wallaby (Macropus
agilis), eastern grey kangaroo (M. giganteus),
red-legged pademelon (Thylogale stigmatica),
and swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor). The
rare tube-nosed insect bat (Murina florium),
and coastal sheathtail bat (Taphozous
australis) are a few of the bat species, some of
which have wider Australasian ranges, found
in this ecoregion. Bird species include
cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), red-backed
fairy wren (Malurus melanocephalus), bluewinged kookabura (Dacelo leachii), forest
kingfisher (Todiramphus macleayii), paleheaded rosella (Platycercus adscitus),
Australian king parrot (Alisterus scapularis),
barred cuckoo shrike (Coracina lineata),
yellow honeyeater (Lichenostomus flavus),
and the rare golden bowerbird (Prionodura
newtoniana).
General Threats: Deforestation has led to habitat
fragmentation and shrinking populations of
such species as spotted-tailed quoll (Dasyurus
maculatus, a marsupial carnivore), cassowary
(Casuarius casuarius), and ringtail possum
(Hemibelideus lemuroides). Introduced
species also pose a serious threat to many
native species.
olomons-Vanuatu-Bismarck Moist Forests
Forests [16] – Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu
Geographic Location: Eastern New Guinea
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes the
islands of New Ireland, New Britain, other
associated islands off the coast of New
Guinea, and the Solomon Islands. The
Solomon Islands harbor at least 148 species of
land and freshwater birds alone, over 60 of
which are endemic to the region. New Ireland
and New Britain support diverse lowland
rainforests on volcanic soils as well as higher
elevation montane forests. This area is still
relatively unexplored and likely contains
many new species. ARCHIPELAGO OF
ISLANDS EACH WITH HIGHLY
ENDEMIC BIOTAS, DISTINCTIVE EVEN
FROM NEARBY NEW GUINEA
Selected Species: Birds endemic to the ecoregion
include the Guadalcanal honeyeater
(Guadalcanaria inexpectata), mottled
flowerpecker (Dicaeum tristrami), Rennell
white-eye (Zosterops rennelliana), Matthias
fantail (Rhipidura matthiae), and Malaita
fantail (R. malaitae). Mammals include
greater flying fox (Pteropus neohibernicus)
and Raffray's sheathtail bat (Emballonura
raffrayana)
General Threats: Intensive logging on the part of
multinational timber companies is devastating
both lowland and montane forest habitats.
Potential threats include conversion of forests
to oil palm plantations and increasing pressure
from population growth.
S
ueensland Tropical Forests [17] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Northeastern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Australia has only a small
and scattered area of tropical rainforest, yet it
is composed of what is believed to be residual
fragments of the forests that once covered
most of Australia and Antarctica until
approximately 15 million years ago. However,
the forests are of particular interest for their
southern location and the high degree of
endemism of their plant and animal species.
Many plants with ancient lineages still occur
Q
ew Caledonia Moist Forests [18] – New
Caledonia (France)
Geographic Location: Several islands 1200 km
northeast of Australia including most of
Grande Terre (the main island).
Biodiversity Features: New Caledonia is an
isolated remnant of the ancient supercontinent
Gondwana. This history, combined with the
presence of unusual ultramafic soils and
climate variation resulting from its
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
topography, has helped produce one of the
world’s most extraordinary and rich biotas,
despite its small size. The region has very
high endemism at species, genus, and family
levels, and a diversity of vegetation types.
New Caledonia has over 2900 species of
vascular plants, of which nearly 80 per cent
are endemic, nearly 14% of the plant genera
are endemic as well as 5 plant families. There
is also a high degree of endemism in
arthropods, reptiles, and birds, including the
kagu (Rhynochetus jubata) the sole member of
an endemic bird family. Giant geckos, snaileating terrestrial crocodiles, and horned
tortoises once formed part of the extraordinary
reptile fauna, but have since gone extinct.
ONE OF THE MOST DISTINCTIVE
TERRESTRIAL BIOTAS IN THE WORLD,
IT IS SO HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE THAT IT
IS CONSIDERED A “CONTINENT” IN
BIOGEOGRAPHIC TERMS. VERY HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AT THE
SPECIES, GENERA, & FAMILY.
Selected Species: Besides the endemic kagu
(Rhynochetus jubata), two species of giant
gecko, as well as the unique plants Araucaria
rulei and Dacyridium guillauminii, are found
on this island. The flora is incredibly rich,
supporting a diverse array of conifers:
araucariads and podocarps. In addition,
angiosperms include a number of endemic
genera, such as Amborella, Canacomyrica,
Paracryphia, and Strasburgeria.
General Threats: The major threats are clearing of
native habitats, fire, overexploitation of some
species, introduced species, mining,
agriculture, and livestock grazing.
(Tricholimas sylvestris), Lord Howe rail
(Gallirallus sylvestris), and Lord Howe whiteeye (Zosterops tephropleurus) are endemic to
Lord Howe Island, while Norfolk Island
parakeet (Cyanoramphus cookii) and slenderbilled white-eye (Zosterops tenuirostris) are
endemic to Norfolk Island. Other birds of
interest include green parrot (Cyanoramphus
novaezelandiae) morepork (Ninox
novaeseelandiae), and sacred kingfisher
(Halcyon sancta). Among the native trees
found in the forests on Norfolk Island are
Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla),
pepper tree (Macropiper excelsum),
bloodwood (Baloghia inophylla), and white
oak (Lagunaria patersonia).
General Threats: Introduced plants and animals
are the major threats. Grazing on the islands is
also a threat.
Indo-Malayan
outhwestern Ghats Moist Forests [20] –
India
Geographic Location: Western coast of Indian
Subcontinent
Biodiversity Features: The Western Ghats, which
fringe the Arabian Sea coastline of the Indian
peninsula, contain one of India's last
remaining areas of tropical rainforest. The
region supports an enormous number of tree
species, including 13 species of dipterocarps,
a large commercially and ecologically
valuable hardwood tree species. Though the
Western Ghats occupy just five per cent of
India's land area, the region contains over
4,000 species of higher plants, more than a
quarter of all the higher plants in the country.
Of India's 112 endemic amphibians, 84 are
found in the Western Ghats. THE ONLY
TROPICAL FOREST ECOREGION OF THE
INDIAN PENINSULA WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AND UNUSUAL
BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS
Selected Species: Threatened endemic plants
include Actinodaphne lanata and
Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis. Orchids include
Calanthe triplicata, the white crane or
Christmas orchid. Among the endemic
amphibians of the ecoregion are Malabar
S
ord Howe-Norfolk Island Forests [19] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Islands off the East Coast
of Australia in the Tasman Sea
Biodiversity Features: These ancient and isolated
islands support at least 392 distinctive species,
of which 40 percent are found only here.
Habitats include subtropical broadleaf, palm,
and conifer forests.
Selected Species: As their names imply the
endangered Lord Howe Island wood rail
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
flying frog (Rhacophorus malabaricus),
Malabar tree toad (Pedostibes tuberculosus),
and Kerala caecilian (Ichthyophis
peninsularis). Numerous other animal species
are found here, including an endangered goatantelope, Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius),
which is found no where else on Earth. Liontailed macaque (Macaca silenus), a primate
that is one of the few mammals endemic to the
southern Indian rainforests, as well as Malabar
civet (Viverra civettina), sloth bear (Ursus
ursinus), tiger (Panthera tigris), and Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus) are also
characteristic of this ecoregion’s mammalian
fauna. Endemic birds include Malabar
parakeet (Psittacula columboides), Malabar
grey-hornbill (Ocyceros griseus), Nilgiri pipit
(Anthus nilghiriensis), and Nilgiri flycatcher
(Eumyias albicaudata). White-bellied blueflycatcher (Cyornis pallipes) and crimsonbacked sunbird (Nectarinia minima) have
slightly wider distributions.
General Threats: Logging, agriculture,
hydroelectric projects, and urban expansion
are the major threats to the biota of this
ecoregion.
(Feroculus feroculus), Ceylon giant squirrel,
and the endangered Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) as well as the threatened leopard
(Panthera pardus).
General Threats: Most of the forests have been
cut for fuelwood, cleared for agriculture, or as
a result of urban growth, but the remnants in
the southern lowlands and the montane
habitats protected in the Sinharaja Natural
Heritage Wilderness Area, are globally
significant for their biodiversity.
orthern Indochina Subtropical Moist
Forests [22] – China, Laos, Myanmar,
Thailand, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Northern Indochina
Biodiversity Features: Monsoon forests
distributed over a mountainous landscape
create a broad range of habitat conditions
from drought-deciduous savanna woodland to
montane evergreen forests. This ecoregion
has the second highest richness value for
mammals in Asia and a tree species diversity
that rivals the humid tropical forests of
Malesia. SOME OF THE HIGHEST LEVELS
OF MAMMAL, BIRD, AND PLANT
ENDEMISM IN ASIA ARE FOUND HERE.
THESE ARE THE RICHEST
SUBTROPICAL FORESTS IN ASIA, AND
THE MOST INTACT EXAMPLE OF THIS
HABITAT TYPE LEFT IN ASIA
Selected Species: Asian elephants (Elephas
maximus), tigers (Panthera tigris), Malayan
sun bear (Ursus malayanus, the smallest of all
bears), slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), gaur
(Bos gaurus), gibbons (Hylobates hoolock,
H.leucogenys, H.concolor), clouded leopard
(Neofelis nebulosa), Tonkin snub-nosed
monkey (Pygathrix avunculus), and Francois’
leaf monkey (Semnopithecus francoisi)
comprise a portion of the mammal fauna. A
few other species of interest found here are
the Alexandrine parakeet (Psittacula
eupatria), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis),
and green dragontail butterfly (Meges
virescens).
General Threats: Unsustainable logging, shifting
cultivation, agricultural expansion, tourism,
N
ri Lankan Moist Forests [21] – Sri Lanka
Geographic Location: Southwestern Sri Lanka
Biodiversity Features: The southwest corner of
Sri Lanka has a rainforest climate, with up to
5000 mm of rain annually. Sri Lanka's
rainforests contain numerous endemic plants
in addition to several butterflies, birds,
reptiles, and mammals that also have limited
distributions. ISLAND BIOTA WITH
HIGHLY ENDEMIC PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
Selected Species: Among the bird species found
only in these forests are the Sri Lankan wood
pigeon (Columba torringtoni), green-billed
coucal (Centropus chlororhyncus), Ceylon
magpie (Urocissa ornata), Sri Lanka greyhornbill (Ocyceros gingalensis), and yellowfronted barbet (Megalaima flavifrons).
Mammal species found on the island include
toque macaque (Macaca sinica), Asiatic
striped palm squirrel (Funambulus layardi),
the endemic Kelaart's long-clawed shrew
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
and extensive illegal hunting pose the greatest
danger sto this ecoregion’s biota.
Geographic Location: Large island off the eastern
coast of China
Biodiversity Features: Because the island of
Taiwan is located near the border of the
Palaearctic and Indomalayan Realms, its
forests support many tropical species at the
northern limit of their ranges. One-third of all
of Taiwan's plants occur here, including 88
orchid species, and 160 plants endemic to the
island. DISTINCTIVE ISLAND FLORA
AND FAUNA, SOME OF THE BEST
REMAINING EXAMPLES OF EAST ASIAN
MOIST FORESTS
Selected Species: The Taiwan blue pheasant
(Lophora swinhoi) and Taiwan long-tailed
pheasant (Syrmaticus mikado) are two of
fourteen bird species that occur in this
ecoregion and are endemic to the island of
Taiwan. The flora of this East Asian Island
includes many disctinctive conifers such as
Amentotaxus formosana, Cephalotaxus
wilsoniana, Chamaecyparis formosensis,
Cunninghamia konishii, Picea morrisonicola,
Podocarpus fasciculus, Pseudotsuga
wilsoniana, and Taiwania cryptomerioides.
Other significant plants include the cycad,
Cycas taitungensis and many angiosperms like
Rhododendron, Camellia and Lauraceae that
are representative of the east Asian montane
forests. Mammals include the endemic
monkey, Taiwanese macaque (Macaca
cyclopis), and other species more widespread
but rare, such as serow (Capricornis crispus),
sambar (Cervus Unicolor), Sitka deer (C.
nippon), and Asiatic black bear (Selenarctos
thibetanus). Amphibians of Taiwan include
Taipei tree frog (Rhacophorus taipcianus) and
Formosan salamander (Hynobius formosanus).
General Threats: Tourism, uncontrolled collection
of wild plants, and large construction projects
are some of the major threats to this
ecoregion.
outheast China-Hainan Moist Forests
[23] – China, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Southeastern China
Biodiversity Features: A relatively stable climate
over a long period of time has led to the
development of a very diverse flora and fauna,
including roughly 1,700 genera of seedbearing plants. Some of these are endemic,
monotypic genera; others include relict
species, such as the ginkgo tree (Ginkgo
biloba) or dawn redwood (Metasequoia
glyptostroboides). RELATIVELY HIGH
LEVELS OF RICHNESS IN PLANTS AND
A NUMBER OF OTHER TAXA
CHARACTERIZE THE BIOTA, AS DO
PROUNOUNCED LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
IN CERTAIN TAXA.
Selected Species: Mammals include serow
(Cappricornis sumatrensis) and leopard
(Panthera pardus). Birds include species such
as pale-headed woodpecker (Gecinulus
grantia), black-throated parrotbill
(Paradoxornis nipalensis), red-tailed laughing
thrush (Garrulax milnei), great barbet
(Megalaima virens), long-tailed silver
pheasant (Lophura nycthemera), Cabot’s
tragopan (Tragopan caboti), collared scops
owl (Otus bakkamoena), and rufous fantailed
warbler (Cisticola juncidis). Other species,
like silver oriole (Oriolus mellianus) have
ranges that are partly or entirely restricted to
this ecoregion. Endemic amphibians include
the tiny Romer’s tree frog (Philautus romeri),
Hong Kong newt (Paramesotriton
hongkongensis), Asiatic salamander
(Vibrissaphora liu), tree frog (Hyla
sanchiangensis), and horned toad (Megophrys
kuatunensis).
General Threats: Habitat loss through agricultural
expansion and excessive hunting are of
primary concern in this ecoregion.
Development pressures caused by high
population density and a rapidly growing
economy also give cause for concern.
S
nnamite Range Moist Forests [25] –
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Northern Indochina
Biodiversity Features: This range supports several
endemic mammals and birds in addition to a
number of endangered and threatened species.
A
aiwan Montane Forests [24] – China
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
SOME OF THE LAST RELATIVELY
INTACT MOIST FORESTS IN INDOCHINA
THAT STILL HARBOR LARGE
VERTEBRATE FAUNAS, INCLUDING
SEVERAL NEWLY DISCOVERED
SPECIES
Selected Species: Two of the six large mammal
species new to science this century were
discovered here recently: sao la (Pseudoryx
nghetinhensis), or Vu Quang ox, and giant
muntjac (Megamuntiacus vuquangensis).
Other species include the endangered douc
langur (Pygathrix nemaeus) and Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus). Birds include the
endemic sooty babbler (Stachyris herberti),
imperial pheasant (Lophura imperialis), and
Vietnamese pheasant (L. hatinhensis), as well
as wider-ranging species, such as green
peafowl (Pavo muticus).
General Threats: Increased commercial logging,
large hydropower projects, shifting
cultivation, and intensive illegal hunting.
Regular burning for agriculture prevents forest
regeneration.
(Argusianus argus), tiger (Panthera tigris),
the orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), lar gibbon
(Hylobates lar), Malaysian tapir (Tapirus
indicus), and Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus
sumatrensis).
General Threats: The lowland moist forests of
Sumatra are rich in plants and animals, but
between 65 and 80 percent of these forests
have already been lost to agriculture and
logging. On the flat lowlands of southern
Sumatra, for example, the vast stands of
ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri), a species
of great commercial importance producing an
exceptionally durable timber, have been
almost entirely destroyed. Sumatra is probably
losing its natural vegetation faster than any
other part of Indonesia. Indonesia's Mentawai
Islands, just west of Sumatra, and India's
Nicobar Islands to the north have similar but
more intact forests, although these too are
threatened by agriculture.
hilippines Moist Forests [27] –
Philippines
Geographic Location: Philippine Islands
Biodiversity Features: The forests of the
Philippines support a rich and diverse flora
and fauna. Of the roughly 12,000 species of
plants and fungi, about 3,500 are endemic,
with 33 endemic genera. The fauna of the
archipelago is also characterized by a high
degree of endemismof approximately 96
species of non-flying land mammals occurring
in the Philippines, at least 70 are found
nowhere else. There is also a high degree of
endemism in Philippine birds, amphibians,
and reptiles. This ecoregion combines the
moist forests of Luzon, the Central Islands,
and Mindanao. EXTRAORDINARY
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM IN PLANTS,
BIRDS, MAMMALS, AND OTHER TAXA,
AT BOTH THE ECOREGIONAL AND
GLOBAL SCALES CHARACTERIZE THE
BIOTA. VERY HIGH LOCAL ENDEMISM
IN MONTANE REGIONS
Selected Species: Mammals include a species of
forest buffalo called the tamaraw (Bubalus
mindorensis) and the Mindoro rat
(Anonymomys mindorensis), found only on the
P
umatran Islands Lowland and Montane
Forests [26] – Indonesia
Geographic Location: Northern Sumatra and
islands to the north in the Bengal Sea
Biodiversity Features: These forests represent the
opportunity to conserve a number of
endangered and charismatic species—tigers,
rhinos, and orangutans—while simultaneously
saving unique forests that are rich in lesser
known plants and animals. HIGHLY
DIVERSE FORESTS WITH EXTENSIVE
AREAS OF LIMESTONE, HIGH LEVELS
OF REGIONAL AND LOCAL ENDEMISM,
ONE OF THE LAST OPPORTUNITIES TO
CONSERVE POPULATIONS OF
SUMATRAN TIGER, RHINOS, AND
ORANGUTANS
Selected Species: Among the numerous endemic
birds found in this ecoregion are blue-masked
leafbird (Chloropsis venusta), Sumatran
drongo (Dicrurus sumatranus), blue-tailed
trogon (Harpactes reinwardtii), and bluewattled bulbul (Pycnonotus melanoleucus).
Other species include great argus pheasant
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
island of Mindoro, and Philippine tarsier
(Tarsius syrichta). Threatened bat species in
the ecoregion include little golden-mantled
fruit bat (Pteropus pumilus), Katanglad fruit
bat (Alionycteris paucidentata), and Fischer's
pygmy fruit bat (Haplonycteris fischeri).
Among the numerous endemic bird species
are Rabor's wren-babbler (Napothera rabori),
white-lored oriole (Oriolus albiloris), Isabela
oriole (O. isabellae), rufous paradise
flycatcher (Terpsiphone cinnamomea),
Mindoro imperial-pigeon (Ducula
mindorensis), and scarlet-collared
flowerpecker (Dicaeum retrocinctum).
General Threats: Most of the forests and their
species are severely threatened by extensive
habitat degradation and loss due to logging,
agriculture, soil erosion, and hunting. Regular
burning in some areas prevents forest
regeneration.
tit (Parus amabilis), and Palawan
flowerpecker (Prionochilus plateni) comprise
a portion of the endemic bird fauna of the
ecoregion.
General Threats: Despite supporting the highest
percentage of remaining forest cover in all of
the Philippines, illegal logging, hunting, and
regular burning seriously threaten the
ecoregion. In addition, the protected area
system is weak and enforcement of existing
law is inadequate.
ayah-Karen/Tenasserim Moist
Forests [29] – Malaysia, Myanmar,
Thailand
Geographic Location: Indochina
Biodiversity Features: The forests of the
Tenasserim Hills in southeastern Myanmar
and west central Thailand support a rather
distinct fauna, exhibiting characteristics of
both the islands of the Malay Archipelago and
the mountains of China and India. These
forests harbor one of the richest mammalian
faunas in Asia, not to mention a rich diversity
of birds and amphibians. ONE OF THE
MOST INTACT VERTEBRATE FAUNAS
OF INDOCHINA, THE LARGEST BLOCK
OF MOIST FOREST IN INDOCHINA, ONE
OF THE RICHEST FOREST FLORAS OF
INDOCHINA
Selected Species: Species include birds such as
the endemic Gurney's pitta (Pitta gurneyi),
and great hornbill (Buceros bicornis). Asian
elephant (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera
tigris), Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates hoolock),
Feas’s muntjac (Muntiacus feae), dhole or
wild dog (Cuon alpinus), clouded leopard
(Pardofelis nebulosa), slow loris (Nycticebus
coucang), common leopard (Panthera
pardus), bear macaque (Macaca arctoides),
and gaur (Bos gaurus) are among the betterknown mammals. Trees, such as
Dipterocarpus alatus, D. turbinatus,
Parashorea stellata, Hopea odorata,
Fibraurea chloroleuca, Limacia cuspidata,
Calophyllum kunstleri, C. parkeri, Durio
zibethinus, plus teak forest species such as
Tectona grandis and Xylia dolabriformis,
constitute only a small portion of the
K
alawan Moist Forests [28] – Philippines
Geographic Location: The Island of Palawan
in the Philippines
Biodiversity Features: The flora and fauna of this
island displays more affinities with certain
islands in Indonesia, primarily Borneo, than
other islands in the Philippines. The island
contains areas of lowland and montane
monsoon forests that support a fauna rich in
endemic birds and mammals, among other
taxa. Moreover, Palawan has a relatively low
population density, which has allowed the
island to remain under fairly extensive forest
cover. However, two thirds of this ecoregion
has been cleared, and large areas have been
degraded.
Selected Species: The diversity of habitats
supports a number of endemic mammals such
as the endangered Calamian deer (Axis
calamianensis), Palawan fruitbat (Acerodon
leucotis), Palawan stink badger (Mydaus
marchei), and horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus
anderseni). Palawan peacock-pheasant
(Polyplectron emphanum), grey imperialpigeon (Ducula pickeringii), blue-headed
racquet-tail (Prioniturus platenae), Palawan
flycatcher (Ficedula platenae), blue paradiseflycatcher (Terpsiphone cyanescens), Palawan
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
vegetational diversity that makes these forests
so rich.
General Threats: Once-extensive forests have
already been lost as a result of logging and
conversion to agriculture—some areas having
been converted to rubber plantations.
Logging, resulting both from legal
concessions and illegal extraction, continues.
Soil erosion as a result of large-scale clearcutting is of special concern. Development
pressures, including dam and highways
construction are also problematic.
(Hipposideros ridleyi), and pipistrelle
(Pipistrellus societatis).
General Threats: Logging both in the highlands
and lowlands, conversion of lowland forest for
agriculture and urban development, tourism
development, and road construction causing
fragmentation and loss of forests are the
predominant threats in this ecoregion.
orneo Lowland and Montane Forests
[31] – Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia
Geographic Location: Southern Borneo
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion is among
the richest in the world for floral diversity,
exhibiting a rich diversity of montane plant
species. In addition, a large number of
mammal species, including numerous
endemics comprise a portion of the rich fauna.
Large areas of karst occur here, as does the
only high altitude swamp forest. The diversity
of such unique habitats contributes to high
levels of endemism. Twenty-three of the 39
mammals endemic to Borneo reside within
these forests. BESIDES REGIONALLY
HIGH SPECIES RICHNESS AND
ENDEMISM FOR PLANTS, THE AREA
EXHIBITS HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
AMONG MAMMALS AND BIRDS
Selected Species: This forest supports a rich flora,
including many species of orchids and
rhododendrons not found elsewhere. Several
species of Rafflesia, the parsitic genus lacking
true leaves, stems or roots, occur here.
Mammals include proboscis monkey (Nasalis
larvatus), leopard cat (Cynocephalus
variegatus), Bornean tarsier (Tarsius
bancamus), slow loris (Nycticebus coucang),
the endangered orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus),
and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus
sumatrensis). A number of birds are endemic
to this ecoregion, including mountain serpenteagle (Spilornis kinabaluensis), Whitehead's
trogon (Harpactes whiteheadi), golden-naped
barbet (Megalaima pulcherrima), blackbreasted fruit-hunter (Chlamydochaera
jefferyi), eyebrowed jungle-flycatcher
(Rhinomyias gularis), Bornean whistler
(Pachycephala hypoxantha), and black oriole
(Oriolus hosii).
B
eninsular Malaysian Lowland and
Montane Forests [30] – Indonesia, Malaysia,
Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand
Geographic Location: Southern portion of
Malaysian Peninsula
Biodiversity Features: Peninsular Malaysia has a
rich flora and fauna, with about 8,000 species
of plants, over 200 species of mammals,
including 81 bats, 110 species of snakes,
thousands of insect species, and a rich
diversity of birds. About 60 percent of the bird
species and 78 percent of the mammals
(excluding bats) live in primary or tall
secondary forests. In fact, this region supports
one of the richest mammalian faunas in Asia.
Many of the numerous species reside in
Taman Negara National Park, one of the
largest protected areas in southeast Asia,
encompassing the largest area of pristine
lowland dipterocarp forest left in the country,
montane rainforests, and rainforests on
limestone. The highest mountain in Peninsular
Malaysia, Mount Tahan, is located within the
park. ONE OF THE TWO RICHEST
FLORAS AND FAUNAS OF ASIA AS
WELL AS DIVERSE HABITAT TYPES
DISTINGUISH THIS ECOREGION. IT IS
ALSO ONE OF THE LAST SITES IN ALL
OF ASIA WHERE ELEPHANT, TIGER,
AND RHINO STILL COEXIST
Selected Species: Species include tiger (Panthera
tigris), Asian elephant (Elephas maximus),
brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus
macrourus), the endangered Sunda otter-civet
(Cynogale bennettii), horseshoe bat
P
74
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
General Threats: Only a small percentage of these
forests have been cleared, and only a tiny
fraction is degraded. Potentially damaging
activities include logging, large-scale
agriculture and mining, dam construction,
illegal collection of species, and shifting
cultivation.
conservation significance, such as tiger
(Panthera tigris), barasingha (Cervus
duvaucelii), Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus), wolf (Canis lupus), Asiatic wild
dog (Cuon alpinus), sloth bear (Ursus
ursinus), leopard (Panthera pardus),
blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and chinkara
(Gazella bennettii). Species such as crested
serpent-eagle (Spilornis cheela), chestnutbellied sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus), plumheaded parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala),
pied cuckoo (Oxylophus jacobinus), and
black-capped kingfisher (Halcyon pileata)
comprise a portion of the avifauna.
General Threats: Shifting cultivation, quarrying,
mining, large-scale agriculture, and
hydroelectric projects have resulted in the
clearing and degradation of many habitats.
Conservation efforts are urgently needed to
ensure that the remaining large habitat blocks
are not lost.
ansei Shoto Archipelago Forests [32] –
Japan
Geographic Location: Chain of islands running
southwest from southern Japan
Biodiversity Features: The islands have numerous
endemic plant and bird species, and the
Iriomote Islands contain the world's only
habitat for the rare and endangered Iriomote
cat (Felis iriomotensis). UNUSUAL
PATTERNS OF ENDEMISM ACROSS
COMPLEX OF SUBTROPICAL ISLANDS
IN EAST ASIA
Selected Species: Species include the Iriomote cat
(Mayailurus iriomotensis), Amami rabbit
(Pentalagus furnessi), Okinawa rail (Rallus
okinawae), and Okinawan or Pyers’
woodpecker (Sapheopipo noguchii).
General Threats: Development such as dam
construction, logging, introduced species, and
expansion of agriculture threaten remaining
natural habitats.
N
aga-Manupuri-Chin Hills Moist Forests
[34] – Bangladesh, India, Myanmar
Geographic Location: Southern Asia, NE of
Indian subcontinent
Biodiversity Features: RICHEST AREA FOR
ENDEMIC BIRDS, AND OVERALL BIRD
RICHNESS IN ASIA, ONE OF THE
RICHEST MAMMAL FAUNAS IN ASIA
Selected Species: This are contains refuges for
Miocene flora, examples include Tetracentron
sinense, and Amentotaxus assamicus, only
recently described. Among the numerous birds
restricted to habitats in this ecoregion are
Blyth's tragopan (Tragopan blythii), browncapped laughingthrush (Garrulax austeni),
long-tailed wren-babbler (Spelaeornis
chocolatinus), rufous-capped babbler
(Stachyris ruficeps) broad-billed warbler
(Tickellia hodgsoni), and white-browed
nuthatch (Sitta victoriae). Mammals include
the endangered Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates
hoolock), tiger (Panthera tigris), the
threatened sun bear (Ursus malayanus) and
red panda (Ailurus fulgens), clouded leopard
(Pardofelis nebulosa), leopard (Panthera
pardus), thamin (Cervus eldii) as well as gaur
(Bos gaurus).
N
astern Deccan Plateau Moist Forests
[33] – India
Geographic Location: Southeastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: These low elevation,
relatively dry moist forests, which stretch
along the southeastern coast of India, provide
habitat for several threatened mammals.
However, almost the entire ecoregion has
been deforested. Nonetheless, the ecoregion
harbors several large mammals of
conservation significance. RELATIVELY
INTACT ASSEMBLAGE OF LARGE
MAMMALS, INCLUDING A PRIORITY
AREA FOR TIGER CONSERVATION
Selected Species: Characteristic plants include
Manilkara hexandra, Memecylon umbellatum,
Drypetes sepiaria, Pterospermum
suberifolium, and Carmona microphylla. The
ecoregion harbors several large mammals of
E
75
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
General Threats: Portions of this ecoregion are in
relatively good condition. However,
degradation of forests due to ‘Jhum’
cultivation, forest fires, and development
projects is of concern. Timber exploitation,
both as the result of illegal cutting for
agriculture and the illicit cutting and lopping
of trees for timber, fuelwood, and fodder are
important problems. Burning and overgrazing
in many areas leads to the trampling of soils,
thus preventing regeneration. Hunting and
habitat loss have led to several local
extinctions of some mammal species.
reduced and now exist only in a few protected
areas in hilly regions.
estern Java Montane Forests [36] –
Indonesia
Geographic Location: Large island to the south of
Borneo
Biodiversity Features: A rich flora and fauna is
found here, including many species not found
elswhere, the result of a diversity of habitats.
Endemism is highest for mammals, but is also
high for birds. Nearly all of the original forest
has been cleared to make way for Java's dense
and expanding population. GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING ENDEMISM LEVELS
FOR MAMMALS, SEVERAL OF WHICH
ARE EXTREMELY THREATENED.
Selected Species: Forests in this ecoregion contain
many species now virtually extinct elsewhere
in Java, such as the trees Elaeocarpus
macrocerus, Alstonia spathulata, wild mango
(Mangifera gedebe), Stemonurus secundiflora,
and a huge sedge (Thoracostachyrum
sumatrana). Besides the globally threatened
surili leaf monkey (Presbytis comata), the
endemic Javan gibbon (Hylobates moloch)
lives here too. Species, such as the endemic
Javan tesia (Tesia superciliaris) and green
spectacled pigeon (Treron oxyura) as well as
Sunda thrush (Zoothera andromedae), are
characteristic of the bird fauna.
General Threats: Only five per cent of the original
habitat remains in this ecoregion, which is
found on the most densely populated island in
Indonesia. Erosion and burning pose serious
threats to those fragments of forest that
remain.
W
ardamom Mountains Moist Forests [35] –
Cambodia, Thailand
Geographic Location: Southeastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The relatively pristine
forest habitats of this ecoregion support intact
assemblages of vertebrates, including
important habitat and prey for tigers plus an
important population of Asian elephants.
INTACT VERTEBRATE ASSEMBPLAGES,
INCLUDING IMPORTANT POPULATIONS
OF TIGER AND ASIAN ELEPHANT
Selected Species: Tree species such as Anisoptera
costata, A. glabra, Dipterocarpus costatus,
Hopea odorata, Shorea hypochra, Caryota
urens, and Oncosperma tigillarium form
forests that support a number of endangered
species: pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus),
tiger (Panthera tigris), and Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus). Other mammals include
sun bear (Ursus malayanus), clouded leopard
(Pardofelis nebulosa), gaur (Bos gaurus), and
banteng (B. javanicus). Some species occur
here which are otherwise found only in
Thailand's southern peninsula: flying lemur
(Cynocephalus variegatus), moustached hawk
cuckoo (Cuculus vagans), buffy fish-owl
(Ketupa ketupu), silver oriole (Oriolus
mellianus), and greater mouse deer (Tragulus
napu).
General Threats: Due to low human population
pressure, the forests of the Elephant and
Cardamom Mountains in Vietnam, especially
the rainforests on the western slopes, are
relatively intact. However, areas in
southeastern Thailand have been greatly
C
76
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
sparrow (Torreornis inexpectata) on Cuba,
plus Elfin-woods warbler (Dendroica
angelae), Puerto Rican parrot (Amazona
vittata) and Puerto Rican bullfinch (Loxigilla
portoricensis) on Puerto Rico.
General Threats: Threats to the ecoregion include
expansion of cacao, coffee, and tobacco
production; logging; firewood gathering;
grazing; fire; and exploitative hunting.
Neotropical
reater Antillean Moist Forests [37] – Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico (United States)
Geographic Location: Larger islands of the
western and northern Caribbean Sea
Biodiversity Features: The moist forests of the
Greater Antilles maintain an exceptionally
distinctive insular flora and fauna, with many
unique species, genera, and families. These
large islands have long been isolated from
surrounding continents and have retained
several relict taxa in addition to evolving
many unique groups. Many of the primitive
and ancient lineages that still survive in the
Greater Antilles are now extinct on nearby
continents. Cuba, in particular, has a rich flora
as well as a diverse land snail fauna.
GLOBALLY HIGH ENDEMISM FOR
TROPICAL INSULAR BIOTAS & MANY
RELICT TAXA
Selected Species: Hundreds of endemic plants,
including many single-island endemics, such
as 275 endemics in Jamaica’s Blue and John
Crow moutnains. Pilea, Lepanthes,
Psychotria, and Eugenia are well represented
by endemic species in this area. Animals
include the critically endangered and
threatened Hispaniolan hutias (Isolobodon
portoricensis and Plagiodontia aedium),
muskrat-sized rodents endemic to the island;
the rare nez longue or solenodon (Solenodon
paradoxus), a small insectivorous mammal
also endemic to Hispaniola; Cuban tody
(Todus multicolor), a member of the endemic
Greater Antillean tody family Todidae; and
the endemic and endangered Homerus
swallowtail butterfly of Jamaica (Papilio
homerus). Several birds are endemic to
individual islands and their forests, such as
arrow-headed warbler (Dendroica pharetra)
and Jamaican woodpecker (Melanerpes
radiolatus) on Jamaica; the grey-crowned
palm tanager (Phaenicophilus poliocephalus),
white winged warbler (Xenoligea montana),
and Hispaniolan trogon (Priotelus
roseigaster) on Hispaniola; Yellow-headed
warbler (Teretistris fernandinae), and zapata
G
alamancan and Isthmian Pacific Forests
[38] – Costa Rica, Panama
Geographic Location: Mountains and moist
Pacific lowlands of Costa Rica and western
Panama.
Biodiversity Features: This area represents a
regional center of endemism for a wide range
of plant and animal taxa. The habitats support
representative species and genera
characteristic of Central American moist
lowland and montane forests. Many species
maintain quite restricted ranges within this
ecoregion. CONTINENTALLY
DISTINCTIVE BIOTA (CENTRAL
AMERICAN) DUE TO HIGH LEVELS OF
REGIONAL ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Plant species include endemic
oaks (Quercus copeyensis and Q.
costaricensis), whereas important animals
include resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus
mocinno), considered one of the most
beautiful birds in South America, crimson
fronted parakeet (Aratinga finschi), endemic
red-fronted parrotlet (Touit costaricensis), 10
endemic hummingbirds (Eupherusa
nigriventris, Elvira chionura, E. cupreiceps,
Lampornis hemileucus, L. cinereicauda, L.
castaneoventris, Calliphlox bryantae,
Selasphorus flammula, S. scintilla, S. ardens),
three-wattled bellbird (Procnias
tricarunculata), endemic black-crowned
antpitta (Pittasoma michleri), threatened and
endemic mountain squirrel (Syntheosciurus
brochus), ocelot (Felis pardalis), and the most
likely extinct golden toad (Bufo periglenes).
General Threats: Deforestation from logging and
conversion of land for agriculture comprise
the major threats.
T
77
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
hocó-Darién Moist Forests [39] – Colombia,
Ecuador, Panama
Geographic Location: Coastal lowlands of
northwestern South America and eastern
Panama.
Biodiversity Features: Featuring some of the
highest rainfall on the planet (16,000 mm
annually in some places), the Chocó-Darién
ecoregion also has one of the world's richest
assemblages of lowland plants and animals,
with exceptional richness and endemism in a
wide range of taxa including plants, birds,
reptiles and amphibians, and butterflies. The
lowland forest biota in the Chocó has been
isolated from the Amazon since the Andes
rose, contributing to the distinctive nature of
its plants and animals. GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING RICHNESS & ENDEMISM
FOR TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Selected Species: Megafauna include jaguar
(Panthera onca) and Geoffroy’s tamarin
(Saguinus geoffroy). Characteristic plants
include sapa palm (Wettinia radiata) and the
threatened cycads Chigua restrepoi and C.
bernalii. A total vascular flora of 8000-9000
species is predicted. Birds include blackbreasted puffbird (Notharchus pectoralis), and
harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja). Endemic birds
include several endangered species, such as
plumbeous forest-falcon (Micrastur
plumbeus), banded ground-cuckoo
(Neomorphus radiolosus), and Baudó
oropendola (Psarocolius cassini), the latter
not recorded since 1945. Close to 100 species
of reptiles reported, with 40 in the genus
Eleutheodactylus alone.
General Threats: Implementation of shifting
cultivation and the spread of human
settlements threaten to increase deforestation
in this ecoregion. Other threats include overexploitation of certain forest species and
unsustainable logging practices.
includes many endemic species. The complex
topography, climate, geology, and
biogeographic history of the region have
helped create many distinct habitats and
biological communities. In fact, eastern and
western slopes of some of the major valleys
have substantially different plants and
animals, and many species are restricted to
single mountaintops or ranges. These are
likely to be the richest tropical montane
forests on Earth, with very high levels of
regional and local endemism and beta
diversity. GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING
RICHNESS (FOR TROPICAL MONTANE
FORESTS) & ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Spectacled bear (Tremarctos
ornatus), Andean palm (Ceroxylon
quindiuense), sword-billed hummingbird
(Ensifera ensifera), and Andean tapir (Tapirus
pinchaque) are a few of the spectacular
species found in this ecoregion.
General Threats: The region is under intense
pressure from conversion for agriculture and
pasture, mining operations, and logging.
C
C
oastal Venezuela Montane Forests [41]
– Venezuela
Geographic Location: The northern coast of
South America.
Biodiversity Features: The coastal mountains of
Venezuela, long isolated from other lowland
and montane moist forests of the region by
drier surrounding lowlands, harbor many
unique plant and animal species. Individual
peaks and ranges support their own distinctive
and restricted species. Many Neotropical
migratory songbirds “winter” in these forests.
TROPICAL MONTANE FORESTS WITH
HIGH ENDEMISM & CONTINENTALLY
DISTINCTIVE & ANCIENT TAXA
Selected Species: Palm species include macanilla
(Bactris setulosa) and the narrowly distributed
Palmito (Asterogyne spicata). Bird species
include the endemic and threatened helmeted
curassow (Pauxi pauxi) as well as the
endemics black-throated spinetail (Synallaxis
castanea) and fulvous-headed tanager
(Thlypopsis fulviceps). Nearctic migrants
include chestnut-sided warbler (Dendroica
pensylvanica), and golden-winged warbler
orthern Andean Montane Forests [40]
–Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru
Geographic Location: Northwestern South
America
Biodiversity Features: The exceptionally rich
plant and animal life of the submontane and
montane forests of the northern Andes
N
78
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
(Vermivora chrysoptera). Mammals include
wedge-capped or weeping capuchin monkey
(Cebus olivaceus), oncilla (Leopardus
tigrinus), and red-tailed squirrel (Sciurus
granatensis).
General Threats: The major pressures on these
forests include agricultural expansion,
logging, burning, and general pressures from
human population growth.
General Threats: Logging and mining activities
are the primary threats to the integrity of this
ecoregion. In particular, logging activities
threaten to destroy and fragment the intactness
and connectivity of habitats across the entire
ecoregion.
apo Moist Forests [43] –Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru
Geographic Location: Northwestern and Westcentral South America along the foothills and
lowlands adjacent to the Andes.
Biodiversity Features: The forests of the Western
Arc of the Amazon are likely the richest plant
and animal communities in the world. Over 16
species of primates have been observed in a
single area, and exceptionally high diversities
for many other taxa have been recorded. This
diversity stems from the high and relatively
aseasonal rainfall in parts of the ecoregion, the
complex topography and soils, vast river
systems that create a dynamic mosaic of
habitats, and complex biogeographic histories.
ONE OF THE MOST DIVERSE
ECOSYSTEMS ON EARTH WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF REGIONAL & LOCAL
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include emperor tamarin
(Sanguinus imperator), Ecuadoran cacique
(Cacicus sclateri), white-lipped peccary
(Tayasu pecari), Linnaeus’s false vampire bat
(Vampyrum spectrum), emerald tree boa
(Corallus caninus), ocelot (Felis pardalis),
and jaguar (Panthera onca).
General Threats: Hydrocarbon extraction and
associated road building have caused
degradation and fragmentation, and have
facilitated colonization. Road building has
opened up large areas for intensive hunting
and clearing for agriculture. Vast regions of
the Western Arc have been ceded to oil
companies for development, increasing the
threat of oil spills. Planned roads over the
Andes threaten to open access to multinational
timber exploitation.
N
uianan Moist Forests [42] – Brazil, French
French Guiana (France), Guyana, Suriname,
Suriname, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northeastern South
America
Biodiversity Features: Large expanses of
relatively undisturbed forest support a
tremendous diversity of plants and animals.
The ecoregion exhibits high levels of species
richness across a number of taxa, including
birds, mammals, and plants. A number of
these are found nowhere else in the world.
LARGE BLOCKS OF INTACT MOIST
FOREST EXHIBITING HIGH LEVELS OF
RICHNESS WITH SOME ENDEMISM
Selected Species: The ecoregion supports a
number of vulnerable, threatened, and
endangered mammals, such as giant armadillo
(Priodontes maximus), giant otter (Pteronura
brasiliensis), dog-faced bat Molossops
neglectus, giant anteater (Myrmecophaga
tridactyla), bush dog (Speothos venaticus),
plus the endemic water rat Nectomys parvipes.
Other endemic mammals include Bonneted
bat (Eumops maurus) and arboreal rice rat
(Oecomys paricola). These forests provide
habitat for a number of well-known carnivores
as well, such as jaguar (Panthera onca) and
oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus). Among
herpetofauna found here are black caiman
(Melanosuchus niger) and forest tortoise
(Geochelone denticulata). Blue-cheeked
parrot (Amazona dufresniana), fiery-tailed
awlbill (Avocettula recurvirostris), bearded
tachuri (Polystictus pectoralis), boat-billed
tody-tyrant (Hemitriccus josephinae), and
dotted tanager (Tangara varia) are but a few
of the numerous bird species.
G
ío Negro- Juruá Moist Forests [44] –
Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northern South America
R
79
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: Although this relatively
intact ecoregion contains a great complexity
of forest types, much of the region is poorly
known. Some areas support extremely high
species richness and endemism that match
globally outstanding levels of the adjacent
Western Arc forests. These are some of the
largest remote and intact expanses of tropical
forest in the world. ONE OF THE RICHEST
AND MOST INTACT LOWLAND FOREST
ECOREGIONS ON EARTH WITH
UNUSUAL PATTERNS OF LOCAL
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include Golden-mantle
tamarin (Saguinus tripartitus), white-lipped
peccary (Tayassu pecari), jaguar (Panthera
onca), emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus),
and the large carnivorous Linnaeus's false
vampire bat (Vampyrum spectrum).
General Threats: Deforestation, overfishing,
agricultural conversion, colonization, and road
construction pose significant threats.
COMMUNITIES, DISTINCTIVE FROM
ADJACENT AMAZON AND GUIANAN
FORESTS
Selected Species: Species include giant river otter
(Pteronura brasiliensis), Guianan cock-of-therock (Rupicola rupicola), golden-handed or
midas tamarin (Saguinus midas), harpy eagle
(Harpia harpyja), and the red fan parrot
(Deroptyus accipitrinus).
General Threats: Extensive mining and mercury
pollution, dams, and planned commercial
logging are serious threats in some portions of
the ecoregion. Heavy poaching and
commercial exploitation of wildlife poses a
serious threat in some areas, while highimpact tourism is a serious problem in other
localities.
entral Andean Yungas [46] –
Argentina, Bolivia, Peru
Geographic Location: The eastern slope of the
Andes Mountains of northwestern and western
South America.
Biodiversity Features: Yungas are a regional term
used to describe tropical montane forests. As
in the northern Andes, these forests support
some of the world's richest montane forest
ecosystems. Many species of plants, birds,
invertebrates, mammals, reptiles, and
amphibians are found only in yungas, and are
often restricted to narrow altitudinal belts,
particular watersheds, or ranges. GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING RICHNESS & ENDEMISM
FOR TROPICAL MONTANE FORESTS
Selected Species: Threatened bird species found in
the Andean Yungas are numerous and include
the yellow-faced parrotlet (Forpus xanthops ),
blue-capped puffleg (Eriocnemis
glaucopoides), marvelous spatulatail
(Loddigesia mirabilis), red-and-white
antpitta (Grallaria erythroleuca), and goldenbacked mountain tanager (Buthraupis
aureodorsalis).
General Threats: Extensive land clearing,
agricultural conversion, and logging—all
magnified by road building and
colonization—severely threaten the region.
C
uayanan Highlands Forests [45] –
Brazil, Colombia, Guayana, Suriname,
Venezuela
Geographic Location: North-central South
America, adjacent to the northern lowland
forests of Amazon Basin.
Biodiversity Features: The Guayanan highlands
are recognized as an evolutionary center for
plants and animals found in both Amazonia
and the Guayanan lowland forests. The forests
are exceptionally diverse (the highest known
parrot diversity, for example). Some of the
world’s last remaining, large intact tropical
watersheds occur in the region. The Guayanan
Highlands contain all of South America’s
tepuis, sandstone plateaus occurring in an
east-west belt from Suriname to just east of
the Andes. The biological communities of
tepuis are notable for their numerous unique
species (even on individual plateaus),
examples of relict taxa, and for the many
unusual adaptations of species to the nutrientpoor, cool, soggy environments typical of
tepuis summits. GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING RICHNESS & ENDEMISM
FOR A RANGE OF TAXA, ANCIENT
G
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the Amazon, the Chocó-Daríen, Peninsular
Malaysia, and northern Borneo. Large
proportions of the animals and plants are
endemic to the Atlantic Forest ecoregion—
long isolated from the Amazon Basin by the
drier Cerrado. 50% of plants and 92% of
amphibians, for example, are endemic.
Furthermore, many species occur only in
limited areas within the ecoregion (i.e., high
local endemism and beta-diversity).
GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING RICHNESS
& ENDEMISM FOR TERRESTRIAL
ECOSYSTEM
Selected Species: Unique mammal species include
muriqui (Brachyteles arachnoides), golden
lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), goldenheaded lion tamarin (L. chrysomelas), black
lion tamarin (L. chrysopygus), black-faced
lion tamarin (L. caissara), and maned sloth
(Bradypus torquatus). Birds include rednecked tanager (Tangara cyanocephala), and
many endemics, including red-billed currasow
(Crax blumenbachii), seven-coloured tanager
(Tanagara fastuosa), blue-bellied parrot
(Triclaria malachitacea), and three-toed
jacamar (Jacamaralcyon tridactyla).
General Threats: Urbanization, industrialization,
logging, agricultural expansion, and
associated road building threaten this globally
important region of biological diversity.
Habitat loss, hunting, and the wildlife trade
threaten many species. Given the high levels
of local richness and endemism and the
extensive loss of natural habitat, over 95% in
many areas, the probability of species
extinctions is high for this ecoregion without
intensive conservation efforts. Relatively
extensive, but generally unprotected blocks of
forest remain in the southern portion of the
ecoregion, particularly in Argentina and
Paraguay.
outhwestern Amazonian Moist Forests
[47] –Bolivia, Brazil, Peru
Geographic Location: Southwestern and southcentral region of the Amazon Basin in central
South America.
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion supports a
wide range of forest types, with transitional
formations located in the south towards the
Cerrado and Beni savannas. Some regions
support highly diverse communities,
particularly for butterflies and plants, with
many endemic species. This area was selected
because of its proximity to the Western Arc
forests and preliminary biological inventories
suggest that the region may harbor very
diverse ecosystems. Ecoregions that lie
towards the eastern portion of the Amazon
Basin do not appear to be equivalent with the
Western Arc Forests, in terms of richness or
endemism, or with the forest ecoregions in the
west-central and southwest portion of the
basin. MAY HAVE BIODIVERSITY
MATCHING THAT OF THE ADJACENT
GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING WESTERN
ARC FORESTS
Selected Species: Species include the southern
two-toed sloth (Choloepus didactylus), pygmy
marmoset (Cebuella pygmaea), saddleback
tamarin (Saguinus fuscicollis), Goeldi’s
monkey (Callimico goeldii), and short-eared
dog (Atelocynus microtis).
General Threats: Deforestation related to
agriculture and ranching, mining, road
building, logging, wildlife exploitation,
introduction of exotic species, mercury
pollution, and hydroelectric projects are the
major threats facing this region.
S
tlantic Forests [48] – Argentina, Brazil,
Paraguay.
Geographic Location: Southeastern coast of South
America
Biodiversity Features: Biological inventories
suggest that the coastal and interior Atlantic
forests are some of the richest tropical moist
forests on Earth. Diversity levels for a variety
of taxa are comparable to other tropical
forests regions harboring extraordinary
diversity including the Western Arc forests of
A
Oceania
S
81
outh Pacific Islands Forests [49] – American
American Samoa (United States), Cook
Islands (New Zealand), Fiji, French Polynesia
Polynesia (France), Niue (New Zealand),
Samoa, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna Islands
(France)
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Geographic Location: South Pacific
Biodiversity Features: The South Pacific islands
of Fiji and Samoa were once clothed in
tropical moist and dry forests, including
rainforests on the higher islands. Species
richness is low compared to continental moist
forests, but long isolation has produced
remarkable endemism, especially among
plants, birds, lizards, frogs, and landsnails.
Fiji, in particular, has unusual evolutionary
patterns, with iguanas originally from the
Neotropics and other highly disjunct patterns.
LARGER OCEANIC ISLANDS WITH
DISTINCTIVE PATTERNS OF ENDEMISM
AT THE SPECIES, GENERA, AND
FAMILY LEVELS, HIGHLY UNUSUAL
BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS FOR SOME
TAXA
Selected Species: Species include the endangered
Fiji iguanas (Brachyolophus spp.), the orange
dove (Ptilinopus victor), and the red shining
parrot (Prosopeia tabuensis).
General Threats: Loss of habitat from agriculture
and commercial logging and the introduction
of predators by humans have resulted in a
large number of species being threatened with
extinction.
silversword alliance (Madiinae), and a number
of beautiful tree ferns and palms.
General Threats: Lowland and foothill moist
forests have been largely eliminated, and
grazing has degraded the remaining relatively
large blocks of montane forest. Introduced
species, development, and recreational
activities are also problematic. Several
important areas of relatively intact tropical
moist forests currently have no or incomplete
protection.
Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf
Forests
Interspersed throughout the tropical world—
generally beyond 10 degrees latitude—are areas of
Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest
that experience relatively steady temperatures, but
have pronounced periods without rainfall. These
forests are similar in structure to their rain forest
cousins, however, many more trees species here
lose their leaves—an adaptation to avoid water
loss during periods of low precipitation.
Afrotropical
adagascar Dry Forests [51] – Madagascar
Madagascar
Geographic Location: Western coast of
Madagascar
Biodiversity Features: The dry deciduous forests
of western Madagascar support hundreds of
endemic plant and animal species. For
example, seven species of baobab trees occur
on Madagascar, compared to only one species
in all of Africa. The region is also home to the
angonoka tortoise (Geochelone yniphora), one
of the world's most threatened reptiles. SOME
OF THE WORLD’S RICHEST TROPICAL
DRY FORESTS WITH VERY HIGH
ISLAND & LOCAL ENDEMISM AT
SPECIES, GENERA, AND FAMILY
LEVELS, REPRESENT MADAGASCAR’S
ONLY DRY FORESTS, THE SEVENTH
BIOGEOGRAPHIC CONTINENT
Selected Species: Species include the giant
jumping rat (Hypogeomys antimena), MilneEdwards’ sportive lemur (Lepilemur
M
awai'i Moist Forests [50] – Hawaii
(United States)
Geographic Location: Central North Pacific
Ocean
Biodiversity Features: These moist forests have
an extraordinary percentage of species found
nowhere else, including 95% of their plants,
99% of their invertebrates, and all of the
honeycreepers, an endemic group of birds that
displays specialized adaptations to different
foods and plants. THE MOST ISOLATED
ISLANDS IN THE WORLD WITH A
HIGHLY ENDEMIC BIOTA AND VERY
UNUSUAL EVOLUTIONARY PATTERNS
Selected Species: Unique species include
Hawaiian honeycreepers (Drepanidae),
Hawaiian land snails (many are already
extinct), Hawaiian lobelias, Eupithecia moths
(predatory caterpillars), the Hawaiian
H
82
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
edwardsi), Van Dam vanga (Xenopirostris
damii), Appert’s greenbul (Phyllastrephus
apperti) and flat-tailed tortoise (Pyxis
planicauda).
General Threats: Most of the forest has been
cleared for slash-and-burn agriculture, pasture,
firewood, or construction materials, and
secondary grasslands now cover most of the
region. Uncontrolled burning of surrounding
degraded savannas eats away at remaining
fragments of forest.
Australasia
usu Tenggara Dry Forests [52] - Indonesia
Indonesia
Geographic Location: Chain of islands to the
east of Java in Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: Although the number of
animal species is low, the number of
marsupials and mammals, many of which are
endemic, demonstrates the Asian and
Australian influences on the area’s biota.
VERY HIGH ENDEMISM FOR ASIAN
DRY FORESTS AND THE RICHEST IN
MAMMALS WITHIN THE SOUTHEAST
ASIAN ISLANDS, CONSERVES REPTILEDOMINATED ECOSYSTEMS IN
KOMODO
Selected Species: Species include the world’s
most restricted large carnivore, the threatened
Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis).
Numerous other species occur here, such as
the Flores giant tree-rat
(Papagomysarmandvillei), a pygmy shrew,
(Suncus mertensi), a white-toothed shrew,
(Crocidura neglecta), a flying fox (Pteropus
lombocensis) and the sandalwood tree
(Santalum album). Cinnamon-banded
kingfisher (Todirhamphus australasia), whiterumped kingfisher (Caridonax fulgidus), barethroated whistler (Pachycephala nudigula),
golden-rumped flowerpecker (Dicaeum
annae), crested white-eye (Lophozosterops
dohertyi), thick-billed white-eye (Heleia
crassirostris), scaly-crowned honeyeater
(Lichmera lombokia), Sumba flycatcher
(Ficedula harterti), apricot-breasted sunbird
(Nectarinia buettikoferi), and yellowspectacled white-eye (Zosterops wallacei) are
N
among the numerous bird species found on
these islands.
General Threats: Exploitation of the remaining
forests on the islands is a problem. Remaining
habitat blocks are threatened by accidental
and deliberate fires to increase fodder for
livestock. Consequently, cattle grazing is also
a threat. Increasing population on the islands
also poses a threat to remaining habitat.
ew Caledonia Dry Forests [53] – New
Caledonia (France)
Geographic Location: Confined to Grande Terre
(the main island of New Caledonia) about
1200 km northeast of Australia
Biodiversity Features: New Caledonian dry
forests are one of the most unique dry forests
on Earth, with extraordinary endemism and
many rare and relictual groups. New
Caledonia represents an ancient fragment of
the supercontinent Gondwana; its long
isolation has produced one of the Earth’s most
unusual and highly distinctive biological
communities, containing almost wholly
endemic species as well as a number of
endemic genera and families. Few fragments
of this globally outstanding ecoregion remain.
GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE DRY
FORESTS, NEW CALEDONIA IS
CONSIDERED TO BE DISTINCTIVE AT A
CONTINENTAL SCALE FROM A
BIOGEOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVE
Selected Species: This species is found in the New
Caledonia Dry Forests, but is also found in
New Caledonia Moist Forests; a variety of
wild rice, Oryza neocalidonea, adapted to dry
conditions; and the rare plant, Captaincookia
margaratae.
General Threats: Major threats to the last patches
of remaining habitat include clearing for
expansion of pastures, uncontrolled burning,
herbivory, and predation by introduced
species.
N
Indo-Malayan
ndochina Dry Forests [54] – Cambodia,
Laos, Thailand, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Eastern Indochina
I
83
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: Monsoon forests are far
less abundant in Indochina than rainforests.
These forests support varied and abundant
wildlife, including a number of threatened
species: Douc langurs (Pygathrix nemaeus
and P. nigripes), crested gibbon (Hylobates
concolor), and the only Javan rhinos
(Rhinoceros sondaicus) still living on the
Asian continent. The highly endangered wild
cattle called kouprey (Bos sauveli) are
believed to still exist in these forests. THE
MOST DIVERSE MONSOON AND DRY
FORESTS IN ASIA FOR A RANGE OF
TAXA
Selected Species: Kouprey (Bos sauveli), Javan
rhino (Rhinoceros sondaicus), douc langur
(Pygathrix nemaeus), gaur (Bos gaurus), redcheeked gibbon (Hylobates gabriellae), tiger
(Panthera tigris), and Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus) are among the mammals
characteristic of these habitats. Green peafowl
(Pavo muticus) and Siamese fireback
(Lophura diardi) are two of the globally
threatened bird species found in this
ecoregion.
General Threats: Much of the original monsoon
forest, particularly in Vietnam, has been
degraded through logging, clearing for
agriculture, and intensive hunting of wildlife.
Some areas have been subjected to burning or
conversion to teak plantations.
Selected Species: The endemic cycad, Cycas
beddomei, is a critically endangered species.
These forests are dominated by teak: Tectona
grandis, Shorea robusta, Anogeissus latifolia,
Terminalia alata, Lagerstroemia parviflora,
and at higher elevations, Phoenix robusta.
Representative of the ecoregion’s intact large
vertebrates assemblages are the endangered
tiger (Panthera tigris), Asian elephant
(Elephas maximus), sloth bear (Ursus
ursinus), leopard (Panthera pardus),
blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), and chinkara
(Gazella bennettii).
General Threats: Degradation of forests due to
quarrying, mining, monocultures, and
hydroelectric projects are of concern.
Additionally, clearing of forests for cattle and
subsequent overgrazing pose a problem.
Neotropical
exican Dry Forest [56] – Guatemala,
Mexico
Geographic Location: Southern Mexico and
southern Guatemala
Biodiversity Features: The tropical dry forests of
Mexico and southern Guatemala are noted for
high levels of regional and local endemism in
a wide range of taxa. THE RICHEST
TROPICAL DRY FORESTS IN THE
WORLD WITH HIGH LEVELS OF
REGIONAL AND LOCAL ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include red-knee
tarantula spider (Brachypelma smithi), orangebreasted bunting (Passerina leclancherii),
White-throated magpie jay (Calocitta
formosa) and the West Mexican chachalaca
(Ortalis poliocephala).
General Threats: Urbanization, increasing
tourism, and exploitation of wildlife are highintensity threats to the region, as are road
construction, perennial plantations, and
ranching.
M
hhota-Nagpur Dry Forests [55] –
India
Geographic Location: Eastern India
Biodiversity Features: Unlike the Western Ghats,
the Eastern Ghats are not a mountain range or
escarpment, but rather the broken and
weathered relicts of the peninsular plateau,
marked by a series of isolated hills. The area
served as a refuge during the last Ice Age, and
thus contains numerous rare and endemic
species. Several important tiger reserves occur
in this ecoregion and it also includes some of
the last populations of Asiatic elephants. THE
MOST INTACT LARGE VERTEBRATE
ASSEMBLAGES OF DRY FORESTS OF
THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
C
umbesian-Andean Valleys Dry Forests
[57] – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru
Geographic Location: Northwestern South
America
T
84
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: The dry forests of the
Pacific Coast of South America and the
northern Inter-Andean valleys (e.g., Marañon,
Patía, southern Cauca & Magdalena valleys)
are known for high levels of both regional and
local endemism. SOME OF THE BEST
EXAMPLES OF DRY FORESTS OF
NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA WITH
DISTINCTIVE ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include such flowering
plants as ébano (Zizyphus thyrisflora), charan
blanco (Pithecelobium spp.) and cedrela
(Cedrella spp.) in addition to birds, such as
the Pacific parrotlet (Forpus coelestis) the
endemic Watkins’ antpitta (Grallaria
watkinsi), and the endemic velvet-fronted
euphonia (Euphonia concinna).
General Threats: Logging, agricultural expansion,
burning, and overgrazing present severe
threats.
Pollution from agriculture and human
settlements also may degrade the ecoregion.
tlantic Dry Forests [59] – Brazil
Geographic Location: Northeastern Brazil
Selection Criteria: A large ecological transition
area between neigboring forests and
grasslands, this ecoregion supports many
unique assemblages of species. HIGH
SPECIES RICHNESS AND MANY UNIQUE
SPECIES ASSEMBLAGES
CHARACTERIZE THIS ECOREGION.
Selected Species: Among the bird species that
occur here are several endemics: the giltedged tanager (Tangara cyanoventris), great
xenops (Megaxenops parnaguae), hooded
visorbearer (Augastes lumachellus), caatinga
nighthawk (Chordeiles vielliardi), palethroated serra finch (Sporophila frontalis),
and narrow-billed antwren (Formicivora
iheringi).
General Threats: Logging and conversion to
agricluture are among the chief threats present
in this ecoregion.
A
hiquitano Dry Forest [58] – Bolivia, Brazil
Brazil
Geographic Location: Central South America
just south of the Amazon Basin
Biodiversity Features: The dry forests of Bolivia
and Brazil are among the richest dry forest
ecosystems in the world. The plant and animal
life of the ecoregion has affinities with
Amazonia, the Chaco, and the Cerrado and
contains many endemic species. ONE OF
THE BEST EXAMPLES OF DRY FOREST
IN SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA,
LIKELY ONE OF THE RICHEST DRY
FOREST COMMUNITIES ON THE
CONTINENT (MAY RIVAL MEXICAN
DRY FORESTS), MONTANE DRY
FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN ANDES
ARE LESS RICH
Selected Species: Species include barefaced
currasow (Crax fasciolata), puma (Felis
concolor), jaguar (Panthera onca), maned
wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), and lianas
(Bignoniaceae spp.).
General Threats: Road and pipeline development,
agricultural expansion, burning, and grazing
pose significant threats while increasing
wildlife exploitation has the potential to
extirpate several species in the short term.
C
Oceania
awai'i Dry Forests [60] – Hawaii
(United States)
Geographic Location: Central north tropical
Pacific
Biodiversity Features: These dry forests harbor a
number of dry forest specialist species
including native hibiscus trees and several
rare endemics now represented by only a few
extant individuals. Approximately 22 percent
of native Hawaiian plant species occur within
this ecoregion. The palila (Loxioides bailleui),
an endangered finch-like bird, specializes on
trees that occur only in dry forest habitats.
THE WORLD’S MOST ISOLATED
ISLANDS WITH GLOBALLY
DISTINCTIVE BIOTA, INCLUDING
EXTREMELY HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM AND UNUSUAL
EVOLUTIONARY PATTERNS
Selected Species: Examples of the extraordinary
plant species found in this ecoregion are
members of the extremely rare and endemic
H
85
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Gouanaia genus as well as common species:
Erythrina sandwicensis, Diospyros
sandwicensis, Reynoldsia sandwicensis, and
Nothocestrum spp.
General Threats: Tropical dry forests are globally
threatened, and Hawaiian dry forests have
been reduced by 90 percent. Clearing and
burning of lowland dry forests began with the
arrival of Polynesians and the last remnants
are being destroyed today through continued
development, expansion of agriculture and
pasture, and burning.
Selected Species: Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae,
and Euphorbiaceae represent the most
speciose plant families in this ecoregion. In
total, 12 species of oak trees are found within
these conifer forests. Together these plants
support an impressive avifauna: Mexican jay
(Aphelocoma ultramarina), Mexican
chickadee (Parus sclateri), zone-tailed hawk
(Buteo albonotatus), maroon-fronted and
thick-billed parrots (Rhynchopsitta terrisi and
R. pachyrhyncha), Strickland’s woodpecker
(Picoides stricklandi), and Montezuma quail
(Cyrtonyx montezumae) among others.
Predators with large ranges, such as gray wolf
(Canis lupis) and jaguar (Panthera onca)
frequent these habitats as well.
General Threats: Chief threats include
overgrazing, clearing of forests for timber and
fuelwood, and development. Other problems
stem from recreationl pressures and use of the
area for military exercises.
Tropical and Subtropical Coniferous
Forests
Found predominantly in North and Central
America, several smaller regions within the
tropical world experience low levels of
precipitation and moderate variability in
temperature. Consequently, Tropical and
Subtropical Coniferous Forests are characterized
by diverse species of conifers—trees whose
needles are adapted to deal with the variable
climatic conditions.
Neotropical
G
reater Antillean Pine Forests [62] – Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Haiti
Geographic Location: Greater Antilles islands of
the northwest Caribbean
Biodiversity Features: These forests support
numerous endemic plant and animal species,
including a number of limestone and
serpentine soil specialists. INSULAR PINE
FORESTS DISTINCTIVE AT A
CONTINENTAL SCALE, WITH HIGH
ENDEMISM AT SPECIES, GENERA, AND
FAMILY LEVELS
Selected Species: Cuban tody (Todus multicolor),
Cuban trogon (Priotelus temnurus),
Hispaniola trogon (Priotelus roseigaster) are
just a few of the species characteristic of this
ecoregion. Reptiles include several iguanid
species: Leiocephalus macropus, L. onaneyi,
Anolis alayoni, and A. vanidicus.
General Threats: Mining, citrus plantations,
grazing, uncontrolled burning, and logging
severely threaten the ecoregion. Exploitation
of threatened bird, plant, and landsnail
populations is an additional threat.
Nearctic
S
ierra Madre Oriental and
Occidental Pine-Oak Forests [61] –
Mexico, United States
Geographic Location: Mountains of the
Southwestern United States and Central
Mexico
Biodiversity Features: Consisting of numerous
mountain peaks and ridges that extend from
just over the border in the southwestern
United States into Central Mexico, this
ecoregion supports a vast array of plant and
animal species; many of which are restricted
to single peaks or different ranges. Among
these species are some important wild
relatives of agricultural crops, such as agave
(Agave spp.). HIGH LEVELS OF RICHNESS
ACROSS A NUMBER OF TAXA,
INCLUDING HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM AMONG PLANTS
CHARACTERIZE THIS ECOREGION’S
BIODIVERSITY.
86
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
contrast to tropical rain forests, most biodiversity
is concentrated much closer to the forest floor.
esoamerican Pine-Oak Forests [63] –
Mexico, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras,
El Salvador
Geographic Location: Mountains of Southern
Mexico and northern Central America
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains
some of the world's most extensive subtropical
coniferous forests. Many plant and animal
species are locally restricted in their
distributions throughout the region. Most
notably, birds, conifers, reptiles, and
amphibians exemplify this pattern. Together
with the Sierra Madre Oriental and Occidental
Forests, these are the richest subtropical
conifer forests in the world. Although the
Araucaria forests of the Southern Cone are
distinctive, they are not as rich. THE
RICHEST SUBTROPICAL CONIFER
FORESTS IN THE WORLD WITH VERY
HIGH LEVELS OF REGIONAL AND
LOCAL ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include the almost
certainly extinct imperial woodpecker
(Campephilus imperialis), dwarf jay
(Cyanocorax nana), the cycad, Dioon
tomasellii, volcano rabbit (Romerolagus
diazi), and two species of wild maize (Zea
perennis and Z. diploperennis).
General Threats: Commercial logging, land
conversion for cultivation, and overgrazing by
livestock pose serious threats to the ecoregion.
M
Australasia
astern Australia Temperate Forests [64] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Southeastern Australia
Biodiversity Features: The generally more
moderate climate and high rainfall of
southeastern Australia give rise to unique
Eucalyptus forests and open woodland
dominated by Acacia trees. The region served
as a refuge when drier conditions prevailed
over most of the continent; consequently, it
has a remarkable diversity of plants and
animals with high levels of regional and local
endemism. THE LARGEST BLOCK OF
TEMPERATE FORESTS IN AUSTRALIA,
GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE SPECIES,
GENERA, AND FAMILY LEVELS
Selected Species: Species include koala
(Phasolarctos cinereus), golden-headed flying
fox (Pteropus poliocephalus), squirrel glider
(Peterus norfolcensis), wombat (Vombatus
ursinus). The ecoregion is home to a number
of endemic species; for example, forests of
mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) provide
habitat for the endemic Leadbeater's possum
(Gymnobelideus leadbeateri). Among the
other endemic mammal species are false water
rat (Xeromys myoides), Hastings River mouse
(Pseudomys oralis), Eastern little mastiff bat
(Mormopterus norfolkensis), red-necked
pademelon (Thylogale thetis), parma wallaby
(Macropus parma), long-footed potoroos
(Potorous longipes), and Eastern barred
bandicoot (Perameles gunnii). Southern forest
dragon (Hypsilurus spinipes), Lesueur's velvet
gecko (Oedura lesueurii), collared scalyfoot
(Delma torquata), Australian red-eyed
treefrog (Litoria chloris), and tusked frog
(Adelotus brevis) are a part of the
E
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed
Forests
Forests in the temperate world experience a wide
range of variability in temperature. In regions
where rainfall is broadly distributed throughout
the year, deciduous trees mix with species of
evergreens. Species such as oak (Quercus spp.),
beech (Fagus spp.), birch (Betupa spp.), and
maple (Acer spp.) typify the composition of the
Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forests.
Structurally, these forests are characterized by
four layers: a canopy composed of mature fullsized dominant species and a slightly lower layer
of mature trees, a shrub layer, and understory
layer of grasses and other herbaceous plants. In
87
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
herpetofauna restricted to these forests. Birds
include endemic species such as Albert's
lyrebird (Menura alberti) and russet-tailed
thrush (Zoothera heinei) as well as a vast
number of wider ranging species like blacknecked stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus),
Australian king-parrot (Alisterus scapularis),
and yellow-tailed black-cockatoo
(Calyptorhynchus funereus).
General Threats: Much of the pre-European
settlement vegetation in this ecoregion has
suffered from historical conversion of forests
to any of a number of uses: sububurban/urban
centers, livestock production, agriculture, and
timber production, among others. With the
exception of southwestern Australia, this is
the most heavily altered area on the continent.
Invasive plant and animal species are
numerous and problematic throughout the
ecoregion. Increased growth of suburban and
urban areas, the alteration of natural
disturbance regimes, and grazing are just a
few of the continuing threats facing the
ecoregion’s biotas.
(Ornithorhynchus anatinus). There are also
many other mammal species; among these are
short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus
aculeatus), platypus (Ornithorhynchus
anatinus), swamp antechinus (Antechinus
minimus), southern brown bandicoot (Isoodon
obesulus), Tasmanian pademelon (Thylogale
billardierii), and the last remaining
populations of the once widely distributed
Tasmanian bettong (Bettongia gaimardi). The
island is home to three endemic bird species.
They are yellow wattlebird (Anthochaera
paradoxa), black-headed honeyeater
(Melithreptus affinis), and forty-spotted
pardalote (Pardalotus quadragintus). Many of
the numerous birds found here are wideranging Australian species, such as sulphurcrested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita), rainbow
lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus), azure
kingfisher (Alcedo azurea), and striated
fieldwren (Calamanthus fuliginosus). The
genus Niveoscincus to which the ocellated
skink (N. ocellatus) and a number of its
relatives belong, is largely restricted to this
island. Other reptiles include white-lipped
snake (Drysdalia coronoides), black tiger
snake (Notechis ater), and White's skink
(Egernia whitii). A species of giant freshwater
crayfish (Astacopsis gouldi) is found in this
ecoregion.
General Threats: Logging, plantation forestry, and
fire threaten Tasmanian forests.
T
asmanian Temperate Rain Forests [65]
– Australia
Geographic Location: Island off of southeastern
Australia
Biodiversity Features: Along with similar forests
in southeastern Australia, the temperate
rainforest of Tasmania supports rich and
varied communities of plants and animals, and
together form one of the most important
refuges for wildlife in Australia. There are
over 800 plant species, including many
endemic genera and species in the alpine
flora. ONE OF ONLY FIVE MAJOR
TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS AND THE
LARGEST ONE IN AUSTRALIA, HIGH
LEVELS OF REGIONAL ENDEMISM AND
UNUSUAL BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS.
THIS ECOREGION IS A STRONGHOLD
FOR MANY GONDWANAN SPECIES
Selected Species: A number of mammals are
found on this amazing island and nowhere
else, such as Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus
harrisii) and eastern quoll (Dasyurus
viverrinus), not to mention the presumed
extinct thylacene or marsupial wolf
ew Zealand Temperate Forests [66] – New
Zealand
Geographic Location: The southern island of New
Zealand
Biodiversity Features: The temperate forests of
New Zealand's South Island are some of the
last remaining areas of native vegetation in the
country. The Banks Peninsula, once a separate
island, contains a high number of endemic
invertebrates and type localities. ONE OF
ONLY FIVE MAJOR TEMPERATE
RAINFORESTS IN THE WORLD WITH A
HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE BIOTA, ONE OF
ONLY THREE MAJOR SOUTHERN
BEECH (Nothofagus sp.) FORESTS IN THE
WORLD
N
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Selected Species: Many unusual plant and animals
occur here including speargrasses (Aciphyllas
spp.), pigeonwood or Prokaiwhiri (Hedycarya
arborea), the flightless takahe (Porphyrio
mantelli), Fiordland crested penguin
(Eudyptes pachyrhynchus), and the coldadapted kea parrot (Nestor notabilis).
General Threats: Threats include overhunting,
logging, conversion of lands for agriculture,
burning, species introductions, and tourism.
warbler (Phylloscopus tytleri), Kashmir
flycatcher (Ficedula subrubra), and whitecheeked tit (Aegithalos leucogenys).
Other birds characteristic of this ecoregion
include the laughing thrushes (Garrulax spp.)
of which there are several dozen species
resident in the Eastern Himalaya, as well as
other members of the babbler family
(Timiliidae) such as the parrotbills
Paradoxornis spp., the scimitar babblers
Pomatorhinus spp.and, rufous-throated wrenbabbler (Spelaeornis caudatus).
General Threats: Conversion of forest to
agriculture land and exploitation of forests for
timber, fodder and fuelwood are some of the
main threats to biodiversity in this region. In
some areas, fuelwood collection for use by
trekkers and mountaineers contributes to
forest degradation. Additional threats to these
forests include charcoal production in some
low elevation areas and intensive grazing at
higher elevations. In the subalpinezone, above
3000 m, forests are slow to regenerate, a
situation that makes them especially
susceptible to degradation.
Indo-Malayan
astern Himalayan Broadleaf and Conifer
Conifer Forests [67] – Bhutan, China, India,
India, Myanmar, Nepal
Geographic Location: Mountains north of India
Biodiversity Features: Forests that extend from
the northern Indian plains to the middle
elevations of the Himalayas at 4000 m
containing a diverse assemblage of plants and
animals. A wide range of bioclimatic zones
and physiographically complex landscapes
support many species. DISTINCTIVE AND
RICH TEMPERATE FORESTS OF
SOUTHERN ASIA
Selected Species: One primate species, the highly
endangered golden langur (Presbytis bieti), is
endemic to the forests of Yunnan, China, in
the extreme eastern part of this region. Other
significant mammal species include lesser
panda (Ailurus fulgens), the goat antelope
called takin (Budorcas taxicolor), Hodgson's
flying squirrel (Petaurista magnificus), the
barking deer Gongshan muntjac (Muntiacus
gongshanensis), Peters' tube-nosed bat
(Murina grisea), clouded leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa), and Himalayan black bear
(Selenarctos thibetanus). Endangered endemic
plants include many orchid species such as
Cymbidium whiteae, Paphiopedilum
fairrieanum, P. wardii, the maple species
Accer oblongumand, Acer hookeri, and many
other species. These forests consistute an
important endemic bird area and support a
high diversity of bird species including Blyth's
tragopan (Tragopan blythi), Himalayan quail
(Ophrysia superciliosa), Brooks' leaf-warbler
(Phylloscopus subviridis), Tytler's leaf-
E
estern Himalayan Temperate Forests
[68] – Afghanistan, India, Nepal,
Pakistan
Geographic Location: Mountains north of India
Biodiversity Features: The middle elevation
forests of the Western Himalayas, including
places such as the Palas Valley of Pakistan,
contain numerous plant species found
nowhere else on Earth. The Palas Valley is the
most floristically rich area in Pakistan. SOME
OF THE WORLD’S RICHEST
TEMPERATE MONTANE PLANT
COMMUNITIES, INCLUDING THE BEST
EXAMPLE OF SOUTH TEMPERATE
MONTANE FORESTS IN SOUTHERN
ASIA OCCUR IN THIS REGION. DUE TO
THE CONTINENTAL CLIMATE AND A
MEDITERRANEAN INFLUENCE TO
TEMPER THE EFFECTS OF THE SOUTH
ASIAN MONSOON, THIS REGION IS
FLORISTICALLY QUITE DISTINCT FROM
THE EASTERN HIMALAYAS
W
89
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Selected Species: Characteristic plant species
include the conifers blue pine (Pinus
wallichiana), spruce (Picea smithiana), yew
(Taxus wallichiana), fir (Abies pindrow), and
subalpine broadleaved species such as birch
(Betula utilis), and rhododendron
(Rhododendron campanulatum). Endangered
endemic plant species include the shrubs
Lactuca undulata and Berberis lambertii.
Some, such as Dipcadi reidii, are already
extinct. Mammals include the endangered
snow leopard (Panthera pardus), which is
severely threatened in this region by hunting,
and its prey species, blue sheep (Pseudois
nayaur).
General Threats: Remaining forests are
threatened by increasing logging, conversion
for agriculture, and fuelwood collection.
Hunting is a popular activity in Pakistan and
many people own guns.
restricted to habitats in this ecoregion; they
are the flattened musk turtle (Sternotherus
depressus) and Alabama map turtle
(Graptemys pulchra). Among the birds
utilizing diverse habitats are the blackthroated green warbler (Dendroica virens) and
yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus),
plus wider-ranging species such as the yellowthroated vireo (Vireo flavifrons), red-eyed
vireo (V. olivaceus), black-throated blue
warbler (Dendroica caerulescens), and
northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). Tree
species include tulip poplar (Liriodendron
tulipifera), red spruce (Picea rubens),
numerous oak species (Quercus spp.), the
endemic Fraser fir (Abies fraseri), balsam fir
(A. balsamea), and Allegheny plum (Prunus
alleghaniensis). Mammals such as the fisher
(Martes pennanti) also roam these forests.
General Threats: Extensive loss of habitat from
several centuries of logging and clearing for
agriculture and development has impacted the
region’s biota. Continued threat from acid rain
deposition and air pollution is also a problem
here. Introduction of a nonnative fungus has
all but eliminated the once dominant
American chestnut tree (Castanea dentata).
Neartic
ppalachian and Mixed Mesophytic
Forests [69] – United States
Geographic Location: Eastern North America
Biodiversity Features: This relatively small
ecoregion contains a remarkable overlapping
of forest habitats, some of which are rare. This
single mountain range, one of the oldest on
Earth, encompasses almost every forest type
that occurs in the eastern half of North
America, from mixed deciduous forests in the
lowlands to spruce-fir forests, similar to the
boreal forests a thousand miles to the north.
This is a globally outstanding area for
biological diversity, and is especially rich in
reptiles, amphibians, and birds. ONE OF THE
TWO RICHEST TEMPERATE
BROADLEAF FORESTS ON EARTH WITH
HIGH ENDEMISM
Selected Species: This ecoregion is home to over
30 species of salamanders, predominantly
within the Plethodontidae, including a number
of endemics: the Black Mountain salamander
(Desmognathus welten), southern dusky
salamander (D. auriculatus), Jordan’s
salamander (P. jordani), and Cheat Mountain
salamander (P. nettingi). Two reptiles are
A
Palearctic
outhwest China Temperate Forests [70]
– China
Geographic Location: Central China to the south
of the Yellow River
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes
temperate forests that extend eastward from
the Hengduan Mountains, across northern
Sichuan and Sha’anxi Provinces of southcentral China. The low hills in this part of
China include potential habitat for the
endangered giant panda (Ailuropoda
melanoleuca). They also include one of the
richest assemblages of temperate forest trees
in the world. These forests support many other
rare species as well, many of which are
endemic. ONE OF THE RICHEST
TEMPERATE BROADLEAVED AND
MIXED FORESTS IN THE WORLD WITH
HIGH ENDEMISM AND UNUSUAL
BIOGEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS
S
90
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Selected Species: The giant panda (Ailuropoda
melanoleuca) is the best-known species found
here, inhabiting middle elevation forests that
support a dense understory of bamboo. Today
most of the giant pandas that survive in the
wild occur in the Minshan mountain region to
the west, but the temperate forests of this
region also support good panda habitat.
Golden pheasant (Chrysolophus pictus),
copper pheasant (C. amherstiae), Temminck’s
tragopan (Tragopan temminkii), and Reeve’s
long-tailed pheasant (Syrmaticus reevesi) are
among the endemic species found in this
ecoregion. Wider-ranging animals include
tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), Chinese
muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi), and the
vulnerable clouded leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa).
General Threats: The principle threats to this
ecoregion include expanding agriculture and
increasing demand for timber, both associated
with a growing human population. Over the
past two decades, China’s transition to a
market economy has increased demand for
non-timber forest and wildlife products for
medicinal and other uses.
Selected Species: Disjunct populations of Amur
tiger (Panthera tigris altaica), and Amur
leopard (Panthera pardus) require urgent
conservation measures. Prey species include
several ungulates such as Manchurian red deer
(Cervus elaphus xanthopygos), Musk deer
(Moschus moschiferus), Sika deer (Cervus
nippon) and cliff-dwelling Amur goral
(Nemorhaedus caudatus). The coexistence of
both brown bears (Ursos arctos) and Asiatic
black bears (U. tibethanus) illustrate the
overlap of boreal and temperate Asian
habitats. Rare birds include the Chinese
merganser (Mergus squamatus), mandarin
duck (Aix galericulata), Siberian spruce
grouse (Falcipennis falcipennis), and
Blakiston's fish owl (Ketupa blakistoni).
General Threats: Conversion to agriculture,
deforestation, poaching, urban expansion,
mining, and pollution pose serious threats to
the ecoregion.
Temperate Coniferous Forests
Forests experiencing periods of seasonal drought,
or generally low levels of precipitation during a
portion of the year in temperate regions are
characterized by conifer species: pine (Pinus
spp.), fir (Abies spp.), and spruce (Picea spp.).
Temperate Coniferous Forests occur in the
montane regions of western North America,
Central Europe, and Asia as well as in areas—
such as the pine forests of the southeastern United
States—where sandy, nutrient poor soils do not
favor hard wood species. Finally, a number of
other regions support forests that receive
particularly high levels of rainfall that coincide
with mild winter temperatures. In the summer
relatively cool temperatures result in fog belts that
continue to bath the trees with moisture.
Together, this combination results in the high
levels of productivity associated with temperate
rain forests.
ussian Far East Broadleaf and Mixed
Forests [71] – Russia
Geographic Location: The southeastern Pacific
Coast of Russia
Biodiversity Features: This region represents a
unique ecological mixture of Russian boreal
with Manchurian temperate flora and fauna.
Compared to other temperate ecosystems, the
level of endemism in plants and invertebrates
in the region is extraordinarily high. It is a
critical area for the conservation of tigers
(Panthera tigris altaica) and leopards
(Panthera pardus). The Russian Far East
contains the most intact habitat for
Manchurian species since adjacent forests in
China, Japan and Korea have suffered from
more intense human population and activity.
ONE OF MOST DISTINCTIVE
ASSEMBLAGES OF SPECIES IN
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FORESTS
ANYWHERE, AND HOME OF THE AMUR
TIGER AND LEOPARD.
R
Structurally, these forests are rather simple,
consisting of two layers generally: an overstory
and understory. However, some forests may
support a layer of shrubs. Pine forests support an
herbaceous groundlayer that may be dominated by
91
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
grasses and forbs that lend themselves to
ecologically important wildfires. In contrast, the
moist conditions found in temperate rain forests
favor the dominance by ferns and some forbs.
Biodiversity Features: The Klamath-Siskiyou
ecoregion is considered a global center of
biodiversity because it harbors one of the
three richest temperate coniferous forests in
the world (along with the Southeastern
Conifer forests of North America and the
forests of the Primorye region of the Russian
Far East). The region escaped extensive
glaciation during recent ice ages, thereby
providing a refuge for numerous species and
providing long periods of relatively favorable
conditions enabling species to adapt to
specialized conditions. THE WORLD’S
RICHEST TEMPERATE CONIFER
FORESTS FOR MANY TAXA WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF ECOREGIONAL AND LOCAL
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Endemic plant species include
the cobra lily (Darlingtonia californica), Port
Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana),
and Modoc cypress (Cupressus bakeri).
Among the other more widespread conifers
found here are incense cedar (Calocedrus
decurrens), western red cedar (Thuja plicata),
western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla),
mountain hemlock (T. mertensiana), noble fir
(Abies procera), and Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii). This ecoregion is
also home to the endemic Siskiyou mountain
salamander (Plethodon stormi). Other species
representative of the diverse herptofauna
include the Del Norte salamander (P.
elongatus), clouded salamander (Aneides
ferreus), the threatened foothill yellow-legged
frog (Rana boylii), western skink (Eumeces
skiltonianus), sagebrush lizard (Sceloporus
graciosus), and California whipsnake
(Masticophis lateralis).
General Threats: Intensive commercial logging
and roadbuilding threaten the unique
biodiversity of this region.
Nearctic
P
acific Temperate Rainforests [72] –
Canada, United States
Geographic Location: West Coast of North
America
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains
one of the few significant temperate
rainforests on Earth. The ecosystems here
support a rich diversity of life, including such
dramatic species as the redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens). ONE OF ONLY FIVE
TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS ON EARTH,
ALSO ONE OF THE RICHEST WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF LOCAL ENDEMISM IN SOME
AREAS, THE ONLY TEMPERATE
RAINFOREST OF NORTH AMERICA
Selected Species: Species include Pacific giant
salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus), marbled
murrelet (Brachyrampus marmoratus),
Olympic salamander (Rhyacotriton
olympicus), red-backed vole (Cletherionomys
californicus), red bat (Lasiuris borealis),
spotted owl (Strix occidentalis), and the
ferocious folding-trap door spider
(Antrodiaetus pugnax). Characteristic tree
species include Sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis), yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), western red cedar (Thuja
plicata), western hemlock (Tsuga
heterophylla) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii).
General Threats: Intensive commercial logging
has destroyed most of the native forests of this
ecoregion.
ierra Nevada Coniferous Forests [74] –
United States
Geographic Location: Western North America
Biodiversity Features: The Sierra Nevada conifer
forests are home to the largest trees on Earth,
the giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron gigantea),
which can grow to 80 m in height and 11 m in
S
lamath-Siskiyou Coniferous Forests
[73] – United States
Geographic Location: West Coast of North
America
K
92
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
diameter and weigh nearly 2,000,000 kg. This
ecoregion also supports globally rich conifer
forests and diverse amphibian communities.
CONTINENTALLY DISTINCTIVE
TEMPERATE CONIFER FORESTS WITH
SIGNIFICANT ENDEMISM AND
GLOBALLY RICH CONIFER
COMMUNITIES
Selected Species: Unique species include the
world’s largest tree, the giant sequoia
(Sequoiadendron gigantea) as well as the
white headed woodpecker (Picoides
albolarvatus), the Sierra green sulfur butterfly
(Colias behrii), Yosemite toad (Bufo
canorus), Mount Lyell salamander
(Hydromantes platycephalus), and the
threatened limestone salamander (H. brunus).
Other species characteristic of these habitats
includes Clark’s nutcracker (Nucifraga
columbiana), mountain lion (Felis concolor),
sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), and
ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa).
General Threats: Intensive commercial logging
and urban expansion seriously threaten the
native habitats of the ecoregion.
(Pinus palustris), an understory of wiregrass
(Aristida stricta), and a rich diversity of
herbaceous plants. Components of this
important fauna include the endangered redcockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis), the
gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus), the
mole skink (Eumeces egregius), the eastern
indigo snake (Drymarchon corais), and the
Apalachicola dusky salamander
(Desmognathus apalachicolae).
General Threats: As a result of extensive habitat
loss and degradation, many species that occur
in this region, including many of those native
to long-leaf pine forests are now endangered.
Historically, intensive logging and clearance
have destroyed the majority of native
communities in the ecoregion. In many areas,
the suppression of the natural fire regime has
resulted in the conversion of conifer stands to
stands of hardwood species. Urban sprawl and
development continue to threaten other areas
of intact habitat. If action is not taken to
protect the few remaining blocks, this
valuable ecoregion may not exist for much
longer.
outheastern Coniferous and Broadleaf
Forests [75] – United States
Geographic Location: Southeastern North
America
Biodiversity Features: The largest conifer forest
ecoregion east of the Mississippi River, the
Southeastern Conifer Forests span the coastal
plain of the southeastern United States. The
biological diversity of this ecoregion is
virtually unparalleled in temperate North
America. Tree diversity and endemism is the
highest of any ecoregion in the United States,
totaling 190 species with 27 endemics. The
long-leaf pine wiregrass communities support
one of the richest herbaceous floras in the
world. ONE OF THE MOST
OUTSTANDING EXAMPLES OF
TEMPERATE CONIFER FORESTS IN
EASTERN NORTH AMERICA, THE
RICHEST TEMPERATE HERBACEOUS
FLORA IN THE WORLD
Selected Species: These forests were once
dominated by tall stands of long-leaf pine
Neotropical
S
V
aldivian Temperate Rainforests / Juan
Fernandez Islands [76] – Argentina,
Chile
Geographic Location: West Coast of southern
South America
Biodiversity Features: The Valdivian temperate
rainforests represent one of the world's five
major temperate rainforest systems (the
Pacific Northwest of North America, the
western Black Sea, New Zealand, and
Tasmania are the others). The forests of this
ecoregion, including those on the Juan
Fernandez islands located some 670 km off
the Chilean coast, support stands of enormous
trees, containing many unusual species and
higher taxa. The Southern beech (Nothofagus
spp.) forests are one of only three major
forests of this type in the world, the others
being in Australia and New Zealand. ONE OF
THE WORLD’S FIVE MAJOR
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
TEMPERATE RAINFORESTS, THE ONLY
ONE IN SOUTH AMERICA
Selected Species: Tree species include alerce
(Fitzroya cupressoides) and the monkey
puzzle tree or Parana tree (Araucaria
araucana). Mammal species of interest
include the endangered pudu (Pudu pudu) and
Andean deer or Huemul (Hippocamelus
bisulcus).
General Threats: Intensive logging and timber
plantations are severe threats to the ecoregion.
sempervirens), and Atlas cedar (Cedrus
atlantica). Mammal species found here
include wolf (Canis lupis), brown bear (Ursus
arctos), European river otter (Lutra lutra),
marbled polecat (Vormela peregusna), and
Barbary macaque (Macaca sylvanus).
Ungulates include two species of chamois
(Rupicapra pyrenaica and R. rupricapra), and
two species of ibex (Capra pyrenaica and C.
ibex). Bird species include black vulture
(Aegypius monachus), griffon vulture (Gyps
fulvus), Egyptian vulture (Neophron
percnopterus), imperial eagle (Aquila
heliaca), saker (Falco cherrug) and Algerian
nuthactch (Sitta ledanti).
General Threats: Logging, overgrazing, pollution,
poaching, predator control, and industrial
development pose the greatest threats to this
ecoregion. In addition, the expansion of towns
and villages, trans-alpine communication
systems, and tourism pose additional threats to
the integrity of habitats.
Palearctic
uropean Mediterranean Montane
Mixed Forests [77] – Albania, Algeria,
Andorra, Austria, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech
Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy,
Liechtenstein, Macedonia, Morocco, Poland,
Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland, Tunisia, Ukraine, Yugoslavia
Geographic Location: Islands of montane forest in
southern Europe and the northern Maghreb
region of North Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion
encompasses a wide ranging collection of
conifer and mixed forest blocks in the western
palaearctic realm. As there is a long tradition
of intensive human use in the area, many
species are endangered or have already
disappeared. The Balkan and Rhodope
Massifs and the Carpathian Mountains have
the highest remaining diversity. Their biota
includes a notable percentage of endemic
plants, including many species restricted to
limestone cliffs and caves. North African
forests are rich in endemic plant species as
well. Many taxa have restricted distributions
and are represented by a small number of
individuals. WESTERN EURASIAN
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF AND
CONIFER FORESTS WITH A
RELATIVELY RICH FLORA AND HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM.
Selected Species:Notable tree species include
Spanish juniper (Juniperus thruifera) horse
chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), Balkan
pine (Pinus heldreichii), Mediterranean
cyprus (Cupressus sempervirens var.
E
aucasus-Anatolian-Hyrcanian
Temperate Forests [78] – Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Georgia, Iran,
Russia, Turkey, Turkmenistan
Geographic Location: Southeast Europe/ Central
Asia
Biodiversity Features: The combination of a
moderate climate, rugged topography, varied
geology, and geographic proximity to both
Europe and the Near East help account for the
uniqueness and complexity of plant and
animal life here. The region functions as a
biogeographic corridor between the
Mediterranean region and Central Asia.
Endemism is high throughout—in the
Caucasus alone up to twenty percent of the
flora is considered endemic. ONE OF THE
RICHEST TEMPERATE FOREST
REGIONS OF WESTERN ASIA WITH
HIGH LEVELS OF REGIONAL AND
LOCAL ENDEMISM WITHIN
INDIVIDUAL MOUNTAIN RANGES
Selected Species: Caucasian tur (Capra
caucasica), maral (Cervus elaphus maral),
chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), red deer
(Cervus elaphus), and Caucasian bison, (a
C
94
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
subspecies of European bison, Bison bonasus)
are examples of the ungulates found here.
Predators include wolf (Canis lupis), bear
(Ursus arctos), lynx (Lynx lynx), and the
extremely rare Central Asian leopard (Pantera
pardus tullianus). Some of the birds restricted
to the region are Caucasian and Caspian
Snowcocks (Tetraogallus caucasicus and T.
caspius), Caucasian Black Grouse (Tetrao
mlokosiewiczi) and Caucasian chiffchaff
(Phylloscopus lorenzii). Examples of endemic
genera are abundant in the plant genera
Agasyllis and Chymsydia (Apiaceae),
Callicephalus (Aseraceae), and Sredinkya
(Primulaceae).
General Threats: Aggressive forestry techniques,
including clear felling and replanting with
alien species; spread of alien plant species;
coastal development in narrow coastal strips;
overgrazing; recreation; and dam construction,
in large and small catchments are threats in
this ecoregion.
lacustris, Brunnera sibirica, Erythronium
sibiricum, and two rare species of monkshood
(Aconitum spp). Genera with the highest
number of endemics are locoweed and
milkvetch (Astragalus and Oxytropis).
General Threats: Forest clearance, plant
overcollection and hunting occur along the
banks of larger rivers and in heavily populated
areas such as the Kusnetsk Basin, Salair,
Alatau Kuznetsk and southwestern Altai.
Extensive wildfires have been known to
engulf huge amounts of forest. Mining is a
threat in some locations. Alpine and subalpine
areas suffer from overgrazing and associated
erosion.
engduan Shan Coniferous Forests [80] –
China
Geographic Location: South-Central China
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes
habitats from 1300 m to altitudinal treeline
(3500-4000 m elevation) in the north-south
trendingmountain system that defines the
eastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau. The
Henduan Mountains include peaks that exceed
7000 m and a number of spectacular river
valleys. Altitudinal zonation gives this region
a high degree of habitat complexity and rich
biological diversity. A flagship species of this
ecoregion is the rare and endangered giant
panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), for which a
system of nature reserves has been
established. Other charismatic mammal
species that live here include the red panda
(Ailurus fulens) and the curious takin
(Budorcas taxicolor). Because much of this
ecoregion escaped Pleistocene glaciation, it is
supports diverse plant and animal species,
many of which are endemic relict species.
RICH CONIFER FOREST WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AS WELL AS
THE PRESENCE OF NUMEROUS RELICT
TAXA
Selected Species: Some of the best-known species
in this ecoregion are giant panda and the
distantly related red panda. Foremost among
the relict plant species is the dawn redwood
(Metasequoia glyptostroboides), which until
H
ltai-Sayan Montane Forests [79] –
China, Kazakstan, Mongolia, Russia
Geographic Location: Central Asia/Southern
Siberia
Biodiversity Features: The Altai-Sayan ecoregion
is a mosaic of coniferous forests, intermontane
steppe, and alpine meadows. The mountain
complex is well known for exceptionally high
levels of plant richness and endemism. There
are approximately 2500 vascular plant species
with over 120 strictly endemic species.
Moreover, the region is a major center of
origin for montane floristic assemblages found
all over northern Asia. A CENTER OF
PLANT DIVERSITY FOR MONTANE
CONIFER AND ALPINE MEADOW
ECOSYSTEMS IN MIDDLE ASIA
Selected Species: Mammal species include Altai
argali (Ovis ammon ammon), snow leopard
(Panthera uncia), Siberian ibex (Capra
sibirica), Altai pikas (Ochotona spp.) as well
as more common species such as wolf (Canus
lupis), brown bears (Ursus arctos) and lynx
(Felix lynx). The Altai snowcock
(Tetraogallus altaicus) can be found below
3000 meters. Rare plants include Isoetes
A
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
recently was presumed extinct. Others include
Chinese yew (Taxus chinensis), manglietta
(Manglietia fordiana), Chinese cedar
(Cryptomeria fortunei). Many of these plants
represent the last vestiges of once widespread
vegetation types. Several rare but wideranging mammals are found here as well:
takin, Chinese stump-tailed macaque (Macaca
thibetana), tufted deer (Elaphodus
cephalophus), Indian muntjac (Muntiacus
muntjak), jungle cat (Felis chaus), spotted
linsang (Prionodon pardicolor) plus the
vulnerable clouded leopard (Neofelis
nebulosa) and Asiatic black bear (Ursus
thibetanus).
General Threats: As is the case in many places,
the demands of a growing human population
threaten wildland habitat, pushing some of the
more sensitive species to the brink of
extinction. Over the past two decades, China’s
transition to a market economy has increased
demand for non-timber forest and wildlife
products for medicinal and other uses. Despite
laws protecting species like snow leopard,
tiger and black bear, pelts, penises and gall
bladders are sold with impunity in local
markets throughout this ecoregion. For
example, markets in the town of Songpan,
located onthe main thoroughfare between
Wolong (an internationally recogonized panda
reserve) and Jiuzhaigou (a UNESCO world
heritage site) offered several snow leopard
pelts for sale to tourists during September
1999 and June 2000.
Nearctic
M
uskwa/Slave Lake Boreal Forests [81]
– Canada
Geographic Location: Northern North America
Biodiversity Features: Encompassing a series of
plains and mountains, including portions of
the Mackenzie River plain and Caribou
mountains, this ecoregion experiences cool
summers and very cold winters characterized
by low precipitation. The resulting habitats—
forests dominated by spruce and fir trees—
support one of North America’s most diverse
and intact large mammal systems. DIVERSE
AND RELATIVELY INTACT
ASSEMBLAGE OF LARGE MAMMALS
Selected Species: The vegetation is characterized
by quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides),
white spruce (Picea glauca), and balsam fir
(Abies balsamea) with lesser amounts of
balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) and black
spruce (Picea mariana). A large and relatively
intact predator-prey system including wolves
(Canis lupus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos),
caribou (Rangifer tarandus), and moose (Alces
alces), is distinctive and unique. Other animals
include muskrat (Ondatra zibethica), ptarmigan
(Lagopus spp.), and snowy owl (Nyctea
scandiaca).
General Threats: Most of the ecoregion is intact
but logging has heavily impacted some local
watersheds. In particular, logging in riparian
habitats has been extensive and is increasing.
Highway construction and oil pipelines pose
additional threats.
Boreal Forests/Taiga
anadian Boreal Forests [82] – Canada
Geographic Location: Northwest North
America
Biodiversity Features: The landscape of the boreal
forests in northwestern Canada includes
varied plant communities, from lichen-rich
open conifer forests to gallery forests of
enormous white spruce. In turn, these habitats
support a wide diversity of insects,
amphibians, birds, and mammals. CHOSEN
TO ENSURE REPRESENTATION OF THE
C
Low annual temperatures characterize northerly
latitudes; precipitation ranges from 40-100 cm per
year and may fall mainly as snow. This
combination, along with nutrient poor soils—
largely a result of permafrost and the resultant
poor drainage—favors the preponderence of
conifer species (Abies, Picea, Larix, and Pinus),
although species of deciduous trees are also rather
common: Betula spp. and Populus spp. Ground
cover in Boreal Forests and Taiga is dominated
by mosses and lichens.
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
BOREAL FOREST HABITATS IN NORTH
AMERICA
Selected Species: Species here include the lynx
(Lynx lynx), the world’s largest herd of
barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus) in
Quebec/Labrador, Arctic ground squirrel
(Spermophilus parryi), grizzly bear (Ursus
arctos), black bear (U. americanus), wolf
(Canis lupis), wolverine (Gulo gulo), snowshoe
hare (Lepus americanus), brown lemming
(Lemmus trimucronatus), and Northern redbacked vole (Clethrionomys rutilus). Bird
species include ruby-crowned kinglet (Regulus
calendula), willow and rock ptarmigan
(Lagopus lagopus and L. mutus), common
redpoll (Carduelis flammea), red-throated loon
(Gavia stellata), northern goshawk (Accipiter
gentilis), and the harlequin duck (Histrionicus
histrionicus). Characteristic tree species
include black spruce (Picea mariana), white
spruce (P. glauca), tamarack (Larix laricina),
dwarf birch (Betula spp.), willow (Salix spp.),
and balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera).
General Threats: Logging threatens southwestern
portions of the ecoregion, large-scale mining
activities further north are also a major threat.
Examples are Eurasian dipper (Cinclus
cinclus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos),
chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), Eurasian
dotterel (Charadrius morinellus), northern
black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix), and Ural owl
(Strix uralensis).
General Threats: Centuries of resource
exploitation and heavy industry have caused
extensive habitat loss and degradation in some
locations. Other habitats have been altered
through logging, mining, and industrial
processing of metals and chemicals.
astern Siberian Taiga [84] –Russia
Geographic Location: Northern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The taiga of central and
eastern Siberia is the world's largest tract of
unbroken wilderness, covering more than a
quarter of Russia's territory. Much of the
region is contained within the watershed of
two enormous river systems—the Yenisey
and Lena rivers. THE LARGEST TRACT
OF UNBROKEN FOREST IN THE
WORLD, THE BEST EXAMPLE OF
INTACT BOREAL FORESTS IN ASIA
Selected Species: Dominant trees are Daurian
larch (Larix dahurica), Siberian spruce (Picea
ovovata), Siberian fir (Abies sibirica), and
Siberian stone pine (Pinus sibirica). The
understory is composed of dwarf birches
(Betula), cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus)
and bilberry (V. myrtillus). The taiga is home
to Russia's largest populations of brown bear
(Ursus arctos), moose (Alces alces), wolf
(Canis lupis), red fox (Vulpes vulpes),
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), wolverine (Gulo
gulo), and sable (Martes zibellina).
Avian residents include Golden eagle (Aguila
chrysaetus), black-billed capercaillie (Tetrao
parvirostris), Siberian Spruce grouse
(Falcipennis falcipennis), Siberian accentor
(Prunella montanella), great gray owl (Strix
nebulosa), and Naumann’s thrush (Turdus
naumanni).
General Threats: Coal mining, logging, and oil
and gas development are underway in the
southern part of the ecoregion. Large areas of
forests have been cut down for industrial
purposes or degraded through air pollution
E
Palearctic
ral Mountains Taiga [83] – Russia
Geographic Location: Mountain range
dividing Europe and northern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The boreal forests and
tundra of the northern Ural Mountains support
a mixture of European and Asian animal
species. The forests are the most intact
example of western Eurasian taiga. THE
MOST INTACT LANDSCAPE COMPLEX
IN WESTERN EURASIA
Selected Species: Dominant tree species include
Siberian spruce (Picea obovata), Siberian
larch (L. russica), Larix sukaczewii and
Siberian fir (Abies sibirica). There are many
examples of Siberian species such as reindeer
(Rangifer tarandus) and sable (Martes
zibellina) as well as European species such as
hare (Lepus Europaeus), polecat (Mustela
putorius), and mink (Mustela lutreola). Most
birds are not specific to the Urals, but may be
found in the European or Siberian taigas.
U
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
and fires. Several major hydroelectric projects
are also planned for the region.
Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands,
Savannas, and Shrublands
amchatka Taiga and Grasslands [85] –
Russia
Geographic Location: Peninsula and island chain
in northeastern along the Pacific coast of
Eurasia
Biodiversity Features: This region is one of the
Earth's most spectacular and pristine natural
areas. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and
tidal waves continually modify the dynamic
landscape. A mosaic of tundra and taiga
habitats support 29 species of rare and
endemic plants. Several species, such as
Kamchatka brown bear (Ursus arctos
beringianus), occur in unusual abundance
and size. A GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE
COLLECTION OF MEADOW AND TAIGA
LANDSCAPES WITH AN ABUNDANCE
OF ANIMAL LIFE
Selected Species: Forests of Erman’s birch
(Betula ermanii), Japanese stone pine (Pinus
pumila), Dahurian larch (Larix dahurica), are
widespread. There are also stands of
Kamchatka larch (Larix kamtscatica) mixed
with aspen (Populus tremula) and Yeddo
spruce (Picea jezoensis). The peninsula is
famous for its population of Kamchatka
brown bear (Ursus arctos beringianus), the
largest bear in Eurasia. Other mammal
species include Kamchatka marmot (Marmota
kamtschatica), Okhotsk subspecies of wild
reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), and Kamchatka
subspecies of sable (Martes zebillina).
Steller’s sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus) and
tufted puffin (Fratercula cirrhata) are two of
many bird species of interest. Kamchatka
rivers contain prodigious concentrations of
salmon, including chinook (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha), chum (O. keta), pink (O.
gorbuscha), coho (O. kisutch), and Kamchatka
(Salmo penshinensis).
General Threats: Habitats in this region are
relatively intact and undeveloped due to low
human population density. However, biggame hunting and poaching of brown bears
threaten one of the world’s most intact
populations of this species.
K
Large expanses of land in the tropics do not
receive enough rainfall to support extensive tree
cover. The Tropical and Subtropical Grasslands,
Savannas, and Shrublands are characterized by
rainfall levels between 90-150 cm per year.
However, there may be great variability in soil
moisture throughout the year. Grasses dominate
the species composition of these ecoregions,
although scattered trees may be common. Large
mammals that have evolved to take advantage of
the ample forage typify the biodiversity associated
with these habitats.
Afrotropical
H
orn of Africa Acacia Savannas [86] –
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan
Geographic Location: Eastern Africa
Biodiversity Features: Comprised of mainly
bushland and thicket, with a gradation to
semi-desert grasslands and shrublands in the
driest places, this area is of particular
biological importance for a number of
different taxa, in particular for reptiles. In
addition, it is a major center of endemism for
dryland plants. However, there are also
several endemic species in the more mesic
habitats found along the Jubba and Shabelle,
the only permanent rivers in the area.
IMPORTANT AREA OF ENDEMISM FOR
DRYLAND PLANTS IN AFRICA
Selected Species:A number of species are
restricted largely to these savannas. Birds
include Degodi lark (Mirafra degodiensis),
short-billed crombec (Sylvietta philippae), and
Bulo Burti bush-shrike (Laniarius liberatus).
Mammals endemic to this ecoregion include
African wild ass (Equus africanus
somaliensis), Speke's gazelle (Gazella spekei),
hirola (Damaliscus hunteri),dibatag
(Ammodorcus clarkei), Grevy’s zebra (Equus
grevyi), naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus
glaber), and Hunter's hartebeest (Damaliscus
hunteri). Endemic reptiles include Taylor's
strange agama (Xenagama taylori), similar
98
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
agama (Agama persimilis), Atractaspis
scorteccii, and Parker's leaf-toed gecko
(Hemidactylus megalops).
General Threats: Habitats have become degraded
in many places through the actions of grazing
livestock and fuelwood collection, particularly
close to villages and towns. The populations
of most endemic and near endemic larger
animals have declined dramatically and are
very fragmented due to illegal hunting
following decades of political instability and
open warfare over large parts of the region.
Mpwapwa worm lizard (Chirindia
mpwapwaensis).
General Threats: The region has many large
protected areas, but there are increasing
problems with poaching, agriculture, land use
conflicts with pastoralists, and uncontrolled
trophy hunting.
C
entral and Eastern Miombo Woodlands
[88] – Angola, Botswana, Burundi,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Malawi,
Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Zambia,
Zimbabwe
Geographic Location: Central and Southern
Africa
Biodiversity Features: Covering much of central
and southern Africa, the ecoregion is
dominated by the Central African Plateau.
However, portions of the ecoregion are
characterized by flat or rolling hills with local
areas of higher relief. Important in terms of
species richness, species found here are
typical of Miombo woodlands, and in the
southwest, Baikiaea woodlands. In particular,
there is a high diversity of large mammals,
including populations that make up the wellknown East African savanna mammal fauna.
In addition, some areas support relatively
undisturbed natural communities of these
plants and anaimals. THE AREA IS
IMPORTANT AS A CARBON SINK, AS
WELL AS FOR SPECIES RICHNESS AND
ENDEMISM .
Selected Species: Large mammals found here
include species such as Ansell’s shrew
(Crocidura ansellorum), a subspecies of
Lichtenstein’s hartebeest (Alcelaphus
buselaphus lichtensteini), and sable antelope
(Hippotragus niger). Among the reptiles are
endemics such as Zaire centipede-eater
(Aparallactus moeruensis), Platysaurus
maculatus, Dalophia luluae, carved worm
lizard (Monopeltis scalper), and Katanga
beaked snake (Rhinotyphlops kibarae). Blackfaced waxbill (Estrilda nigriloris), miombo
rock-thrush (Monticola angolensis) and
Miombo pied barbet (Tricholaema frontata)
are are some of the endemic avifauna. Among
the amphibians, endemics include Kanole
ast African Acacia Savannas [87] –
Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Tanzania,
Uganda
Geographic Location: Eastern Africa
Biodiversity Features: While this ecoregion has
relatively few endemic species, its largely
intact rangelands support one of the world’s
most spectacular migration of large mammals.
THESE DRAMATIC SAVANNA/
GRASSLAND COMPLEXES ARE AMONG
THE MOST DISTINCTIVE IN THE
WORLD, WITH GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING CONCENTRATIONS
AND A DIVERSITY OF LARGE LAND
MAMMALS. ONE OF THE LAST PLACES
ON EARTH WHERE LARGE
MIGRATIONS OF LAND MAMMALS
STILL OCCUR
Selected Species: Species such as giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus),
African elephant (Loxodonta africana), and
more than 1 million wildebeest (Connochaetes
taurinus) typify the popular image of this
ecoregion. Other mammals known from this
area include hartebeest (Alcelaphus
buselaphuscokei) and Grant’s gazelle (Gazella
granti). This ecoregion is also home to
tremendous numbers of birds, including a few
species found nowhere else, such as greybreasted spurfowl (Francolinus rufopictus),
Fischer’s lovebird (Agapornis fischeri),
Karamoja apalis (Apalis karamojae), and
rufus-tailed weaver (Histurgops ruficauda).
Other endemic species include Scheffler’s
dwarf gecko (Lygdactylus scheffleri) and
E
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
forest treefrog (Leptopelis parvus) and Witte's
shovelnose frog (Kassinula wittei).
General Threats: Much of the ecoregion remains
sparsely settled and the resulting human
population pressures are minimal. Large areas
of habitat are relatively intact. Future
population growth and associated activities
are a potential threat.
over-hunting for meat or poaching for
trophies. .
Selected Species:Characteristic species include the
mouse, Mus goundae, Reichenow’s firefinch (
Lagonosticta umbrinodorsalis), Eastern giant
eland (Taurotragus derbianus gigas), Roan
antelope (Hippotragus equinus),and lewel
hartebeest (Damaliscus lunatus lelwel).
S
udanian Savannas [89] - Cameroon, Central
Central African Republic, Chad, Nigeria,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea,
Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, Sudan, Uganda
Geographic Location: Central and Southern
Africa
Selection Criteria & Distinguishing Features:
Comprised of expanses of woodland areas,
which are mainly deciduous in the dry season,
these areas are also characterized by an
understory of grasses, shrubs, and herbsThe
ecoregion occupies just a portion of a larger
area idenitied as a center of diversity for
plants, and hence is important for plant
conservation. Given the pronounced dry
season, there is a large seasonal migration of
fauna within the ecoregion in addition to
visitation by large numbers of migrant birds
on the Afrotropical-Palaearctic flyway. THIS
AREA IS HOME TO SEASONAL
MIGRATIONS OF LARGE
VERTEBRATES.
General Threats: Significant loss of original
wooded savanna habitats has occurred in this
ecoregion, but large blocks of relatively
Australasia
orthern Australia and Trans-Fly Savannas
Savannas [90] – Australia, Indonesia, Papua
Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: Northern Australia,
Southwestern and Southeastern portions of
New Guinea
Biodiversity Features: While much of Australia is
covered by grassland, savanna ecosystems are
far more restricted, being limited to moister
areas along the coast. The Kimberley, Top
End, and Cape York savannas, along the
northern coast, are the best examples of this
habitat type on the continent, and they contain
many endemic species, such as the Gouldian
finch (Erythrura gouldiae). Patches of dry
rainforest with high species diversity also
occur throughout the ecoregion. THIS
ECOREGION CONTAINS SOME OF THE
LARGEST AND LEAST DISTURBED
AREAS OF TROPICAL SAVANNA IN THE
WORLD, WITH SOME ENDEMISM IN
SEVERAL TAXA. EXTREMELY HIGH
NUMBERS OF MIGRATORY AND
RESIDENT WATERFOWL AND WADING
BIRDS ARE FOUND HERE. THIS AREA
HAS AN EXTREMELY RICH REPTILE
FAUNA AS WELL AS EXTENSIVE
MARSUPIAL, RODENT, AND BAT
FAUNA.
Selected Species: Species include Gouldian finch
(Chloebia gouldiae), golden-shouldered parrot
(Psephotus chrysopterygius), and freshwater
crocodile (Crocodylus johnstonii). Resident
mammals, many of which are endemic,
include such well-known species as shortbeaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus),
agile wallaby (Macropus agilis), and red
N
intact habitat remain even outside
protected areas. Threats include seasonal
"shifting" cultivation, over-grazing by
livestock, cutting trees and bushes for
wood, burning woody material for
charcoal, and uncontrolled wild fires.
Climatic desiccation is a further threat,
exacerbating the impacts of people's
activities, as the ability of the ecosystem to
recover from overuse is reduced when
there is little rainfall. The main threats to
the species of the ecoregion are overgrazing and, in the case of larger animals
100
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
kangaroo (M. rufus) in addition to a number of
endemic mammals, such as cinammon
antechinus (Antechinus leo) and scaly-tailed
possum (Wyulda squamicaudata). Among the
numerous wading birds in this ecoregion are
comb-crested jacana (Irediparra gallinacea),
great billed heron (Ardea sumatrana), and
pied heron (A. picata). Breeding populations
of several waterfowl species occur in this
area, including green pygmy goose (Nettapus
pulchellus), grey teal (Anas gracilis), plumed
whistling-duck (Dendrocygna eytoni),
wandering whistling-duck (D. arcuata),
Radjah shelduck (Tadorna radjah), and
magpie goose (Anseranas semipalmata).
General Threats: Fire management, feral animals
and weeds, and grazing pose threats to the
biodiversity of this ecoregion.
nipalensis), grey-crowned prinia (Prinia
cinereocapilla), and manipur bush-quail
(Perdicula manipurensis). Other birds include
intermediate egret (Mesophoyx intermedia),
crested serpent-eagle (Spilornis cheela),
banded bay cuckoo (Cacomantis sonneratii),
coppersmith barbet (Megalaima
haemacephala), bronzed drongo (Dicrurus
aeneus), and red-breasted flycatcher (Ficedula
parva) among numerous others.
General Threats: Poaching, overgrazing, clearing
for cultivation, population growth, irrigation
projects and water diversion are major threats
to this ecoregion.
Neotropical
lanos Savannas [92] – Colombia, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northern South
America
Biodiversity Features: THE BEST
EXAMPLE OF TROPICAL
SAVANNAS IN SOUTH AMERICA,
WITH REGIONALLY HIGH FLORISTIC
AND HABITAT DIVERSITY, ONE OF THE
WORLD’S LARGEST WETLAND
COMPLEXES
Selected Species: White-bellied spider monkey
(Ateles belzebuth), tamandua (Tamandua
tetradactyla), capybara (Hydrochaeris
hydrochaeris), Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus
intermedius), black-bellied tree duck
(Dendrocygna autumnalis), white-faced tree
duck (Dendrocygna viduata), dickcissel
sparrow (Spiza americana), roseate spoonbill
(Ajaia ajaja), and the endemic Orinoco piculet
(Picumnus pumilus) are all found here. In
addition, parts of these savannas support
breeding populations of the giant anaconda
(Eunectes murinus).
General Threats: Grazing, burning, draining;
conversion to agriculture, and overhunting are
all threats to the biodiversity found in this
ecoregion.
L
Indo-Malayan
T
erai-Duar Savannas and Grasslands [91] –
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal
Geographic Location: Southern Asia, northern
margin of the Indian subcontinent adjacent to
the southern slope of the Himalaya.
Biodiversity Features: The alluvial grasslands of
Nepal and the northern Indian state of Assam
are the last survivin remnants of a once
extensive ecosystem. These grasslands are
exceptionally rich. The dominant grass of the
floodplains Saccharum, or elephant grass,
grows each year to heights over 7 meters and
supports a number of habitat specialists such
as benal tiger (Panthera tigris) and its prey
base, the chital (Axis axis). THE WORLD’S
TALLEST GRASSLANDS WITH THE
HIGHEST DENSITIES OF TIGERS,
RHINOS, AND UNGULATE BIOMASS
ANYWHERE IN ASIA
Selected Species: Endangered endemic plants
include Begonia brevicaulis. Animals include
the greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros
unicornis), tiger (Panthera tigris), gharial
crocodile (Gavialis gangeticus), swamp deer
or barasingha (Cervus duvauceli), pygmy hog
(Sus salvinius), and hispid hare (Caprolagus
hispidus). Three endemic birds occur here;
they are the spiny babbler (Turdoides
C
errado Woodlands and Savannas [93] –
Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay
Geographic Location: Eastern South America, SE
of the Amazon Basin
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: The Cerrado constitutes
one of the largest savanna-forest complexes in
the world and contains a diverse mosaic of
habitat types and natural communities. Among
these communities are diverse grassland
floras, including many species of large
mammals and birds characteristic of this
habitat type in southern South America.
Patterns of biodiversity are complex and many
regional and local endemic species are
present. ONE OF THE LARGEST
TROPICAL SAVANNA-WOODLAND
COMPLEXES IN THE WORLD WITH
DIVERSE COMMUNITIES AND HIGH
LEVELS OF REGIONAL AND LOCAL
ENDEMISM. INDLUDES ONE OF THE
MOST DIVERSE AND INTACT TROPICAL
GRASSLANDS
Selected Species: Species include maned wolf
(Chrysocyon brachyurus), giant anteater
(Myrmecophaga tridactyla), and pampas cat
(Oncefelis colocolo). Bird species include
rhea (Rhea americana), the critically
endangered and endemic Spix's macaw
(Cyanopsitta spixii), red-legged seriema
(Cariama cristata), and 13 additional
endemics, including white-striped warbler
(Basileuterus leucophrys), cone-billed tanager
(Nesospingus speculiferus), and dwarf
tinamou (Taoniscus nanus).
General Threats: Agricultural expansion, which
may include frequent burning, charcoal
production, degradation as a result of
development, and water projects pose major
threats to the Cerrado. Grazing of cattle,
which destroys native grassland habitats, is
also problematic.
streams and rivers. However, some regions do
support savanna conditions characterized by
interspersed individuals or clusters of trees.
Biodiversity in these habitats includes a number of
large grazing mammals and associated predators
in addition to burrowing mammals, numerous bird
species, and of course, a diversity of insects.
Nearctic
orthern Prairie [94] – Canada, United States
States
Geographic Location: Central North
America
Biodiversity Features: A harsh winter climate
characterized by snow, along with a short
growing season and periodic, severe droughts
shape the vegetation of this ecoregion that
reflects an arid grassland ecoclimate. Much of
this ecoregion has either been converted to
wheat farms or rangelands, however, about
50,000 km2 of the Nebraska Sand Hills is
considered relatively intact. Furthermore, the
potential for large-scale restoration is perhaps
greater in this ecoregion than in almost any
other in North America. These grasslands
historically contained some of the last
extensive habitat for bison (Bison bison) in
the U.S. and Canada. Their numbers are
increasing, as are black-tailed prairie dog
(Cynomys ludovicianus) populations.
EXTENSIVE NORTHERN GRASSLAND
WITH GREAT POTENTIAL FOR
RESTORATION OF LARGE VERTEBRATE
ASSEMBLAGES AND PREDATOR-PREY
SYSTEMS
Selected Species: In addition to the buffalo and
prarie dog, charismatic animal species include
populations of the endangered black footed
ferret (Mustela nigripes). Efforts are also
underway to restore populations of swift fox
(Vulpes velox).The dominant grass
communities include grama-needlegrass
(Bouteloua spp., Stipa spp.) and wheatgrass
(Agropyron spp.), and wheatgrassneedlegrass, with spear grass (Poa annua),
gramma, and wheatgrass further north. The
Sand Hills contain a distinct grassland
association dominated by sand bluestem
N
Temperate Grasslands, Savannas, and
Shrublands
Known as prairies in North America, pampas in
South America, veld in Southern Africa and
steppe in Asia, Temperate Grasslands, Savannas,
and Shrublands differ largely from tropical
grasslands in the annual temperature regime as
well as the types of species found here. Generally
speaking, these regions are devoid of trees, except
for riparian or gallery forests associated with
102
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
(Andropogon hallii), Calamovilfa longifolia,
and needle-and-thread (Stipa comata). Birds
include ferruginous hawk (Buteo regalis),
golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), sharp-tailed
and sage grouse (Tympahuchus phasianellus
and Centrocercus urophasianus), clay-colored
sparrow (Spizella pallida), mountain plover
(Charadrius montanus), and the largest
breeding population of endangered piping
plovers (Charadrius melodus).
General Threats: Much of this ecoregion is now
grazed by livestock or has been converted to
dryland farming. Primary threats are oil and
gas development and the creation of road
networks are significant factors as well.
sponsored predator control (e.g. foxes),
indiscriminate use of poisons, conversion for
agriculture, introduced herbivores, and
burning are major threats.
Palearctic
aurian Steppe [96] – China, Mongolia,
Russia
Geographic Location: Middle Asia
Biodiversity Features: The Daurian steppe is a sea
of grass forming the best and most intact
example of an undisturbed steppe ecosystem.
The region has a distinct flora and fauna, with
a number of endemic species. ONE OF THE
BEST AND MOST INTACT EXAMPLES
OF EURASIAN STEPPE AND
GRASSLANDS
Selected Species: Pallas’ cat (Felis manul),
Daurian hedgehog (Hemiechinus
dauricus), and Mongolian marmot
(Marmot sibirica) comprise a portion of the
fauna. The ecoregion supports six species of
crane, among them white-naped (G.
americana), common (G. grus), and
demoiselle (Anthropoides virgo). One of two
known nesting sites of the relict gull (Larus
relicta) is within the ecoregion. The
groundcover is dominated by feathergrasses
such as splendid (Stipa pulcherrima), Siberian
(S. zalesskii), fluffy (S. pennata) and dwarf (S.
capillata). Typical trees are Daurian birch
(Betula davurica), pine (Pinus sylvestris) and
Siberian larch (Larix sibirica).
General Threats: Overgrazing, agricultural
fragmentation, mining, oil exploitation and
extraction, and infrastructure development
area mong the most serious threats in this
region. Most of these threats are concentrated
along the Trans-Siberian railroad.
D
Neotropical
atagonian Steppe [95] – Argentina, Chile
Geographic Location: Southern South America
Biodiversity Features: The Patagonian steppe and
grasslands support regionally distinctive
communities of mammals and birds, including
many unusual genera and families, as well as a
rich plant fauna with 1200 vascular species,
and 30% endemism, including several
endemic genera. THE ONLY EXAMPLE OF
COLD TEMPERATE/SUBPOLAR STEPPE
AND GRASSLAND IN SOUTH AMERICA,
DISTINCTIVE TAXA AT GENERIC AND
FAMILY LEVELS
Selected Species: Six endemic plant genera,
usually represented by only a few species:
Philippiella, Neobaclea, Xerodraba,
Benhamiella, Eriachaenium and Duseniella.
Bird species include rosy-billed pochard
(Netta peposaca), Austral rail (Rallus
antarcticus), and the endemic Magellanic
plover (Pluvianellus socialis). Mammals
found among these habitats include two
opossums (Thylamys pusilla and the endemic
Lestodelphys halli) four endemic Tuco-tucos
(Ctenomys spp.), guanaco (Lama guanicoe),
gray fox (Pseudalopex griseus), mountain lion
(Puma concolor), Pampas cat (Oncifelis
colocolo), and Patagonian hare (Dolichotis
patagonum).
General Threats: Overgrazing and associated
erosion, desertification, government-
P
Afrotropical
udd-Sahelian Flooded Grasslands and
Savannas [97] – Cameroon, Chad,
Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sudan,
Uganda
Geographic Location: Central and Eastern Africa
S
103
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: A series of disjunct
seasonally flooded grassland areas—including
those wetlands associated with Lake Chad—
and perennial swamps comprise an ecoregion
that dots Central Africa. The largest block,
located in Sudan, contains one of the largest
floodplains in Africa. The Sudd River is
important for numerous resident and
migratory water birds. In addition, the
ecoregion supports large populations of
mammals, including areas that witness
seasonal migrations of mammals across the
ecoregion as the water levels change. IT
COMPRISES AREAS THAT HAVE HIGH
SPECIES RICHNESS, AND ARE
ESPECIALLY IMPORTANT FOR
MIGRATORY BIRDS.
Selected Species: Among the most abundant
species are the white-eared kob (Kobus kob),
the tiang (Damaliscus lunatus tiang) and the
Mongalla gazelle (Gazella thomsonii
albontata), which make large-scale migrations
over the relatively undisturbed habitat of the
Sudd River. Other mammals include the Nile
lechwe (Kobus megaceros) and hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus amphibius). The largest
population of the shoebill (Balaeniceps rex) in
the world is found among aquatic plants. This
ecoregion is also the wintering grounds of the
endangered white pelican (Pelecanus
onocrotalus). Other birds found here include
two endemic species: river prinia (Prinia
fluvialis) and Fox’s weaver (Ploceus
spekeoides).
General Threats: The swamps in the eastern block
of the ecoregion still remain as a vast nearwilderness area. Although the effects that
civil war has had on this once remote region
are unclear, poaching may be affecting some
mammal populations. Threats to the continued
existence of the biodiversity of the western
blocks, including both the Lake Chad and
Inner Niger delta flooded savannas, come
from large scale plans to divert water for
agricultural and industrial uses.
of Congo, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia,
Tanzania, Zambia
Geographic Location: Southern Africa
Biodiversity Features: The Okavango Delta and
associated flooded grasslands and savanna
habitats that constitute the Zambezian Flooded
Savannas ecoregion are among the most
important biological sites in Africa. Besides a
rich diversity of birds, this ecoregion supports
significant populations of large mammals,
such as the African elephant (Loxodonta
africana). AN EXTENSIVE CHAIN OF
FLOODED GRASSLANDS IN SOUTHERN
AFRICA, WITH EXTRAORDINARY
CONCENTRATIONS OF LARGE
VERTEBRATES
Selected Species: Many African mammals move
seasonally with the rise and fall of
floodwaters, following the changing
vegetation. Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsprymnus
ellipsprymnus and K. e. defassa), puku (Kobus
vardonii), lechwe (Kobus leche),
hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) and
sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei) are common
inhabitants of the floodplains of southern
Africa. Bird species include slaty egret
(Egretta vinaceigula), wattled crane (Grus
carunculatus), and pygmy goose (Nettapus
auritus). The Barotse water snake
(Crotaphopeltis barotseensis) and striped
swamp snake (Limnophis bicolor) are endemic
reptiles.
General Threats: The human populations of these
wetland areas are generally low, largely due to
the high density of disease-carrying organisms
(especially malaria mosquitoes, tsetse flies,
and aquatic snails that transmit bilharzia).
Some of the threats include cattle ranching,
and contamination from heavy metals,
insecticide and agricultural runoff. Insecticide
pollution includes DDT used for malaria
control in Namibia and a number of less
persistent compounds used for tsetse control
in Botswana. Water diversion for irrigation
and hydroelectric dams have already affected
some floodplain systems, and are threatening
others. Excess withdraw from the Okavango
Riveris being discussedby partner countries.
Thiscould have deleterious effects on the
functioning of the delta ecosystems.
ambezian Flooded Savannas [98] – Angola,
Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of
Z
104
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Geographic Location: Southern tip of Florida
Peninsula in Southeastern North America
Biodiversity Features: Lying between temperate
and subtropical America, between fresh and
brackish water, between shallow bays and
deeper coastal waters, the Florida Everglades
have a diverse range of habitats. This is one of
the world’s only rain-fed flooded grasslands
on limestone. The region contains some
11,000 species of seed-bearing plants, 25
varieties of orchids, both tropical (palms) and
temperate (oak) tree species, and even such
desert plants as cactus and yucca. The
Everglades support 323 bird species, 150 fish
species, and 400 species of land and water
vertebrates, 36 of which are endangered.
UNIQUE, RAIN-FED FLOODED
GRASSLAND ON CARBONATE
SUBSTRATES
Selected Species: Species include Schaus'
swallowtail (Papilio aristodemus) an
endangered butterfly formerly distributed here
but currently found only in the Florida Keys,
Florida tree snail (Liguus fasciatus), the
endangered Florida panther or cougar (Felis
concolor coryii), American crocodile
(Crocodylus acutus), and American alligator
(Alligator mississippiensis). Among the many
bird species are the snail kite (Rostrhamus
sociabilis), the short-tailed hawk (Buteo
brachyurus), swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides
forficatus), and the endangered Cape Sable
seaside sparrow (Ammodramus maritimus).
Waterbirds include roseate spoonbill (Ajaia
ajaja), limpkin (Aramus guarauna), wood
stork (Mycteria americana), and white ibis
(Eudocimus albus).
General Threats: Urban development, industrial
agriculture, pollution, introduction of exotic
species, and major changes in the water flow
threaten the Everglades.
Indo-Malayan
ann of Kutch Flooded Grasslands [99] –
– India, Pakistan
Geographic Location: Eastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: These seasonally flooded
salt marshes represent the only flooded
grasslands in the Indo-Malayan realm.
Expanses of mangroves and desert vegetation
comprise portions of this ecoregion as well.
Some of the endemic and endangered plant
species include Tamarix kutchensis, Ziziphus
williamsii and Cyperus dwarkensis. These
habitats support a number of threatened
mammals and a rich diversity of birds,
including many migrants. THE ONLY
FLOODED GRASSLANDS FOUND IN THE
INDO-MALAYAN BIOGEOGRAPHIC
PROVINCE.
Selected Species: A number of threatened
mammals are present within the ecoregion:
leopard (Panthera pardus), Asiatic wild ass
(Equus hemionus), chousingha (Tetracerus
quadricornis), and blackbuck (Antilope
cervicapra). Bird species include greater
flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) and lesser
flamingo (P. minor), Indian courser
(Cursorius coromandelicus), red-wattled
lapwing (Vanellus indicus), Sarus crane (Grus
antigone), common crane (Grus grus), white
stork (Ciconia ciconia), and Asian open bill
stork (Anastomus oscitans), among numerous
others.
General Threats: Despite the fact that areas in the
Rann of Kutch remain largely intact, it is
considered vulnerable to development
pressures. In addition, large portions of the
Indus Delta have been destroyed as a result of
fuelwood—the only source of firewood for
local peoples—and fodder collection on top of
other activities related to grazing.
Construction projects, water diversions, and
logging all pose further threats.
R
antanal Flooded Savannas [101] – Bolivia,
Brazil, Paraguay
Geographic Location: Central South America
Biodiversity Features: The Pantanal represents
one of the world's largest wetland complexes
and supports abundant wildlife populations.
The region is noted for huge seasonal
P
Neotropical
E
verglades Flooded Grasslands [100] –
United States
105
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
aggregations of water birds and caiman
(Caiman latirostris). The Pantanal is
comprised of a mosaic of flooded grasslands
and savannas, gallery forests, and dry forests.
During the rainy season over 80 percent of the
region floods, a process that helps modify the
severity and frequency of floods downstream
along the Río Paraguay. ONE OF THE
WORLD’S LARGEST WETLANDS
COMPLEXES, ONE OF THE BEST
EXAMPLES OF FLOODED SAVANNAS IN
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA
Selected Species: Species include jabiru stork
(Jabiru mycteria ), hyacinth macaw
(Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus), jaguar
(Panthera onca), and broad-nosed caiman
(Caiman latirostris).
General Threats: Agricultural expansion, charcoal
production, water projects, pollution, gold
mining, mercury pollution, overfishing,
uncontrolled nature tourism, and road
construction pose severe threats to the
Pantanal.
Selected Species: Endemic species include the
Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis), the rarest
canid in the world, as well as Walia ibex
(Capra walie), mountain nyala (Tragelaphus
buxtoni), and giant root rat (Tachyoryctes
macrocephalus). Among those species
endemic to the ecoregion are amphibians such
as grassland forest treefrog (Leptopelis
yaldeni), Bale Mountains frog
(Ericabatrachus baleensis), and Osgood's
Ethiopian toad (Spinophrynoides osgoodi).
Birds with limited distributions include the
Ankober serin (Serinus ankoberensis) and the
white-winged flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi).
General Threats: Ethiopia's highlands are among
the most densely populated agricultural areas
in Africa. Expanding agriculture, shifting
cultivation, fires, and overgrazing are major
threats to the biological diversity of these
ecosystems.
outhern Rift Montane Woodlands [103] –
Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia
Geographic Location: Southeastern Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion is
comprised of a number of disjunct mountains
and ranges—some peaks top 3,000 m—that
support a mosaic of habitats naturally
fragmented into areas of grassland and forest.
These habitats, combined with the high degree
of isolation, support a rich array of endemic
species of plants and animals, including some
species that are restricted to single mountains.
HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM,
INCLUDING SEVERAL LOCAL
ENDEMICS FOUND ON INDIVIDUAL
MOUNTAINS
Selected Species: The endangered Mulanje cedar
(Wilddringtonia whytei) is among the most
well known plant species found in this
ecoregion. Bird species such as Namuli apalis
(Apalis lynesi), Cholo alethe (Alethe
cholensis), and Sharpe’s greenbul
(Phyllastrephus alfredi), not to mention
reptiles such as Ngosi Volcano Chameleon
(Chamaeleo fuelleborni), South African
Stumptail Chameleon (Rhampholeon
nchisiensis), and Eumecia johnstoni comprise
a portion of the endemic fauna.
S
Montane Grasslands and Shrublands
The plants and animals of tropical montane
paramos display striking adaptations to cool, wet
conditions and intense sunlight. Around the world,
characteristic plants of these habitats display
features such as rosette structures, waxy surfaces,
and abundant pilosity.
Afrotropical
thiopian Highlands [102] – Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Sudan
Geographic Location: Northeastern Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion spans the
largest area of land over 2,000 m elevation in
Africa, and contains a large number of
endemic species in all taxonomic groups.
ONE OF THE FEW MONTANE REGIONS
OF AFRICA WITH A HIGHLY
DISTINCTIVE BIOTA AT CONTINENTAL
SCALES
E
106
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
General Threats: Much of the ecoregion was
converted to tea plantations and other
agricultural uses some time ago. For the most
part, what remains of these forests has been
protected since the 1920s. However, present
day forest and woodland conversion to
agriculture is still of concern. Other threats
include firewood collection, wild fires, and
invasion by alien species.
numbers of endemic grassland plants it
supports, including areas of quartzite and
dolomite rock in the northwestern portion.
HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AMONG
PLANTS, AND REPTILES TO A LESSER
EXTENT DISTINGUISH THIS
ECOREGION’S BIOTA.
Selected Species: Bird species include Rudd’s lark
(Heteromirafa ruddi), Drakensberg siskin
(Serinus symonsi), orange-breasted
rockjumper (Chaetops aurantius) and blackcapped mountain babbler (Lioptilus
nigricapillus). Plant species include Festuca
caprina and several cycads, such as
Encephalartos natalensis. The Drakensberg
dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion
dracomontanum) and species such as the
spiny crag lizard (Pseudocordylus spinosus),
Soutspansberg rock lizard (Australolacerta
rupicola), Prickly Girdled Lizard
(Pseudocordyl us spinosus), and Cottrell’s
mountain lizard (Tropidosaura cottrelli) are
among the reptiles found nowhere else in the
world. Endemic amphibians include the mist
belt chirping frog (Arthroleptella
ngongoniensis) and aquatic river frog (Rana
vertebralis).
General Threats: Threats include conversion to
agriculture, timber extraction, fire, barkstripping of medicinal trees, soil erosion,
cattle-grazing, firewood collection,
aforestation with exotic trees, and
otherinvasive plants.
ast African Moorlands [104] – Democratic
Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya,
Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda
Geographic Location: Eastern Africa
Biodiversity Features: The montane grasslands of
East Africa represent a poorly protected and
rapidly declining habitat. These grasslands
support a remarkable diversity of plants, and
provide habitat for many unique bird species.
THESE INCLUDE SOME OF THE ONLY
EXAMPLES OF ALPINE MOORLANDS IN
AFRICA
Selected Species: Plant species include giant
groundsels (Dendro senecio) and lobelias
(Lobelia). Bird species include several
members of the Afromontane sunbirds; among
these are the Stuhlmann’s double-collared
sunbird (Nectarinia stuhlmanni), Regal
sunbird (Nectarinia regia) and Rockefeller’s
sunbird (Nectarinia rockefelleri).Other bird
species here include handsome francolin
(Francolinus nobilis), Archer’s robin-chat
(Cossypha archeri), and stripe-breasted tit
(Parus fasciiventer).
General Threats: Fire, grazing, and agriculture
threaten this ecoregion.
E
Australasia
C
entral Range Subalpine Grasslands
[106] – Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: Central New Guinea
Biodiversity Features: These disjunct meadow
habitats form a tiny ecoregion—the only
example of alpine shrublands in Australasia—
that surrounds the highest peaks of New
Guinea. Many unique plant, mammal, and bird
species are found only in these sensitive areas.
Today, approximately one-fifth of this fragile
ecoregion has been destroyed.
Selected Species: Endemic animals include two
mammals, a shrew mouse (Pseudohydromys
rakensberg Montane Shrublands and
Woodlands [105] – Lesotho, South Africa,
Swaziland
Geographic Location: Southern Africa
Biodiversity Features: These habitats occupy the
mid to upperelevations—exhibiting patterns
of regional altitudinal variation—of the
Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa,
Swaziland and Lesotho as well as the
Stormberg, Mount Andersson, and
Soutpansberg Mountains farther to the north.
The ecoregion is important for the large
D
107
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
murinus) and a rat (Rattus novaeguineae) in
addition to a number of birds: MacGregor’s
bird of paradise (Macgregoria pulchra),
Papuanb thornbill (Acanthiza murina), and
wattled ploughbill (Eulacestoma nigropectus).
General Threats: Much of this ecoregion remains
intact.
numerous endemic birds found here are
mountain serpent eagle (Spilornis
kinabaluensis), red-breasted partridge
(Arborophila hyperythra), and black-sided
flowerpecker (Dicaeum monticolum).
General Threats: Visitor pressure, absence of
buffer zones, which has led to the illegal
collecting of rare plants, lack of enforcement,
commercial logging encroachment, shifting
cultivation especially in the lower elevation of
western Kinabalu Park, and degazettement of
part of Kinabalu Park for mining and golf
course development.
Indo-Malayan
inabalu Montane Scrub [107] –
Malaysia
Geographic Location: Northeastern Borneo
Biodiversity Features: At 4,101 m, Mount
Kinabalu is the highest mountain in Southeast
Asia. It supports the greatest concentration of
wild orchids on earth, with more than 77
species in addition to more magnolia species
than in any comparable area. In total, there are
estimated to be over 4,500 species of vascular
plants in over 180 families with 950 genera.
Many of the rarest species are restricted to
ultramafic outcrops. The upper slopes harbor
tree-like species of rhododendron,
(Rhododendron buxifolium), heath
rhododendron (Rhododendron ericoides),
endemic pitcher plants, ferns, mosses, and
figs. The fauna is also rich, with 289 species
of birds (254 residents), 290 species of
butterflies and moths, 7 species of treeshrew
(including the endemic mountain treeshrew,
Tupaia montana), 28 of the 34 Bornean
species of squirrels, and over 90 lowland
mammal species. This ecoregion blends
higher elevation shrubland as well as lower
forests. THE ONLY ASIAN EXAMPLE OF
TROPICAL ALPINE SHRUBLANDS WITH
HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Species include orchids (family
Orchidaceae), pitcher plants (Nepenthes spp.),
and heath rhododendron (Rhododendron
ericoides). Mountain treeshrew (Tupaia
montana), grizzled leaf monkey (Presbytis
comata), Sunda otter-civet (Cynogale
bennettii), Whitehead's pigmy squirrel
(Exilisciurus whiteheadi), and the large
pencil-tailed tree mouse (Chiropodomys
major) are just a few of the characteristic
mammals of the ecoregion. Among the
K
Neotropical
orthern Andean Paramo [108] – Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northeastern South
America
Biodiversity Features: Paramo formations are
restricted to the high peaks and mountain
ranges of the tropics. Although paramo-like
formations occur on isolated peaks and ranges
in eastern and central Africa, in New Guinea,
and on Mt. Kinabalu in Borneo, this habitat
type is most extensive in the Neotropics.
Paramo plants and animals display remarkable
adaptations to the cold and dry conditions of
high elevations. Many species are restricted to
these habitats, and local endemism occurs in a
wide range of taxa, particularly on more
isolated peaks. THESE ARE THE RICHEST
AND LARGEST EXAMPLES OF
TROPICAL MONTANE GRASSLANDS
AND SHRUBLANDS IN THE WORLD,
WITH HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AT
REGIONAL AND LOCAL SCALES
General Threats: Frequent burning, grazing, the
development of forest plantations, and
conversion of habitats for agriculture threaten
Paramo formations in some areas.
Selected Species: Species include mountain tapir
(Tapirus pinchaque), spectacled bear
(Tremarctos ornatus), frailejon (Espeletia
spp.), and Tyrian metaltail hummingbird
(Metallura tyrianthina).
N
C
108
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
entral Andean Dry Puna [109] –
Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru
Geographic Location: Western South America
Biodiversity Features: Overall, this ecoregion
encompasses the south-central portion of the
Andes Mountains and is characterized by a
cold, dry climate. However, within this rather
course, general pattern the numerous
microclimates present provide the conditions
necessary to support a rich array of welladapted plants and animals. In particular,
numerous mammals are found here and
nowhere else. HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM, PARTICULARLY FOR
MAMMALS
Selected Species: Mammals found here include 14
endemics, a possum (Gracilinanus
aceramarcae), an armadillo (Chaetophractus
nationi), and chozchoz (Octodontomys
gliroides), the single species of the endemic
genus. Wider ranging species include South
American fox (Pseudalopex culpaeus),
guanaco (Lama guanicoe), and the deer,
Hippocamelus antisensis.
General Threats: Conversion of lands to
agriculture or for more extensive grazing may
be cause for concern in this ecoregion.
Palearctic
M
T
ibetan Plateau Steppe [110] –
Afghanistan, China, India, Pakistan,
Tajikistan
Geographic Location: High plateau north of the
Himalayas in Central Asia
Biodiversity Features: The Tibetan Plateau is
situated at the juncture of two zoogeographic
realms, the Palearctic and Oriental. Due to its
size and its position near the tropics, the
Tibetan Plateau is one of the most ecoloically
diverse alpine communities on Earth. Habitats
range from gravelly, wind-blown perilacial
environments to moist alpine pastures and
scrub.
THE TIBETAN PLATEAU INCLUDES THE
MOST INTACT EXAMPLE OF MONTANE
GRASSLANDS IN EURASIA WITH A
RELATIVELY INTACT VERTEBRATE
FAUNA, THE PLATEAU IS ALSO ONE OF
THE LARGEST REMAINING
TERRESTRIAL WILDERNESS AREAS ON
EARTH
Selected Species: The region has highfaunal
diversity. Many ungulate species are native to
the plateau, since its expanses are well-suited
to fleetfooted mammals that graze large areas.
These are abundant in some areas and reduced
in others, either as a result of hunting or
competition with domestic livestock. Species
include Tibetan antelope (Pantholops
hodgsoni), Tibetan wild ass (Equus
hemionus), wild yak (Bos grunniens), and
white-lipped deer (Cervus albirostris).
Predators include snow leopard (Panthera
uncia) and Tibetan sand fox (Vulpes
ferrilata). Other species, such as the wolf
(Canis lupis) and the Himalayan brownbear
(Ursus arctos) are considered threatened. The
Hume's ground jay (Pseudopodoces humili) is
one of many characteristic bird species. Large
raptors such as Himalayan griffon Gyps
himalayensis and lammergeier (Gypaetus
barbatus) also occur in the mountainous parts
of the Tibetan Plateau.
General Threats: Despite low population density,
hunting threatens many species of mammals
and large birds.
E
iddle Asian Montane Steppe and Woodlands
[111] – Afghanistan, China, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan
Geographic Location: Central Asia
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion is
comprised of the Tian Shan, Pamirs and other,
lesser mountain ranges. As is common in
mountain regions, altitudinal complexity leads
to the creation of isolated habitats and
associated species diversity. The most diverse
ecosystems are mixed forests and meadows
between 1000 and 3000 meters where up to 15
percent of the flora is endemic. Higher
mountain meadows possess remarkably high
insect diversity. THIS CENTRAL ASIAN
EXAMPLE OF A MONTANE GRASSLAND
EXHIBITS A HIGH LEVEL OF ENDEMISM
AND IS RECOGNIZED AS A CENTER OF
PLANT DIVERSITY
109
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Selected Species: Forests of walnut (Juglans
regia), and wild apple (Malus spp.) are found
in the mid-montane slopes. Spruce (Picea
schrenkiana) and juniper (Juniperus
turkestanica) forests also form unique biotic
communities. Grass species such as Festuca
valesiaca, Potentilla nervosa and Primula
algida dominate subalpine and alpine steppe.
Carex pachystylis¸ and Poa bulbosa, are found
on lowland grass savannas in the eastern Tian
Shan and Pamirs. Examples of mammal
species are snow leopard (Panthera unica),
Tian Shan brown bear (Ursus arctos
isabellinus), Siberia mountain goat (Capra
sibirica), Menzbier’s marmot (Marmota
menzbiere), markhor (Capra falconeri) and
Tian Shan argalis (Ovis argalis karelini).
Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos),
lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus), and ibisbill
(Ibidorhyncha struthersii) are some of the
avian residents of these mountainous lands.
General Threats: Water diversion projects,
deforestation, industrialization,and human
population expansion threaten the biodiversity
of this ecoregion, particularly at lower
elevations. In higher altitude zones, grazing is
of significant concern.
Numerous species of dwarf Rhododendron
occur here. These include Rhododendron
calciphila, R. crebriflorum, R. chryseum, R.
riparium, R. sanguineum, R. saluenense, and
many others. In eastern Nepal,
Rhododendron nivale, an aromatic species
with miniscule leaves, grows to elevations of
5000 m. Mammals of this region include snow
leopard (Panthera pardus), the endemic red
goral (Naemorhedusbaileyi), the endemic
squirrel (Petauristasp.), wolf (Canis lupis),
the dhole or Asiatic wild dog (Cuon alpinus).
Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus), and
red panda (Ailurus fulgens). These species are
characteristic of the subalpine elevations, but
may wander above treeline as well. Among
the numerous birds found in this ecoregion are
the yellow-backed sunbird (Aethopyga
nipalensis), redheaded trogon (Harpactes
erythrocephalus), Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia
superciliosa), and Impeyan Pheasant
(Lophophorus impejanus).
General Threats: The primary human activity in
the Eastern Himalayan alpine is livestock
grazing. Yaks, yak-cattle crosses, goats and
horses are present in most accessible places
that support adequate vegetation. Ecological
effects include competition for forage with
wild ungulates, fuelwood consumption,
especially when milk is made into cheese, and
hunting of predators like wolf and snow
leopard. Medicinal plant collection and
activities related to mountain tourism may
also have some local impact here.
astern Himalayan Alpine Meadows [112] –
Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal
Geographic Location: Mountains of South-Central
Eurasia
Biodiversity Features: The high elevation
meadow and shrub habitat of India, Nepal,
Bhutan, northern Myanmar and China
supports a high diversity of species.
Taxanomic groups that are especially speciesrich include birds, butterflies and plants, many
of which are rare or endemic. THE
MOUNTAINS OF THE EASTERN
HIMALAYA SUPPORT ONE OF THE
WORLD’S RICHEST ALPINE FLORAS
WITH HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Endemic plant species known
from the alpine meadows of the region include
Lactuca cooperi and Juncus sikkimensis, both
of which are threatened. Ground orchids are
an important part of the flora, and many of
these are collected as medicinal species.
Tundra
Extreme northern latitudes support vast frozen
plains; numerous lakes and small streams also
characterize these landscapes. Structurally, the
Tundra is a treeless expanse that supports
communities of sedges and heaths as well as
dwarf shrubs. Vegetation is generally scattered,
although it can be patchy reflecting changes in soil
and moisture gradients. Most precipitation falls in
the form of snow during the winter while soils
110
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
tend to be acidic and saturated with water where
not frozen.
Geographic Location: Northern North America
Biodiversity Features: This region contains
excellent habitat for waterfowl; in fact, many
species of birds depend on these habitats for
the majority, if not all, of their nesting habitat.
These include much of the world’s population
of lesser and greater snow geese (Chen
caerulescens), Red-throated loon (Gavia
stellata), Canada geese (Branta canadensis),
and others. Flowering herbaceous plants,
many restricted to these habitats, brighten the
tundra in summer. ONE OF THE LARGEST
AND MOST OUTSTANDING EXAMPLES
OF ARCTIC TUNDRA IN NORTH
AMERICA
Selected Species: Most of the ecoregion is
characterized by a continuous cover of
shrubby tundra vegetation. Tundra-forest
transitional areas include black spruce (Picea
mariana), white spruce (P. glauca), tamarack
(Larix laricina), dwarf birch (Betula sp.),
willow (Salix spp.), heath species, and many
lichen species. Barren-ground caribou
(Rangifer tarandus), grizzly bears (Ursus
arctos), polar bear (Ursus maritimus), arctic
fox (Alopex lagopus), moose (Alces alces),
Arctic ground squirrel (Spermophilus parryii),
river otters (Lontra canadensis), least weasels
(Mustela nivalis), and brown lemming
(Lemmus trimucronatus) are other mammals
typically found in this ecoregion. Bird species
characteristic of the area include snowy owls
(Nyctea scandiaca), Rock Ptarmigan (Lagopus
mutus), Red-necked phalarope (Phalaropus
lobatus), and Hoary redpoll (Carduelis
hornemanni).
General Threats: Tourism, oil and gas
exploration, and pollution are threats to the
biodiversity in this ecoregion.
C
Nearctic
laskan North Slope Coastal Tundra
[113] – Canada, United States
Geographic Location: Northeastern North
America
Biodiversity Features: Because of the harsh,
northern latitude, mountainous climate and
terrain of the North Slope of the Brooks
Range, vegetation cover is sparse, and
restricted largely to valleys and lower slopes.
Nevertheless, this region supports numerous
species of rare plants; particularly many dwarf
varieties and shrubs. The Porcupine caribou
(Rangifer tarandus granti) herd breeds here,
one of North America’s largest. ONE OF THE
WORLD’S MOST INTACT AND DIVERSE
EXAMPLES OF ARCTIC TUNDRA, MANY
OUTSTANDING LARGE-SCALE
ECOLOGICAL PHENOMENA STILL
RELATIVELY INTACT
Selected Species: The shrubby tundra vegetation
found here consists of dwarf birch (Betula sp.),
willow (Salix spp.), northern Labrador tea
(Ledum groenlandicum), and a nearly
continuous cover of mosses on wet soils. These
include Aulacomnium, and Ditrichum.
Mammal species include polar bear (Ursus
maritimus), grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), Dall
sheep (Ovis dalli), caribou (Rangifer
tarandus), snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus),
red fox (Vulpes fulva) and brown and collared
lemmings (Lemmus trimucronatus, and
Dicrostonyx groenlandicus respectively).
Among the bird species found in this
ecoregion are Smith's longspur (Calcarius
pictus), bluethroat (Luscinia svecica), snowy
owl (Nyctea scandiaca), gyrfalcons (Falco
rusticolus), peregrine falcons (Falco
peregrinus), and rough-legged hawks (Buteo
lagopus).
General Threats: Development for oil seriously
threatens the ecological integrity of this
ecoregion.
A
Palearctic
enno-Scandia Alpine Tundra and Taiga [115] –
Finland, Norway, Russia, Sweden
Geographic Location: Northern Europe
Biodiversity Features: Some of the most
rugged terrain in all of Europe is located in
this ecoregion as the mountains have been
deeply gouged by glaciers and numerous
F
anadian Low Arctic Tundra [114] – Canada
111
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
rivers. The ecoregion also contains rolling
meadows, birch and pine forests, extensive
wetlands and heathlands. The array of diverse
habitats supports an unusual variety of flora
and fauna for this latitude. Rivers of the Kola
Peninsula provide valuable spawning habitat
for native salmon. Dense bird colonies are
common along the coast and on nearby
islands. The ecoregion includes a large
number of protected areas that are linked
across international boundaries.
Inaccessibility offers additional protection to
rare plants and larger predators. SOME OF
THE MOST INTACT HABITATS IN
EUROPE, CONTAINING AN UNUSUALLY
HIGH DIVERSITY OF PLANTS FOR SUCH
HIGH LATITUDES
Selected Species: Characteristic fauna include
widespread species such as lynx (Lynx lynx),
red fox (Vulpes vulpes), reindeer (Rangifer
tarandus), bear (Ursus arctos), and muskox
(Ovibos moschatus). Golden plover (Pluvialis
apricaria), lapland bunting (Calcarius
lapponicus), common scoter (Melanitta
nigra), and rough-legged buzzard (Buteo
lagopus) are examples of birds found in the
region. Representative plants include
Rhododendron lapponicum, Lotus
corniculatus, Gentiana purpurea, Papaver
radicatum, Artemisia norvegica and northern
beech fern (Dryopteris phegopteris). Many of
the lakes support plentiful populations of
Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus).
General Threats: Petroleum development, logging
and tourism all have negative effects in this
ecoregion. Climate change could increasingly
threaten the integrity of habitats.
areas for approximately 50 bird species, of
which nine are endangered. The region's
freshwater systems support nearly 60 species
of fish and are important spawning grounds
for certain species. THE HOME OF THE
LARGEST MIGRATING HERD OF WILD
REINDEER AND A NESTING GROUND
FOR NUMEROUS SPECIES OF
WATERFOWL
Selected Species: Large mammals include reindeer
(Rangifer tarandus), polar bear (Thalarctos
maritimus), walrus (Odobenus rosmarus
laptevi), and wolf (Canis lupis). Bean goose
(Anser fabalis), red breasted goose
(Rubibrenta ruficollis), lesser white-fronted
goose (Anser erythropus), gyrfalcon (Falco
rusticolus), and Bewick's swan (Cygnus
bewickii) are listed in Russia’s Red Book.
General Threats: While much of the Arctic
remains intact, mining, heavy industry,
nuclear power plants, and air pollution
threaten certain locations. Climate change
could increasingly threaten the integrity of
habitats.
hukote Coastal Tundra [117] – Russia
Geographic Location: Northeastern corner of
Eurasia
Biodiversity Features: Adjacent to sunken
Berengia, the Chukote Peninsula has
functioned as a distribution center for a
significant amount of arctic flora and fauna.
Nowadays, both Chukotka and the Alaskan
tundra exhibit higher species richness and
abundance than adjacent tundras to the east
and west. In Chukotka alone, approximately
50 plants are considered Berengian endemics.
The ecoregion represents the westernmost
limit of distribution for many North American
species. SPECIES RICH TUNDRA WITH
BERENGIAN RELICTS OF ASIATIC AND
AMERICAN ORIGIN.
Selected Species: There is an abundance of
common arctic mammals such as polar bear
(Thalarctos maritimus), wolf (Canis lupis),
Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus
divergens), and Arctic fox (Alopex lagopus).
Seabird colonies of crested auklet (Aethia
cristatella), least auklet (A. pusilla) and
C
T
aimyr and Siberian Coastal Tundra
[116] – Russia
Geographic Location: Central region of north
coast of Eurasia, including the Yamal and
Gydan peninsulas
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains a
wide range of montane and coastal tundra
habitats in relatively intact condition. The
largest migrating herd of wild reindeer
(Rangifer tarandus) in Asia is contained
within this ecoregion. It also provides nesting
112
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Parakeet auklet (Cyclorrhynchus psittacula),
populate the coastline along with spoon-billed
sandpiper (Eurynorhynchus pygmeus), horned
and tufted puffin (Fratercula corniculata and
Lunda cirrhata) on the shores. Examples of
rare endemic plants in the Russian Red Book
include Artemisia senjavinensis, Cardamine
sphenophylla, and Arabidopsis
tschuktschorum.
General Threats: The region suffers from
increasing exploitation of wildlife in addition
to industrial development. The growing
demand for eggs of rare birds by collectors
now threatens several endangered species.
Climate change could increasingly threaten
the integrity of habitats. At this time, there are
no existing protected areas on the peninsula.
THE WORLD, THIS ECOREGION
HARBORS EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH
PLANT ENDEMISM IN BOTH SPECIES &
GENERA AS WELL AS HIGH BETA
DIVERSITY. GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING
RADIATIONS IN SEVERAL PLANT TAXA
Selected Species: Among the thousands of
impressive plant species found here are the
marsh rose (Oromthamnus zeyheri), king
protea (Protea cynaroides), pincushion protea
(Leucospermum cordifolium), Amaryllis
belladona, Gladiolus pillansii, Erica
thunbergii, Tritoniopsis burchellii, Aulax
cancellata, Mimetes splendidus, Nebelia
sphaerocephala, and Cyrtanthus flammosus.
Recently discovered plants include such
species as Mimetes chrysanthus and
Leucadendron eucalyptifolium. A number of
restioids, or ancient forerunners to today’s
true grasses, are characteristic of fynbos,
including Chondrophetalum tectorum,
Askidiosperma nitidum, and Anthochortus
crinalis. The region supports a diverse array
of frogs and other amphibians, including
several sensitive species: the endangered
Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne
rosei), the vulnerable Cape rain frog
(Breviceps gibbosus), the restricted Cape caco
(Cacosternum capense), and the Cape
platanna (Xenops gilli). Cape sugarbird
(Promerops cafer), orange-breasted sunbird
(Nectarinia violacea), and Cape francolin
(Francolinus capensis) are among the birds
found in this ecoregion. Mammal species
include a number of endemics, such as
bontebok (Damaliscus dorcasdorcas),
grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis), plus two
species of Cape golden moles, Chrysochloris
asiatica and C. visagiei. Endemic reptiles
include the rare geometric tortoise
(Psammobates tentorius), southern adder
(Bitis armata), Cape rock gecko (Afroedura
hawequensis), black birded lizard (Cordylus
niger), and small-scaled leaf-toed gecko
(Goggia microlepidota).
General Threats: This area has been heavily
settled for several centuries, and large areas of
natural vegetation, particularly in the
lowlands, have been cleared for agriculture
and urban development. Invasive alien
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and
Scrub
Mediterranean Forests, Woodlands, and Scrub
ecoregions are characterized by hot and dry
summers, while winters tend to be cool and moist.
Most precipitation arrives during these months.
This combination has led to the development of
vegetation in each of the ecoregions that is very
similar in the structural characteristics: broadleaf
evergreen shrubs and and dwarf trees. Associated
with these plants is an herbaceous understory. Fire
is a frequent visitor to these MHTs, thus, most
plants are adapted to, or even dependent on, this
disturbance for their persistence.
Afrotropical
ynbos [118] – South Africa
Geographic Location: Southern tip of Africa
Biodiversity Features: Recognized as one of the
botanical kingdoms of the world, the Fynbos
region of South Africa has a richer flora than
any other area of comparable size in Africa.
There are an estimated 8,500 species of
vascular plants found here, of which 70
percent are endemic. ONE OF ONLY FIVE
MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLANDS IN
F
113
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
species, both plant and animal, together with
altered fire regimes, pose great threats to this
ecoregion.
just a few of the birds in this ecoregion.
Members of the endemic herpetofauna of this
ecoregion include species such as many-eyed
gecko (Diplodactylus polyophthalmus), keelscaled skink (Ergernia pulchra), purple blind
snake (Ramphotyphlops leptosoma),
slender treefrog (Litoria adelaidensis),
swamp burrowing frog (Heleioporus
inornatus), and Nicholls' toadlet (Metacrinia
nichollsi). Mammals with restricted ranges
include Ningaui yvonnae and banded harewallaby (Lagostrophus fasciatus), plus a
number of other species with wider
distributions: numbat (Myrmecobius
fasciatus), red-tailed phascogale (Phascogale
calura), and honey possum (Tarsipes
rostratus).
General Threats: Unsustainable logging,
expansion of agricultural clearing,
overgrazing, weeds and feral animals, burning
and altered fire regimes, urban development,
introduced plant species and diseases
(Phytophthora fungus) are major threats.
Australasia
outhwestern Australia Forests and Scrub
[119] – Australia
Geographic Location: Southwestern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Like Chilean matorral,
South African fynbos, or Californian
chaparral, habitats in southwestern Australia
enjoy a Mediterranean climate, with mild
temperatures, winter rain, and summer
drought. Combined with well-drained,
generally sandy soils, these conditions give
rise to rare plant and animal communities.
Among the Mediterranean shrublands
worldwide, those in southwestern Australia
support the second richest plant communities,
next to the extremely rich Fynbos of southern
Africa. This botanical province also contains
other forest, woodland, and heath
communities of very high botanical diversity
and endemism, including approximately 5,500
vascular plants, of which approximately 68
percent are endemics. TOGETHER WITH
THE SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA
ECOREGION, ONE OF ONLY FIVE
MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLAND
COMPLEXES IN THE WORLD, WHICH
COLLECTIVELY HARBOR 20% OF THE
EARTH’S PLANT SPECIES, HIGH
ENDEMISM AT SPECIES & GENERA
LEVELS, HIGH BETA DIVERSITY, THE
ONLY MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLANDS
IN AUSTRALIA
Selected Species: Characteristic tree species
include bushy yate (Eucalyptus lehmannii),
jarrah (E. marginata), red flowered mallee (E.
erythronema), and many others. Other plant
species include Albany pitcher plant
(Cephalotus follicularis), blue china orchid
(Caladenia gemmata), and many-flowered
fringed lily (Thysanotus multiflorus). Redwinged wren (Malurus elegans), splendid
fairywren (M. splendens), singing honeyeater
(Lichenostomus virescens), and the endemic
noisy scrub bird (Atrichornis clamosus) are
S
S
outhern Australia Mallee and Woodlands
[120] - Australia
Geographic Location: Southern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Together with the southern
Australia ecoregion, one of only five
Mediterranean shrubland complexes in the
world. Although not as rich as the nearby
Mediterranean shrublands in southwestern
Australia, these woodlands are extremely
diverse, supporting an array of plant and
animal wealth. Native plant communities
include those dominated by mallee
(Eucalyptus diversitfolia) that are distributed
along coastal dunes and swampy areas
dominated by species of Gahnia.
COMPRISING A PORTION OF ONE OF
THE FIVE MEDITERANNEAN
SHRUBLAND COMPLEXES IN THE
WORLD, THIS ECOREGION IS AN
IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTOR TO
WORLDWIDE PLANT DIVERSITY. IT IS
ALSO RELATIVELY HIGH IN SPECIES
RICHNESS FOR A NUMBER OF ANIMAL
TAXA, INCLUDING MAMMALS AND
REPTILES
114
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Selected Species: Dominant plants include mallee
(Eucalyptus diversitfolia), Melaleuca
lanceolata, and Hakea rugosa in addition to
numerous herbaceous species such as morning
flag (Orthrosanthus multiformis), desert
baeckea (Baeckea crassifolia), and silvery
phebalium (Pheballium bullatum). Birds
found in this ecoregion are numerous; among
those with the smallest ranges are beautiful
firetail (Stagonopleura bella), skylark (Alauda
arvensis), little raven (Corvus mellori),
Gilbert’s whistler (Pachycephala inornata),
and the endemic red-lored whistler (P.
rufogularis).
General Threats: Much of the native vegetation in
this ecoregion has been cleared for agriculture
or for grazing. Today portions of the
ecoregion are managed for commercial
forestry including some public lands.
flora of this ecoregion includes tree species
such as gray or foothill pine (Pinus sabiniana),
scrub oak (Quercus dumosa), California
buckeye (Aesculus californica), the rare Gowen
cypress (Cupressus goveniana), the rare
Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa),
and a wealth of endemic plant species,
including the extremely rare San Gabriel
Mountain liveforever (Dudlea densiflora),
Catalina mahogany (Cercocarpus traskiae)
and the threatened most beautiful jewelflower (Streptanthus albidus ssp.
Peramoenus)
General Threats: Threats involve the
establishment of exotic species, overgrazing
by cattle, and disruption of the natural fire
regime.
Nearctic
hilean Matorral [122] – Chile
Geographic Location: Southwestern South
America
Biodiversity Features: The Chilean matorral
represents the only Mediterranean scrub
ecoregion in all of South America, and one of
only five such ecosystems in the world. High
levels of species richness, and regional and
local endemism, particularly among plants
characterize the plant and animal life. ONE
OF ONLY FIVE MEDITERRANEAN
SHRUBLANDS IN THE WORLD, WHICH
COLLECTIVELY HARBOR 20% OF THE
EARTH’S PLANT SPECIES, HIGH
ENDEMISM AT SPECIES & GENERA
LEVELS, THE ONLY MEDITERRANEAN
SHRUBLAND IN SOUTH AMERICA
Selected Species: Plant species include the cactus
Trichocereus litoralis, four endemic tree
genera (Gomortega, Jubaea, Legrandia,
Pitavia), and one endemic tree family
(Gomortegaceae), as well as members of the
Nothofagus genus, the southern beeches.
Numerous other endemic plant genera include
Pitavia, Valdivia, Gomortega, Tetilla,
Lardizabala, and Latua. Jubea is a monotypic
endemic genus containing Jubea chilensis, the
huge and locally distributed Chilean palm.
Mammals include 5 endemic rodents, as well
C
alifornia Chaparral and Woodlands [121] –
Mexico, United States
Geographic Location: Southwestern North
America
Biodiversity Features: California coastal sage, or
chaparral, is one of the most endangered
ecosystems in North America. Development
along the increasingly crowded seashore
threatens to destroy this rare habitat. THIS
ECOREGION IS ONE OF THE FIVE
MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLANDS,
WHICH TOGETHER, HARBOR 20% OF
THE EARTH’S PLANT SPECIES. HIGH
ENDEMISM AT SPECIES & GENERA
LEVELS, HIGH BETA DIVERSITY, THE
ONLY MEDITERRANEAN SHRUBLAND
IN NORTH AMERICA
Selected Species: Species include the endangered
California gnatcatcher (Polioptila
californica), Costa’s hummingbird (Calypte
costae), coast horned lizard (Phrynosoma
coronatum), and rosy boa (Lichanura
trivirgata). Other animals found here are the
endangered Heermann kangaroo rat
(Dipodomys heermani), Santa Cruz kangaroo
rat (Dipodomys venustus), and white-eared
pocket mouse (Perognathus alticolus). The
Neotropical
C
115
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
as the mouse opossum, Marmosa elegans.
Birds include 15 endemics, 3 in the family
Rhinocryptidae. There are also numerous
lizards of the Liolaemus genus, the south
american swifts.
General Threats: The ecoregion is threatened by
conversion for agriculture, pasture, and
development, frequent anthropogenic fires,
exotic species, and grazing.
endangered. They include leopard (Panthera
pardus), endemic Maghreb deer (Cervus
elaphus barbaricus) macaque (Macaca
sylvanus), Iberian lynx (Lynx pardina), bear
(Ursus arctos), wolf (Canis lupus), Spanish
ibex (Capra pyrenaica) and Barbary sheep
(Ammotragus lervia). Bird species include
white-breasted kingfisher (Halcyon
smyrnensis), Bonelli’s eagle (Hieraaeutus
pennatus), long-legged buzzard (Buteo
rufinus), lesser short-toed lark (Calandrella
rufescens), rufous bush robin (Cercotrichas
glactotes), Moussier’s redstart (Phoenicurus
moussieri), black wheatear (Oenanthe
leucura), scrub warbler (Scotocerca inquieta),
fan-tailed warbler (Cisticola juncidis), olivetree warbler (Hippolais pallida), laurel pigeon
(Columba junoniae) and spectacled warbler
(Sylvia conspicillata). Reptiles include
banded lizard-fingered gecko (Saurodactylus
fasciatus), Mediterranean worm lizard (Blanus
mettetali), and Andreansky’s lizard (Lacerta
andreanskyi).
General Threats: Most natural communities have
been degraded or permanently altered
throughout the Mediterranean basin. The
ecoregion is threatened by continuing
conversion to agriculture, pasture, and urban
areas. Frequent fires, logging of remaining
native woodlands, exotic species, and
intensive grazing are also threats.
Palearctic
editerranean Forests, Woodlands,
and Scrub [123] – Albania, Algeria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Canary
Islands (Spain), Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt,
France, Gibraltar (U.K.), Greece, Iraq, Israel,
Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Macedonia,
Madeira Islands (Portugal), Malta, Monaco,
Morocco, Portugal, San Marino, Slovenia,
Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Western Sahara
(Morocco), Yugoslavia
Geographic Location: Southern Europe, Northern
Africa, western Near East and Asia Minor
Biodiversity Features: Known as the cradle of
civilization, the Mediterranean region has
been subject to ecosystem degradation for
millennia. Yet the region retains its biological
significance due to a high level of plant
endemism and the occurrence of many relict
species, especially along the coasts. The
variety of flora is estimated at over 25,000
species, of which over half are endemic.
Turkey and Greece still contain a large
proportion of endemic plants. The Atlas
mountian chain in Morocco is also noted for
its high number of endemic plants. AN
IMPRESSIVE DIVERSITY OF VASCULAR
PLANTS, INCLUDING 13,000 ENDEMICS,
GROW IN THESE LANDSCAPES
SURROUNDING THE MEDITERRANEAN
SEA.
Selected Species: Habitats throughout the
ecoregion support numerous endemic plants:
Polygonum idaeum, found on limestone
mountains, the grazing-resistant Verbascum
spinosum, the monotypic Petramarula
pinnata, and the relict species Jankaea
heldreichei and Arabis josiae. Most large
mammals within the region are considered
M
Deserts and Xeric Shrublands
Worldwide Deserts and Xeric Shrublands vary
greatly in the amount of annual rainfall they
receive; however, generally evaporation exceeds
the total amount rainfall in these regions.
Temperature variability is also extremely diverse
in these remarkable lands. Not surprisingly, the
diversity of climatic conditions—though quite
harsh—supports a rich diversity of habitats. Many
of these habitats are ephemeral in nature—
reflecting the paucity and seasonality of available
water.
Woody-stemmed shrubs and plants characterize
vegetation in these regions. Above all, these plants
have evolved to minimize water loss. Animal
116
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
biodiversity is equally well-adapted and quite
diverse.
result from unsustainable groundwater
extraction and alteration of surface/subsurface
flow in the Namib for town development and
dam construction; mining; and illegal
extraction of selected succulents for black
market trade. Taken together, these pose a
suite of threats to the biodiversity of this
ecoregion.
Afrotropical
amib-Karoo-Kaokeveld Deserts [124] – Angola,
Namibia, South Africa
Geographic Location: Southern Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes the
semi-desert vegetation of the Nama and
Succulent Karoo, as well as the Namib and
Kaokoveld deserts. These two zones support
roughly 5,000 plant species, of which about a
third are endemic. This includes the highest
diversity of succulent plants in the world.
VERY DISTINCTIVE AND
FLORISTICALLY RICH DESERT
ECOREGION OF AFRICA, WITH HIGHLY
DIVERSE COMMUNITIES AND PALEOENDEMICS.
Selected Species: Species include the primitive
plant welwitschia (Welwitschia mirabilis),
and an extraordinary diversity of succulent
plant species, including the illegally traded
kokerboom (Aloe dichotoma) and halfmens
(Pachypodium namaquanum). Mammals
include mountain zebra (Equus zebra), shorteared elephant shrew (Macroscelides
proboscideus), and desert golden mole
(Eremitalpa granti). Birds include Karoo
bustard (Eupodotis vigorsii), Ludwig’s
bustard (Neotis ludwigii), Karoo chat
(Cercomela schlegelii), dune lark
(Certhilauda erythrochlamys), and dusky
sunbird (Nectarinia fusca). Reptiles include
Karoo dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion
karrooicum), rough thick-toed gecko
(Pachydactylus rugosus), Karoo sand snake
(Psammophis notostictus), coral snake
(Aspidelaps lubricus),and Péringuey’s adder
(Bitis peringueyi). Amphibians include
Namaqua caco (Cacosternum namaquense)
and desert rain frog (Breviceps macrops).
General Threats: Poor land management has
resulted in the conversion of marginal lands
for cultivation, and ostrich, goat, cattle, and
sheep ranching in the Karoo. Goat and cattle
ranching, especially when overstocking
occurs, is particularly problematic in the
Namib. A number of other land use problems
N
adagascar Spiny Thicket [125] –
Madagascar
Geographic Location: Southern and southwestern
Madagascar
Biodiversity Features: The South and
southwestern portions of Madagascar contain
an extraordinary vegetation formation of
succulent and spiny plants in a semi-arid
environment. Members of an endemic family,
the Didiereaceae, dominate this highly
distinctive area. GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE
ECOREGION WITH HIGH ENDEMISM AT
SPECIES, GENERA, AND FAMILY
LEVELS, HIGH LEVELS OF LOCAL
ENDEMISM AND BETA DIVERSITY,
UNIQUE COMMUNITY STRUCTURE,
THE ONLY XERIC ECOSYSTEMS IN
MADAGASCAR, BIOGEOGRAPHICALLY
THE SEVENTH CONTINENT
Selected Species: Endemic birds include
Verreaux’s coua (Coua verreauxi), running
coua (C. cursor), Lefresnaye’s vanga
(Xenopirostris xenopirostris), and long-tailed
ground roller (Uratelornis chimaera). Spider
tortoise (Pyxis arachnoides), radiated tortoise
(Geochelone radiata), and Charlarodon
madagascariensis are a few of the endemic
reptiles. Characteristic mammals include ringtailed lemur (Lemur catta), white-footed
sportive lemur (Lepilemur leucopus),
Verreaux’s sifaka (Propithecus verreauxi
verreauxi), and the recently described
Grandidier’s mongoose (Galidictis
grandidiensis). Characteristic plant species
include Pachypodium geayi, Euphorbia
alluaudia, Xerosicyos danguyi, Alluaudia
procera, A. comosa, and the monotypic
Decaryia madagascariensis. Spectacular
members of the endemic Didiereaceae include
the octopus tree (Didierea madagascariensis),
M
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
as well as Songo be (Alluaudia ascendens),
which can reach heights of 15 m.
General Threats: The principle threats to
Madagascar's biodiversity come from the
small-scale, but widespread clearance of
habitats, primarily for firewood and charcoal
production. Secondary threats are posed by
subsistence agriculture, livestock grazing, and
invasive species. Despite some recent
improvements, Madagascar's protected area
system does not yet encompass all of the
country's critical sites.
of the habitat. Overgrazing by goats,
fuelwood cutting, and potential new
development projects threaten the native
biota.
rabian Highland Woodlands and
Shrublands [127] – Oman, Saudi Arabia,
United Arab Emirates, Yemen
Geographic Location: Arabian Peninsula
Biodiversity Features: This region includes fog
woodlands of the Jabals Qamar, Qara, and
Samhan. These islands of moisture attract a
greater number of species than the
surrounding deserts. The southwestern
highlands are an important stopover site for
migrating birds. A UNIQUE EXAMPLE OF
ARABIAN FOG WOODLANDS THAT
SUPPORTS HIGH LEVELS OF
BIODIVERSITY AND PROVIDES AN
IMPORTANT STOPOVER SITE FOR
MIGRATING BIRDS
Selected Species: Notable species include endemic
Arabian tahr (Hemitragus jayakari), Arabian
gazelle (Gazella gazella), Nubian ibex (Capra
ibex nubiana), striped hyena (Hyaena
hyaena), wild cat (Felis sylvestris), and
leopard (Panthera pardus). Although Arabian
oryx (Oryx leucoryx) is extinct in the wild,
there are efforts to reintroduce it to the region.
Representative bird species include yellowvented bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthopygos),
graceful warbler (Prinia gracilis), brown
woodland warbler (Phylloscopus
umbrovirens), Yemen linnet (Carduelis
yemenensis), Gambage dusky flycatcher
(Muscicapa gambagae), Arabian partridge
(Alectoris melanocephalia) and black kite
(Milvus migrans)
General Threats: Major threats include
overgrazing by cattle, deforestation for fodder,
timber, and firewood, off-road vehicle use on
the coastal plain and in the mountains, and
human population growth.
A
ocotra Island Desert [126] – Yemen
Geographic Location: Island off the Northeast
coast of Africa (Horn of Africa)
Biodiversity Features: The island of Socotra is an
important site of local endemism for reptiles,
plants, and birds. Noted for its botanical
uniqueness, the island has approximately 215
endemic species of plants, 85 of which are
nearly extinct. DISTINCTIVE INSULAR
DESERT BIOTA WITH MANY ENDEMICS
AND RELICT SPECIES
Selected Species: Socotra houses many unusual
plants, including the Socotran pomegranate
(Punica protopunica) and the cucumber tree
(Dendrosicyos), the only representative of
Cucurbitaceae known to grow as a tree. For
centuries the island has been noted for its
aloes as well as “dragon’s blood,” a brilliant
red resin extracted from the endemic dragon
tree (Dracaena cinnabari). The island is also
home to nine endemic plant genera , including
Ballochia, Trichocalyx, Duvaliandra,
Socotranthus, Haya, Lachnocapsa,
Dendrosicyos, Placoda, and Nirarathamnos.
Some animals of note include Socotra leaftoed gecko (Hemidactylus forbesii),
Guichard's rock gecko (Pristurus guichardi),
Blanford's rock gecko (P. insignis), and
Socotra rock gecko (P. sokotranus). The
island is also home to six endemic bird
species, including island cisticola (Cisticola
haesitatus) and Socotra bunting (Emberiza
socotrana). There are no amphibians on the
island.
General Threats: A long history of settlement has
given people ample of time to degrade much
S
Australasia
C
118
arnavon Xeric Scrub [128] – Australia
Geographic Location: Western Australia
Selection Criteria & Distinguishing
Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Features: Habitats in this ecoregion support a
vast diversity of species adapted to the harsh
desert conditions. High levels of species
richness and endemism are prevalent in a
number of taxa, particularly for birds and
reptiles. A number of localized centers of
endemism are present in the ecoregion as well.
Perhaps first among these are the Cape Range
caves and gorges—an extensive area of karst
topography—home to over 400 caves that
support numerous unique plants and animals.
RICH DESERT FLORA AND FAUNA,
PARTICULARLY FOR BIRDS AND
REPTILES, WITH HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM. INCLUDES MANY LOCAL
ENDEMICS.
Selected Species: Mammal species whose entire
ranges are restricted to this xeric ecoregion
include red-eared antechinus (Dasykaluta
rosamondae), Wongai ningaui (Ningaui ridei),
and the banded hare-wallaby (Lagostrophus
fasciatus). The endangered burrowing bettong
(Bettongia lesueur), the vulnerable blackfooted rock-wallaby (Petrogale lateralis) and
ghost bat (Macroderma gigas), northern
mastiff-bat (Chaerephon jobensis), Hill's
sheathtail-bat (Taphozous hilli), common
planigale (Planigale maculata), and common
wallaroo (Macropus robustus) are some of the
numerous other mammals found here. Rock
parrot (Neophema petrophila), red-tailed
black-cockatoo (Calyptorhynchus banksii),
pallid cuckoo (Cuculus pallidus), tawny
frogmouth (Podargus strigoides), sacred
kingfisher (Todirhamphus sanctus), rainbow
bee-eater (Merops ornatus), and chestnutrumped thornbill (Acanthiza uropygialis) are
just a few of the many birds supported by the
habitats of this ecoregion. They also support a
tremendous diversity of reptile species,
including a number of species found nowhere
else, such as spinifex gecko (Diplodactylus
savagei), Wombey's gecko (Diplodactylus
wombeyi), beaked legless lizard (Aprasia
rostrata), elegant scalyfoot (Delma elegans),
black-striped legless lizard (Pletholax
gracilis), Australian striped ctenotus
(Ctenotus australis), and Pilbara red skink
(Egernia pilbarensis). Relatively few
amphibian species persist here; some of those
that do are the desert Treefrog (Litoria
rubella), the endemic blotched toadlet
(Uperoleia glandulosa), trilling frog
(Neobatrachus centralis), and orange-crowned
toadlet (Pseudophryne occidentalis).
General Threats: Habitat degradation related to
cattle and sheep grazing is the most prevalent
threat to this ecoregion. Mining is also
problematic in portions of the ecoregion. A
number of potential threats include the spread
of invasive plant species and feral animals,
such as cats and goats, particularly on some of
the nearby offshore islands.
reat Sandy-Tanami Deserts [129] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Northwestern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Despite its name and its
dramatic, remarkably parallel linear sand
dunes, Australia's Northwestern sandy desert
is actually slightly wetter than the central part
of the country. The northwestern desert
supports many unique plant and animals
species specially adapted to the hazardous
conditions. These deserts support the richest
lizard communities in the world, with many
regional endemic reptiles and amphibians.
THE RICHEST DESERTS IN AUSTRALIA,
THESE AREAS EXHIBIT HIGH LEVELS
OF LOCAL ENDEMISM. IN ADDITION,
THESE HABITATS SUPPORT THE
RICHEST DESERT REPTILE FAUNA IN
THE WORLD
Selected Species: Livistonia palm is one of the
spectacular xeric adapted plant species in this
region. Among the numerous species of
reptiles found here are desert cave gecko
(Heteronotia spelea), desert death adder
(Acanthophis pyrrhus), the woma (Aspidites
ramsayi), and the endemic red dragon
(Ctenophorus rufescens). A number of
mammals survive here, including red
kangaroo (Macropus rufus), the endemic little
red antechinus (Dasykaluta rosamondae),
marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), and
bilby (Macrotis lagotis). Birds include emu
(Dromaius novaehollandiae), budgerigar
(Melopsittacus undulatus), white-fronted
honeyeater (Phylidonyris albifrons),
G
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
variegated fairywren (Malurus lamberti), redbacked kingfisher (Todirhamphus
pyrrhopygia), and Port Lincoln parrot
(Barnardius zonarius). Desert treefrog
(Litoria rubella), sandy burrowing frog
(Limnodynastes spenceri), and desert
spadefoot toad (Notaden nichollsi) are able to
withstand the harsh conditions of this arid
climate.
General Threats: Fire management, feral animals,
and overgrazing pose threats to this ecoregion.
black-tailed gnatcatcher (Polioptila melanura),
phainopepla (Phainopepla nitens), Gila
woodpecker (Melanerpes uropygialis), Costa’s
hummingbird (Calypte costae), five-striped
sparrow (Aimophila quinquestriata), and
rufous-winged sparrow (Aimophila carpalis).
The threatened desert tortoise (Gopherus
agassizii), the giant Gila monster (Heloderma
suspectum), and tiger salamander (Ambystoma
tigrinum) comprise a small portion of unusual
herpetofauna found in the ecoregion.
General Threats: Irrigation, cattle ranching,
fuelwood extraction, intensive recreational
use, introduced species, and exploitation
of wildlife and plants by hunters and
collectors threaten the region.
Nearctic
onoran-Baja Deserts [130] – Mexico, United
States
Geographic Location: Southwestern North
America & Baja Peninsula
Biodiversity Features: The cactus scrub
communities of the northern Sonoran desert
have some of the most diverse and unusual
desert plants and animals in the world. Forests
of giant cacti are notable here and are
associated with a rich variety of plant and
animal species. NEOTROPICAL DESERTS
WITH HIGH ENDEMISM AT SPECIES
AND HIGHER TAXONOMIC LEVELS
AND GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE
COMMUNITIES DOMINATED BY
MASSIVE COLUMNAR CACTI
Selected Species: Boojum tree (Fouquieria
columnaris), saguaro cactus (Carnegiea
gigantea), cholla cactus (Opuntia fulgida),
organ pipe cactus (Lemaireocereus thurberi),
jojoba (Simmondsia chinensis), and ocotillo
(Fouquieria splendens) are just a few of the
plants adapted to withstand the arid climate in
this ecoregion. Mammals include ring-tailed
cat (Bassariscus astutus), black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus), desert kangaroo rat
(Dipodomys deserti), the endemic Arizona
pocket mouse (Perognathus amplus), roundtailed ground squirrel (Spermophilus
tereticaudus), Lesser long-nosed bat
(Leptonycteris curasoae), bighorn sheep (Ovis
canadensis), coyote (Canis latrans), and the
endangered pronghorn (Antilocapra
americana). Bird species here include cactus
wren (Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus),
S
hihuahuan-Tehuacán Deserts [131] –
Mexico, United States
Geographic Location: Southern region of North
America
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion has an
exceptionally rich desert flora and fauna, with
subregional endemism in some taxa and
unusual floristic communities. The richest
cactus communities in the world are found in
the southern Chihuahuan desert. Some of the
world’s richest desert mammal and reptile
faunas also occur here. THE MOST
DIVERSE DESERT IN THE
NEOTROPICAL AND NEARCTIC
REGION, WITH GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING LEVELS OF DESERT
PLANT, REPTILE, AND MAMMAL
DIVERSITY
Selected Species: Plant species include the
resurrection plant (Selaginella lepidophylla),
creosote bush (Larrea tridentata), tarbush
(Flourensia cernua), whitethorn acacia
(Acacia neovernicosa), and numerous species
of cacti, including several Opuntia species.
The ecoregion supports a number of grass
species such as bush muhly (Muhlenbergia
porteri), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), and
in the bottomlands, big sacaton (Sporobolus
wrightii). Animals include the desert pocket
gopher (Geomys arenarius), Nelson’s
kangaroo rat (Dipodomys nelsoni), desert
shrew (Notiosorex crawfordi), desert mule
deer (Odocoileus hemionus), bighorn sheep
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
tacama-Sechura Deserts [133] – Chile, Peru
Geographic Location: Pacific Coast of South
America
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion, comprised
of the Atacama and Sechura deserts, forms a
continuous strip of desert for almost 3,500 km
along the coast of Chile and Peru. This region
features some of the driest areas in the world,
some of which receive essentially no rain.
Nevertheless, this ecoregion contains
approximately 1300 species of plants and high
levels of endemism. 60% of Atacama and
40% of Sechura plants are endemic. Only 68
species are found in both regions. Other South
American xeric regions, such as the Caatinga
of eastern Brazil, and Guajira/Falcón region of
northern South America are distinctive but
share more affinities with surrounding
ecoregions. HIGHLY DISTINCTIVE
DESERT BIOTA WITH HIGH ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Recently discovered rare and
endemic plant species include members of the
Copiapoa genus, Griselinia carlomunozii, and
Tillandsia tragophoba. Birds include three
endemic finches: slender-billed finch
(Xenospingus concolor), great Inca-finch
(Incaspiza pulchra), and Raimondi's yellowfinch (Sicalis raimondii), and the endemic
Pied-crested tit-tyrant (Anairetes reguloides).
Guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and sea lions
(Otaria byronia) are some of the characteristic
mammals.
General Threats: Urbanization, mining, pollution,
road construction, livestock grazing
(especially by goats), fuelwood collection,
commercial plant collection, and erosion
constitute the major threats to this ecoregion.
A
(Ovis canadensis), the pronghorn (Antilocapra
americana), jaguar (Felis onca), collared
peccary or javelina (Pecari tajacu), desert
cottontail (Sylvilagus auduboni). Other
components of this desert’s fauna include the
rare zone-tailed hawk (Buteo albonotatus),
scaled quail (Callipepla squamata), greater
roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus), Texas
banded gecko (Coleonyx brevis), reticulated
gecko (C. reticulatus), greater earless lizard
(Cophosaurus texanus), Mexican blackheaded
snake (Tantilla atriceps), and the Trans-Pecos
ratsnake (Elaphe subocularis).
General Threats: Grazing, extraction of salt,
gypsum, and lime, clearing of riparian
vegetation, and exploitation of water
resources are threats to the area.
Neotropical
alápagos Islands Scrub [132] – Ecuador
Geographic Location: Archipelago in the
eastern Pacific Ocean
Biodiversity Features: The Galápagos Islands are
widely known for the remarkable adaptive
radiation shown by their plants and animals.
Both the flora and fauna display a high degree
of endemism, as would be expected in such an
isolated tropical archipelago. Numerous
communities, ecological interactions, and
species adaptations are unique to these
islands. GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE
ISLAND BIOTA WITH UNIQUE
EVOLUTIONARY AND ECOLOGICAL
PHENOMENA
Selected Species: Species include Lechoso tree
(Scalesia pendunculata), Galápagos giant
tortoise (Geochelone elephantropus), land
iguana (Conolophus subcristatus), Galápagos
hawk (Buteo galapoensis), and the 13
Darwin's finches (Geospiza spp.,
Camarhynchus spp., Certhidea olivacea, and
Platyspiza crassirostris).
General Threats: Threats include overgrazing by
domestic and feral livestock, predation by
exotic species, anthropogenic fires, poaching,
overharvesting of marine resources, tourism,
population pressures, and agriculture.
G
Palearctic
entral Asian Deserts [134] –
Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan
Geographic Location: Central Asia
Biodiversity Features: A mosaic of clay, stone,
salt and sandy deserts supports the highest
level of biological richness of all the Eurasian
deserts. Plants and animals here have
developed certain physiological mechanisms
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
to help them survive the combination of
extremely cold winter temperatures and
blistering hot summers. These specialized
adaptations contribute to the unusually high
level of endemism for which the area is well
known. Forest galleries along the floodplains
of major rivers such as Amur Darya, Syr
Darya, provide a moister habitat for many
local species. THE CENTRAL ASIAN
DESERTS FEATURE THE HIGHEST
LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
AND ENDEMISM AMONG ARID LANDS
THROUGHOUT EURASIA.
Selected Species: Sand acacias (Eremospartan)
form localized endemic plant communities
and the saksaul (Arthrophytum) creates
"keystone" ecosystems in these deserts. The
area is rich in reptile life, with an impressive
variety of agama, gekko, lizard and snake
species. The gray monitor (Varanus griseus)
is the largest reptile in Europe. Rare and
endangered mammal species include the
honey badger (Mellivora capsensis), sand lynx
(Felis caracal), desert cat (Felis margarita),
onager (Equus hemionus), and gotred gazelle
(Gazella subgutturosa).
General Threats: Diversion of water for the
irrigation of cotton and other crops represents
the most serious threat to the region.
Localized population growth and associated
resource use is also of concern.
Ghana, Nigeria
Geographic Location: Western Africa coast
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains
mangroves of the Niger Delta, which is the
single most extensive mangrove systemin
Africa, and thirdworldwide after India and
Indonesia. These mangroves play an important
role as nursery areas for fishes and shrimp;
moreover, they are important factors in
stabilizing the shoreline. Mangroves are found
discontinuously from Senegal to northern
Angola, with important areas in the Niger
delta, Cameroon, and Gabon. COMPLEX OF
KEYSTONE HABITATS ALONG WEST
AND CENTRAL AFRICAN COAST
Selected Species: Vegetation is dominated by
Rhizophora racemosa. Other residents include
a variety of fishes, birds, and invertebrates,as
well as West African manatee (Trichechus
senegalensis), African slender-snouted
crocodile (Crocodylus cataphractus), Nile
crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), Cape
clawless otter (Aonyx capensis), Cuvier's firefooted squirrel (Funisciurus pyrropus),
African fish-eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), and
African skimmer (Rynchops flavirostris).
General Threats: The threats of greatest concern
include urbanization, industrialization and
agriculture, as well as impacts from timber
and petroleum exploitation. Oil spills and
development projects have led to large
mortalities of invertebrates and fishes. Other
threats include the use of dynamite and poison
for fishing, canalization, discharge of sewage
and other pollutants, siltation, sandmining,
erosion, construction of embankments - all
effects of growing population pressure in the
coastal zone.
Mangroves
Found throughout tropical and subtropical regions
of the world, Mangrove forests form along
coastlines. These forests are comprised of twelve
genera of salt-tolerant trees that evolved from
terrestrial species over time to invade these
dynamic areas. Associated with the tree species
are a whole host of aquatic and salt-tolerant
plants. Together they provide important nursery
habitats for a vast array of aquatic animal species.
Afrotropical Indian
ast African Mangroves [136] – Kenya,
Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania
Geographic Location: East African coast
Biodiversity Features: Compared to Southeast
Asia, African mangroves support relatively
low species diversity. However, the East
African mangroves support the greatest flora
and faunal diversity of African mangroves, as
well as provide critical habitat for maintaining
E
Afrotropical Atlantic
G
ulf of Guinea Mangroves [135] – Angola,
Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of
of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana,
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
nearby coral reefs and populations of fish and
birds. The Tana River Delta has one of the
most extensive mangrove systems in this
region. Many migratory bird populations rely
on the delta and wetlands as stopover and
wintering habitat. THESE MANGROVES
REPRESENT A COMPLEX OF KEYSTONE
HABITATS IN EASTERN AFRICA.
Selected Species: In addition to the many fish and
invertebrates that find refuge, breeding
grounds, and nursuries in mangroves, other
local residents include mangrove kingfisher
(Halycyon senegaloides), dugong (Dugong
dugon), and migrants such as, greater sand
plover (Charadrius leschenaultii) and grey
plover (Pluvialis squatarola). Olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea) is also known to visit.
General Threats: Mangroves in the region area
being lost through conversion to rice farms,
salt pans, aquaculture, and urbanization. They
also ultimately receive all untreated wastes
discharged upstream, as well as oil and
industrial pollution, silt, and pesticides.
Damming of some of the rivers threatens
mangroves by increasing salinity during the
dry season. Construction of a dam upstream
on the Tana River has already decreased
riverine forest regeneration in the region and
placed severe pressure on the survival of
mangrove species. Such destruction may also
lead to increased siltation of nearby coral
reefs.
often-brackish water conditions include
members of the Cichlidae and Mugilidae
families. Of particular conservation concern
are endemic birds such as the the rare and
critically threatened Madagascar fish-eagle
(Haliaeetus vociferoides) and the Madagascar
heron (Ardea humbloti).
General Threats: In comparison with other areas
on the island, these habitats have suffered less
impact from increasing human populations.
Howevever, little has been done to protect
mangroves, which are sensitive to urban
development, and may be affected by
overfishing. In some areas, introduced fish
species may threaten native species.
Australasia
ew Guinea Mangroves [138] – Indonesia,
Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: Deltaic and coastal regions
on the island of New Guinea
Biodiversity Features: Like most mangrove
forests in Papua New Guinea, the mangroves
in the Sepik Delta are sparsely populated and
relatively intact. The mangroves of Irian Jaya,
Indonesia's portion of the island of New
Guinea to the west, are presently the largest in
the world. NEW GUINEA MANGROVES
ARE THE MOST EXTENSIVE IN THE
WORLD WITH MANY UNUSUAL
SPECIES
Selected Species: Species include black palm
cockatoo (Probosciger aterimus), Papuan
hanging-parrot (Loriculus aurantiifrons), the
endemic red-breasted paradise-kingfisher
(Tanysiptera nympha) and red-billed brushturkey (Talegalla cuvieri), and saltwater
crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).
General Threats: Although largely intact,
mangroves on Irian Jaya have recently come
under threat of exploitation, and possible
destruction, related to wood chip production.
N
adagascar
Mangroves [137]
– Madagascar
Geographic Location: Island off the eastern coast
of Africa in the western Indian Ocean
Biodiversity Features: Mangrove forests stretch
almost the entire length of the western Coast
of Madagascar. Their productivity is
ecologically and biogeographically
significant, and they also provide important
habitat for numerous species, some of which
are a major portion of the local diet.
Selected Species: Characteristic trees are
mangrove species typical throughout the
Indian Ocean: Sonneratia alba and Avicennia
marina. Fishes capable of surviving in the
M
Indo-Malayan Indo-Pacific
undarbans Mangroves [139] –
Bangladesh, India
Geographic Location: Southern Asia
S
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
reater Sundas Mangroves [140] –Indonesia,
Malaysia, Brunei
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Selection Criteria & Distinguishing Features
Greater Sundas mangroves were little affected
by large-scale forest exploitation until 1975,
but they are now the most threatened forests
in the archipelago. Sumatra has extensive
mangroves along the eastern coast, but the
island continues to lose its natural vegetation
faster than any other region in Indonesia.
Kalimantan's mangroves are somewhat more
intact, but are also threatened by agriculture,
development, and human settlement. Recent
surveys revealed the importance of this region
for some of the world’s rarest waterbirds.
Common among all mangroves is the
importance of these ecosystems as nursing
grounds for several species of fish and shrimp.
THESE MANGROVES ARE THE MOST
DIVERSE, NOT TO MENTION SOME OF
THE MOST EXTENSIVE MANGROVE
ECOSYSTEMS IN THE WORLD.
Selected Species: Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans),
common redshank (Tringa totanus),
Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris),
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus),
false gharial (Tomistoma schlegeli), spotbilled pelican (Pelecanus philippensis), storkbilled kingfisher (Pelargopsis capensis), and
several other species of reptiles, amphibians
and fishes.
General Threats: Most mangrove destruction
results from conversion of the land for
agriculture, shrimp ponds, brackish water
fishponds (tambak), salt ponds, human
settlement, and cutting of trees for wood chips
or for export to Japan. Poaching and illegal
trade represents an important threat, especially
for saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus).
Biodiversity Features: The Sundarbans is a vast
complex of intertidal and estuarine areas
situated on the border of India and Bangladesh
where the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Mehgna
rivers converge in the Bengal Basin. The
Sundarbans, the most extensive area of
mangroves in continental Asia, supports 32
mangrove and 10 seagrass species. The area
provides nursery grounds for many species of
fish and invertebrates, including exploited
species such as tiger prawns. The productivity
of the Sundarbans plays a major role in
supporting fisheries along the east coast of
India. Despite the heavy use of the forest for
timber, pulpwood, and fuelwood, the
Sundarbans continues to support a diverse
fauna of 35 species of reptile, over 270 birds
and 42 mammals. The Sundarbans conserve
the last population of tigers inhabiting
mangroves in the world. THE LARGEST
BLOCK OF MANGROVES LEFT ON
CONTINENTAL ASIA.
Selected Species: Tiger (Panthera tigris),
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus),
water monitors (Varanus salvator), Rhesus
monkey (Macaca mulatta), and jackal (Canis
aureus) are among the many wingless
inhabitants found in this ecoregion. Bird
species include little cormorant
(Phalacrocorax niger), open-bill stork
(Anastomus oscitans), common pochard
(Aythya ferina), white stork (Ciconia ciconia),
and common redshank (Tringa totanus). Giant
honeybee (Apis dorsata) is another native to
this area. Although they once roamed here,
today the Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
sondaicus) and the wild buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis) have been extirpated.
General Threats: The harmful effects of sewage
and industrial pollution plus continuing
deforestation threaten the integrity of the
Sundarbans. Another problem is the effect of
expanding agriculture, namely mangrove
forests are cleared and irrigation canals are
constructed in their place. Heavy pressure on
the fisheries, including fishing along riverine
tracts, also causes serious problems. The
threat from offshore oil spills is also a serious
one.
G
Neotropical Atlantic
uianan-Amazon Mangroves [141] – Brazil,
Brazil, French Guiana (France), Suriname,
Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela
Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northern South America
G
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Terrestrial Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: This vast mosaic of
mangroves, permanent freshwater swamps,
and seasonally flooded palm savanna is
uniquely adapted to the high and powerful
tides common to the area. They support a
great diversity of wildlife, including large
populations of migratory birds and fish.
VAST MANGROVE COMPLEX, THE
LARGEST IN THE NEOTROPICS,
ADAPTED TO HIGH TIDAL
FLUCTUATIONS
General Threats: The development of chemical
complexes, oil refineries, sedimentation from
agriculture, and urban and recreational
facilities represent an important threat to the
area. Mangrove leveling for development
represents another general cause of habitat
destruction.
Selected Species: Characteristic species include
Scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber), greater
flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber), magnificent
frigatebird (Fregata magnificens), loggerhead
turtle (Caretta caretta), Hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle
(Chelonia mydas), leatherback turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea), Caribbean manatee
(Trichetus manatus), American crocodile
(Crocodylus acutus), and giant otter
(Pteronura brasiliensis).
Neotropical Pacific
anama Bight Mangroves [142] –
Ecuador, Panama, Colombia, Peru
Geographic Location: Northwest South America
P
of these rivers have, or historically had, large
floodplains. Inundation of these expansive areas
provides an important connection between
neighboring terrestrial systems and flowing
waters, allowing for nutrient transfers and
seasonal regeneration of habitats. Some of these
ecoregions are also distinguished by the
longitudinal migration of species over great
distances and presence of large aquatic predators.
In general, the wide range of habitats associated
with these productive ecoregions has promoted the
evolution and maintenance of high levels of
aquatic biodiversity.
Biodiversity Features: The Esmeraldas area
contains one of the most important intact
mangroves in the world, and the trees here are
the tallest mangrove specimens in the
Neotropics. TALLEST MANGROVE
FORESTS IN THE WORLD, MOST
EXTENSIVE MANGROVES IN THE
EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN
Selected Species: Species include Rhizophora
mangroves, mangrove yellow warbler
(Dendroica petechia bryanti), mangrove
cuckoo (Coccyzus minor), loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta), and leatherback turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea).
General Threats: Destruction of mangroves
through siltation from excessive soil runoffs.
Other threats include dam construction,
transshipment of oil, pesticide use and shrimp
farming.
Afrotropical
ongo River and Flooded Forests [143] –
– Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Congo, Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains a
wide diversity of freshwater habitats,
including swamps, lateral lakes, and
floodplains, in addition to the main channel
habitats of the Congo River. With more than
700 fish species of which nearly 500 are
endemic, the Congo Basin is the second
richest in the world for fish. A highly
specialized, rheophilic (current-loving) fish
C
FRESHWATER
REALM
Large rivers
Ecoregions in the Large Rivers MHT include
many of the world’s major rivers and their basins.
Often draining vast portions of continents, many
125
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
fauna of thirty-four species has evolved to
survive in the rapids of the lower Congo
River. THE MOST DIVERSE AND
DISTINCTIVE LARGE RIVER FAUNAS IN
TROPICAL AFRICA, UNUSUAL
ASSEMBLAGE OF ENDEMIC SPECIES
ADAPTED TO LARGE RAPIDS SOUTH OF
KINSHASHA
Selected Species: Endemic fish species include
several knifefish taxa; Malapterurus spp.
(electric catfish), Campylomomyrus spp.
(elephant-nosed fish), and the minnows
Varicorhinus brauni and V. iphthimostoma.
Many cichlid species, such as shiloango
(Chromidotilapia sp.), Nanochromis
consortus, Steatocranus casuarius, the
spectacular Hemichromis lifalili, and the
wider-ranging H. fasciatusi are of great
interest to aquarists. These waters are also
home to clawless river otters (Aonyx congica),
and dwarf crocodile (Osteolaenus tetraspis).
Endemic or near-endemic aquatic mammals
include giant otter shrew (Potamogale velox)
and Allen’s swamp monkey (Allenopithecus
nigroviridis).
General Threats: Several growing urban centers
bring the potential for an increase in untreated
sewage and other sources of pollution, often
discharged directly into freshwater systems.
Logging operations can also impair water
quality through sedimentation. A few
industrial-scale mining operations exist in the
Congo basin and likely affect localized areas.
126
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Nearctic
Indo-Malayan
ekong River [144] – Cambodia, China,
Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Southern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The Mekong, the longest
river in Southeast Asia, is enormously rich.
The Mekong system alone has a fish fauna
totaling approximately 500 species, some of
which may migrate hundreds of kilometers
between the sea and upstream river reaches as
water levels change with the seasons. THE
MOST DIVERSE AND DISTINCTIVE
LARGE RIVER FAUNA OF TROPICAL
ASIA, WITH LARGE-SCALE FISH
MIGRATIONS
Selected Species: Among the numerous endemic
fish species, one of the most imperiled and
extraordinary is the giant Mekong catfish
(Pangasianodon gigas), which can grow to
over 300 kilograms and may have historically
migrated up to 2000 kilometers. Other
endemic fish that are under threat are Mae
Khong herring (Tenualosa thibaudeaui),
thicklip barb (Probarbus labeamajor), and a
cave fish (Barbus speleops). The Mekong
basin also provides habitat for the endangered
Irrawaddy dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris).
This ecoregion is a major wintering area for
the endangered Siberian crane (Grus
leucogeranus) and swan goose (Anser
cygnoides), and is home to Sarus crane (Grus
antigone).
General Threats: The Mekong River system
suffers from a wide range of serious threats.
Deforestation along rivers and in uplands has
changed runoff patterns and increased
sedimentation. The hydrologic regime is also
heavily modified by flood control schemes,
water diversions, and a vast array of
hydropower projects, both big and small.
Impoundments are of particular concern
because they block the movements of the
ecoregion’s numerous migratory fish species.
Overfishing is a serious threat, particularly
with the increased use of poisons. Urban,
industrial, and agricultural pollution are
largely untreated and growing problems.
M
olorado River [145] – Mexico, United States
States
Geographic Location: Southwest North
America
Biodiversity Features: The extreme conditions of
the Colorado River—dropping two miles in
elevation from its headwaters to the Gulf of
Mexico, with associated high flows—in
addition to the basin’s geographic isolation,
have led to an exceptional freshwater fauna
with morphological adaptations to fastflowing water. Within this relatively speciespoor ecoregion, 14 endemic fish species
occur. UNUSUAL WARM, LARGE RIVER
FAUNA ADAPTED TO HIGH FLOW
REGIMES
Selected Species: Imperiled endemic fish species
include the largest North American minnow,
the Colorado squawfish (Ptychocheilus
lucius), and the oddly shaped razorback
sucker (Xyrauchen texanus). Other fish
species found in the turbid fast-flowing waters
include flannelmouth sucker (Catostomus
latipinnis), Sonora sucker (Catostomus
insignis), and desert sucker (Catostomus
clarki). Found in some of the smaller
tributaries of the Colorado and in springs in
this ecoregion, Little Colorado spinedace
(Lepidomeda vittata), Kendall Warm Springs
dace (Rhinichthys osculus), desert pupfish
(Cyprinodon macularius), and springfish
(Crenichthys baileyi) are species of special
concern due to their restricted ranges. A
number of fish are endemic to the Gila
drainage, one of the larger tributaries to the
Colorado. These include Gila trout
(Oncorhynchus gilae), Gila topminnow
(Poeciliopsis occidentalis), roundtail chub
(Gila robusta), and spikedace (Meda fulgida).
Springs in this ecoregion also support several
species of endemic snails, including Overton
assiminea (Assiminea sp.), Grand Wash
springsnail (Fontelicella sp.), Pahranagat
pebblesnail (Fluminicola merriami), Moapa
pebblesnail (Fluminicola avernalis), and Hot
Creek pebblesnail (Fluminicola sp.). Riparian
forests provide critical habitat for the
C
127
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
endangered willow flycatcher (Empidonax
trailii).
General Threats: This unusual ecosystem has
been severely damaged by development,
dams, irrigation projects and water
withdrawals, pollution, altered thermal
regimes, and introduced species. Formerly
extensive riparian areas associated with
perennial and ephemeral streams in this
ecoregion are much reduced. Today, only a
tiny fraction of intact habitat remains and
these remnants face continued threat from
livestock grazing and development pressures.
and Lepisosteus spp.), Atlantic sturgeon
(Acipenser oxyrhynchus), lake sturgeon (A.
fulvescens), shovelnose sturgeon
(Scaphirhynchus platorynchus), pallid
sturgeon (S. albus), the only North American
paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), and bowfin
(Amia calva). Additionally, numerous marine
species have been commonly recorded in the
Mississippi’s lower reaches. This ecoregion
also supports a large number of unionid
mussel and crayfish species (63 and 57
species, respectively). Aquatic reptiles include
American alligator (Alligator
mississippiensis) plus two endemic turtles:
ringed map turtle (Graptemys oculifera) and
yellow-blotched map turtle (G. flavimaculata).
General Threats: Much of what was once forest,
including bottomland floodplain forest, has
now been converted for agriculture,
constituting one of the most serious ecological
disturbances in the ecoregion. Nonpoint
source pollution from agriculture in the form
of sedimentation and pesticide contamination,
and wastewater discharges from urban areas,
pose major threats to the water quality of
these rivers. In addition, extensive
hydrological modifications have destroyed
instream habitat for native fishes and other
taxa, such as highly vulnerable native mussels.
ower Mississippi River [146] – United
States
Geographic Location: Southeastern United States
Biodiversity Features: The ecoregion lies within
the lowland Gulf Coastal Plain—a trough
between the Appalachians to the east and the
Ozark and Ouachita Mountains to the west.
This feature, combined with the Mississippi’s
high turbidity, has served as a barrier to the
dispersal of upland fish species between river
systems on either side. Chosen for
representation of large river biota in the
Nearctic, this ecoregion contains numerous
examples of fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and
invertebrates that are adapted to the unique
conditions found in large river systems. Many
of these species persist as glacial relicts or are
endemic to the river and its tributaries.
OUTSTANDING EXAMPLE OF LARGE
RIVER BIOTA IN THE NEARCTIC WITH
EXTRAORDINARY SPECIES RICHNESS,
INCLUDING MANY RELICTUAL SPECIES
AND ENDEMICS
Selected Species: Among the endemic fishes
found in tributaries to the mainstem
Mississippi are two minnows (Notropis
rafinesquei, N. roseipinnis), one catfish
(Noturus hildebrandi), one cavefish
(Forbesichthys agassizi), two killifish
(Fundulus euryzonus, and F. notti), and five
darters (Etheostoma chienense, E.
pyrrhogaster, E. raneyi, E. rubrum, E. scotti).
The ecoregion is better known for its
assemblages of large river fish, which include
five lamprey species (e.g, Atractosteus spatula
L
Neotropical
mazon River and Flooded Forests
[147] – Brazil, Colombia, Peru
Geographic Location: North-central South
America
Biodiversity Features: The varzea and igapó
freshwater ecosystems of the Amazon Basin
represent some of the worlds most extensive
seasonally inundated floodplain forests.
Rising waters replenish nutrients in floodplain
areas and regenerate floodplain lakes, floating
meadows, and other seasonal habitats. Every
year, fish, reptiles, and other aquatic animals
migrate into these newly available habitats to
feed and reproduce, then return to the main
channels when the floodwaters recede.
Terrestrial animals, such as a number of
primate species, also rely on the floodplain
A
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
forest habitats. Essential for the reproduction
of many floodplain trees is the dispersal of
their seeds by frugivorous animals, including
several fish species. This cycle of flooding,
and the annual regeneration that it produces,
represent a globally outstanding ecological
phenomenon. The entire Amazon basin
contains the largest number of freshwater fish
species in the world, with an estimated
number of over 3000 species.
EXTRAORDINARY MIGRATIONS OF
FISH SPECIES IN AND OUT OF FLOODED
FORESTS, INCLUDING A LARGE
DEGREE OF FRUGIVORY PLUS
EXTREMELY DIVERSE FRESHWATER
COMMUNITIES
Selected Species: Mammals include pink river
dolphin or boto (Inia geoffrensis), grey river
dolphin or tucuxi (Sotalia fluviatis), manatee
(Trichecus inunguis), and the rare uakari
(Cacajao calvus). The largest river turtle in
South America, Podocnemis expansa, is also
found here, as is the highly endangered black
caiman (Melanosuchus niger). A few of the
characteristic fishes of this ecoregion are the
fruit-eating tambaqui (Colossoma
macropomum), arawana (Osteoglossum
bicirrhosum), pirarucu (Arapaima gigas),
arapaima (Arapaima gigas), dourada catfish
(Brachyplatystoma flavicans), one of the
world’s few surviving lungfishes, Lepidosiren
paradoxa; and tucunaré (Cichla acellaris).
General Threats: Varzea forests are among the
most threatened of all forest types in South
America due to logging and clearing. Upland
areas face even greater logging threats, and
there is potential that the entire hydrologic
cycle, including annual rainfall, will be
drastically altered. Open floodplains are
being converted for cattle ranching, which can
include introduced water buffalo (Bubalus
bubalis). Overfishing, particularly of the
largest species, is leading to observed species
declines. Mercury pollution from gold mining
in smaller streams may have long-term
impacts. Population centers are increasing
along the main rivers, and untreated sewage is
a growing problem. Roads built through the
region open up access to previously remote
areas and lead to erosion and increased human
pressures on resources. Some dams exist
already in the basin, and others are planned;
these have the potential to block species
movements and alter hydrology.
rinoco River and Flooded Forests
[148] – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northern South America
Biodiversity Features: The Orinoco’s varzea
freshwater ecosystems form one of the world's
most extensive areas of seasonally inundated
forests. Migrations of fish and terrestrial
animal populations into the flooded forests are
timed to coincide with the rising waters that
flood large areas of the forest floor. Truly a
globally outstanding ecological phenomenon,
these conditions support a number of endemic
species that rely on these processes. More
than 1000 fish species are estimated to occur
in the entire Orinoco basin, the majority of
which may be endemic. Local endemism is
high, resulting from the diversity of aquatic
habitats, including llanos, high-gradient
mountain streams, white-sand flooded forests,
and large river environments. GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING ECOLOGICAL
PROCESSES AND RARE AND HIGHLY
THREATENED HABITAT TYPE.
TROPICAL RIVER EXTREMELY RICH IN
FRESHWATER FISH SPECIES
Selected Species: Among the numerous fish found
here are a number of well-known game and
aquarium species: peacock bass or speckled
pavon (Cichla temensis), blackspot pirahna
(Pygocentrus cariba), cachama (Piaractus
brachyponum) and red oscar (Astronotus
ocellatus). These waters are also home to the
critically endangered Orinoco crocodile
(Crocodylus intermedius) and giant river otter
(Pteronura brasiliensis), both of which suffer
largely from hunting.
General Threats: Conversion of freshwater and
wetland habitats for intensive agriculture and
livestock grazing threatens the diverse aquatic
fauna. Intensive logging and selective
exploitation of certain tree species are
accelerating deforestation. Large dams and
water diversions are planned for several major
tributaries, and these would destroy the
O
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
hydrologic processes that support this
ecoregion’s aquatic fauna. Pollution and
siltation from mining and deforestation, as
well as hunting of sensitive larger vertebrates,
pose additional threats.
fishing and boating operations. Among the
numerous threatened fish species are Yangtze
sturgeon (Acipenser dabryanus), Chinese
sturgeon (A. sinensis), and Chinese swordfish
(Psephurus gladius). Other vertebrates include
the largest salamander in the world, Audrias
davidianus, red-crowned crane (Grus
japonensis), and the highly endangered
Yangtze alligator (Alligator sinensis).
General Threats: Fish farming, deforestation,
cultivation of surrounding land for farming
and grazing, pollution, oil drilling,
industrialization, urbanization, and introduced
diseases from domestic waterfowl pose
widespread threats to this ecoregion. The
most pressing and severe threat is construction
of dams and dykes on the Yangtze and its
tributaries, which alter the natural flow
regime, block migratory routes, and sever the
connection between the rivers and their
floodplain habitats. The most notorious of
these projects is the Three Gorges Dam,
which when complete will be 185 meters high
and will store 40x109 m3 of water. Interbasin
water transfers also threaten to upset water
levels and create opportunities for the
introduction of species.
Palearctic
angtze River and Lakes [149] – China
Geographic Location: Asia
Biodiversity Features: From an elevation of 4,900
meters (about 16,000 feet), the river—the
third longest in the world—descends rapidly
as it crosses gorges and runs past limestone
hills. The river and the lakes it feeds undergo
extreme seasonal changes in size and depth.
During the summer rainy season, swollen
waters of the Yangtze River flood into the
surrounding lake basins; during winter and
spring when river levels are low, the lakes
drain back into the river. The flora and fauna
are adapted to these cycles. Fish mix freely
between lakes during flooding and terrestrial
mammals swim to seek high ground. Poyang
Lake, one of the largest lakes, serves as winter
habitat for numerous waterfowl species. THE
ECOREGION CONTAINS NUMEROUS
FISH, MAMMAL, AND PLANT SPECIES
ADAPTED TO THE DYNAMIC WATER
REGIME OF THESE LAKES AND RIVERS;
A LARGE NUMBER OF THE
WATERBIRDS ARE DEPENDENT ON THE
LAKES IN WINTER.
Selected Species: Two species of aquatic mammal,
Chinese river dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer) and
Yangtze finless porpoise (Neophocaena
phocaenoides), are of special concern. The
river dolphin, restricted to freshwater habitats
of the Yangtze and its adjoining lakes, is
considered the most endangered dolphin
species in the world. The finless porpoise is
also imperiled but is a more widespread
marine species, visiting river mouths
throughout the Indian Ocean and the Western
Pacific. The dolphins are threatened by
pollution and habitat destruction, and by their
interaction with fishing operations. They are
threatened by pollution and habitat
destruction, and by their interaction with
Y
Large River Headwaters
Large River Headwaters represent the lower order
tributaries to many of Earth’s most impressive
rivers. Headwater areas are generally
characterized by very different physical conditions
when compared to the lower reaches of the
system. For example, these regions generally have
much smaller floodplains, have higher gradients,
and are less productive. Species in these regions
are well adapted to these conditions. They may be
reliant on nutrient inputs from surrounding
terrestrial systems, and these inputs may influence
aquatic insect diversity.
Afrotropical
C
130
ongo River Basin Piedmont Rivers and
Streams [150] – Angola, Cameroon,
Central African Republic, Democratic
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Republic of Congo, Gabon, Republic of
Congo, Sudan
Geographic Location: Central Africa
Biodiversity Features: The Congo basin has the
richest freshwater fish fauna of any African
river, with 690 described fish species, of
which 80% may be endemic. The main stem
Congo River contains pockets of endemism
along its sweep from the center of the
continent to the coast. The localized
distributions of many rivulin (Alestiidae) and
snoutfish (Mormyridae) species in forest
streams make the species naturally rare.
PIEDMONT STREAMS DISPLAYING
HIGH ENDEMISM AND BETA
DIVERSITY, FAUNA IS POORLY KNOWN
BUT LIKELY VERY DISTINCTIVE
Selected Species: The staggering diversity of fish
in this ecoregion includes, among other
endemic taxa, members of the nocturnal,
electric Mormyridae; catfish of the
Mochokidae, Bagridae, and Clariidae families;
characoids; and cichlids (Cichlidae). The
ecoregion is also home to the endemic aquatic
genet (Osbornictis piscivora), giant otter
shrew (Micropotamogale lamottei), and
Ruwenzori otter shrew (Mesopotamogale
ruwenzorii).
General Threats: Several growing urban centers
in the Congo basin are causing an increase in
untreated sewage and other sources of
pollution that could negatively affect
downstream freshwater systems. Local pulses
of sedimentation also occur near logging
operations. A few industrial-scale mining
operations exist in the Congo and likely affect
localized areas.
has 40 species of coexisting unionid mussels
(20 other species have already been
eliminated). Any relatively intact stream in
this region supports more mussels than all of
Australia and Europe combined. CONTAINS
SOME OF THE RICHEST TEMPERATE
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS IN THE
WORLD, WITH NUMEROUS REGIONAL
AND LOCAL ENDEMICS
Selected Species: Among the numerous species of
imperiled endemic mussels are dromedary
pearlymussel (Dromus dromas), birdwing
pearlymussel (Lemiox rimosus), and oyster
mussel (Epioblasma capsaeformis). Imperiled
endemic fishes include slackwater darter
(Etheostoma boschungi), duskytail darter (E.
percnurum), palezone shiner (Notropis
albizonatus), smoky madtom (Noturus baileyi),
and paddlefish (Polydon spathula). This
ecoregion is also home to numerous endemic
salamanders, including the West Virginia
spring salamander (Gyrinophilus
subterraneus), imitator salamander
(Desmognathus imitator), shovelnose
salamander (Leurognathus marmoratus),
Tennessee cave salamander (Gyrinophilus
palleucus), and streamside salamander
(Ambyostoma barbouri). The Nashville
crayfish (Orconectes shoupi) is endemic to this
ecoregion as well.
General Threats: Hydroelectric projects,
channelization, water withdrawals, and
pollution threaten the ecoregion. The
Tennessee River system has more than 50
major dams, with many remaining freshwater
species restricted to small segments of
unaltered tributaries. Introduction of the
nonnative zebra mussel (Dreissena
polymorpha) and other exotics threatens
native species.
Nearctic
M
ississippi Piedmont Rivers and
Streams [151] – United States
Geographic Location: Eastern North America
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion arguably
encompasses the richest temperate freshwater
ecosystems in the world, as measured by the
hundreds of highly localized endemic species
that have evolved in ancient river systems.
Tennessee's Clinch River alone, for example,
Neotropical
pper Amazon Rivers and Streams [152] –
[152] –Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador,
Ecuador, French Guiana (France), Guyana,
Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela
Geographic Location: Northwest and Northcentral South America
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features:The Amazon River has over
1000 tributaries; those originating in the
Andes on the western perimeter of the basin,
and in the Guiana Highlands to the north of
the Amazon River, comprise the major aquatic
habitats of this ecoregion. Tributaries arising
in the Andes are sediment-rich and appear
muddy, whereas those formed in the Guiana
Highlands in the north tend to be nutrient-poor
blackwater rivers. The entire Amazon region
has more than 1,300 described fish species, a
number that will grow as more investigations
are made, particularly in the poorly known
headwaters. Piedmont regions rather than
lowland central basins are believed to have the
most pronounced levels of endemism and may
exhibit high levels of beta diversity. ALONG
WITH THE GUAYANAN HIGHLANDS
FRESHWATER ECOREGION, THE MOST
SPECIES RICH FRESHWATER
ECOSYSTEM ON EARTH
Selected Species: The Amazon’s piedmont
streams have not been well investigated, but it
is known that they harbor an incredible array
of aquatic species, particularly fish. For
example, over five hundred species are known
from the Napo River, just one of the rivers in
this ecoregion. Fish groups with high numbers
of species represented include characins (e.g.,
tetras, piranhas, pacus), catfishes (e.g.,
doradids, loricariids, pimelodids), gymnotoids
(“electric eels”), osteoglossids (relic “bonytongues), and cichlids. Other aquatic taxa are
expected to show high levels of diversity as
well.
General Threats: Deforestation of headwater
catchments for logging and conversion to
agriculture and pasture is a potentially serious
problem, leading to erosion and altered
hydrologic regimes. There is concern that
deforestation will reduce the region’s
evapotranspiration and alter the Amazon’s
hydrologic cycle. Hydroelectric dams in this
ecoregion also modify the natural flow regime
and block the movements of migratory fish
species. Oil development and pipelines occur
primarily in the Cordillera Oriental in the
Andean portion of the Amazon, and mining
activities are relatively widespread. Roads
and railroads open up access to the region and
increase levels of hunting and fishing. Habitat
protection is severely hampered in the
northwest portion of the basin where illegal
narcotics activities predominate.
pper Paraná Rivers and Streams [153]
– Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay
Geographic Location: Central and South-central
South America
Biodiversity Features: The upper Paraná River
and its tributaries are distinguished both by
their spectacular waterfalls, and by their
exceptional levels of freshwater biodiversity.
The upper Paraná basin supports over 300
species of fish, with a high degree of local
endemism in individual tributaries that is
likely the result of isolation by waterfalls. The
Rio Iguaçu, which is isolated from the Paraná
River by the Iguaçu Falls, supports 65 species
of fish, of which about 50 species are
endemic. There is also high richness of other
aquatic organisms, both vertebrates and
invertebrates. Many fishes in this river system
are migratory and may travel hundreds of
kilometers upstream to spawn—often timed to
coincide with spring flood peaks. RICH
LARGE RIVER ECOSYSTEM WITH HIGH
LEVEL OF ENDEMISM IN INDIVIDUAL
TRIBUTARIES AND MAIN RIVER
Selected Species: Among the migratory species
present are a number of characiformes,
including Prochilodus lineatus and Salminus
maxillosus. One of the few anadromous
species in this ecoregion is Atlantic sabretooth
anchovy (Lycengraulis grossidens), which
ascends the Paraguay River from the Atlantic
and has been reported in the southernmost end
of the upper Paraná River. The only species of
lungfish found in the Neotropics, Lepidosiren
paradoxa, inhabits these waters. Two wellknown pirana species, Serrasalmus
spilopleura and S. marginatus, occur here as
well.
General Threats: Impoundments, water
diversions, hidrovias, and agriculture are
among the biggest threats in this ecoregion.
The Itaipu hydroelectric dam, with a massive
generating capacity of over 12,000 MW, was
built in 1979 on the Iguaçu River. Its
construction flooded approximately 100,000
U
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
ha of land, and destroyed important aquatic
habitats, including Guaíra Falls. The
Yacyreta dam, on the Paraná River, will flood
approximately 80,000 ha when completed.
These two dams have together effectively
blocked fish migrations. A third dam is on the
Acaray River, a tributary to the Paraná, and a
number of additional dams are planned within
the ecoregion. Also planned is the Hidrovia
Paraguay-Paraná, a waterway of
approximately 3,440 km that would require
dredging the Paraná and Paraguay Rivers.
The transportation of crops, particularly
soybeans, is one of the goals of the waterway.
Soybean agriculture in the ecoregion is
widespread and growing; burning of land for
soybean plantations, and desertification of the
land, has affected the quality of water in the
rivers through excessive siltation, and fish
populations may be declining. Agricultural
pesticides also foul freshwater habitats, as
does untreated domestic sewage from urban
areas. An oil spill of one million gallons on
the Iguaçu River in July 2000, the result of a
ruptured pipe at a refinery, highlighted the
risks associated with oil development and
transportation in the ecoregion. Introduced
species also pose threats to this ecoregion’s
highly endemic fauna, as do overfishing and
poaching.
RIVER BIOTA OF SOUTH AMERICA,
INCLUDING LARGE-SCALE FISH
MIGRATIONS
Selected Species: Similar to the Upper Amazon
Rivers and Streams (Ecoregion 152, see
above), this ecoregion includes species from a
number of fish families. Fish groups with high
numbers of species represented in this
ecoregion include characins (e.g. tetras,
piranhas, pacus), catfishes (e.g. doradids,
loricariids, pimelodids), gymnotoids (“electric
eels”), osteoglossids (relic “bony-tongues),
and cichlids. Other aquatic taxa are expected
to show high levels of diversity as well.
General Threats: This ecoregion comprises the
most altered part of the Amazon basin. The
Transamazon Highway cuts across this
ecoregion, and numerous other roads connect
the ecoregion with areas to the south.
Petroleum and mineral exploration are
widespread in this ecoregion, as are logging
concessions and large areas of deforestation.
Several dams are in operation or under
construction, and dozens of sites have been
proposed for new dams, particularly in the
basins of the Tocantins/Araguaia, Xingu,
Trombetas, and Tapajos rivers. Agricultural
expansion, pasture development, and
overexploitation of aquatic species pose
additional threats.
razilian Shield Amazonian Rivers and
Streams [154] – Brazil, Bolivia,
Paraguay
Geographic Location: Central South America
Biodiversity Features: The Brazilian Shield is the
pre-Cambrian geologic formation lying
primarily south of the Amazon River. The
ancient sediments of the Brazilian Shield are
well weathered, and the tributaries draining
them tend to be nutrient-poor “clearwater”
rivers, named for their transparency. Despite
the low nutrient content of the water, these
rivers are believed to contain exceptional
levels of aquatic diversity, particularly for
fish. Many fish may be migratory, ascending
the tributaries from larger rivers downstream
as water levels change. THE LARGEST AND
MOST DISTINCTIVE CLEARWATER
Large River Deltas
B
Representing the zone where rivers flatten out,
Large River Deltas are low gradient systems
whose waters are affected by oceanic tides.
Salinity is a major factor in these systems, as is
the slow moving nature of the water. Deltas are
characterized by broad expanses of water and
semi-permanent islands formed by the deposition
of sediment carried downstream. These areas are
highly productive, supporting abundant fish,
invertebrate, and waterbird populations.
Afrotropical
N
133
iger River Delta [155] - Nigeria
Geographic Location: Western Africa
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: Where Africa’s third
largest river, the Niger, flows into the Gulf of
Guinea, a delta over 50,000 km2 in extent is
formed. The Niger’s relatively nutrient-rich,
silt-laden whitewaters converge with the black
and clear waters carried by other tributaries,
creating an ecosystem that supports nearly 200
fish species. The Niger Delta is considered a
biogeographical crossroads between the NiloSudan and Guinea-Congo ichthyofaunal areas.
ONE OF THE LARGEST DELTAS IN THE
WORLD, THIS ECOREGION IS A
BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CROSSROADS FOR
AFRICAN ICHTHYOFAUNA
Selected Species: Several endemic or nearendemic fish families inhabit this ecoregion,
including Denticipidae and Phractolaemidae.
The delta provides habitat for hippopotamus
(Hippopotamus amphibius), the vulnerable
pygmy hippo (Choeropsis liberiensis), and
West African manatee (Trichechus
senegalensis).
General Threats: The delta system is highly
threatened by oil pollution. Other threats
include population growth and attendant
coastal urbanization, oil and gas exploration
and exploitation, industrialization, domestic
and industrial waste discharges, the menace of
introduced water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes), coastal erosion, and problems
associated with aquaculture.
PRODUCTIVE LARGE RIVER DELTA
HOME TO ABUNDANT POPULATIONS
OF MIGRATORY SPECIES
Selected Species: In addition to Indus River
dolphin, the river is home to a number of
endemic fishes, including Indus baril (Barilius
modestus), Indus garua (Clupisoma naziri)
and rita catfish (Rita rita). Several snakehead
fishes also live here, including giant
snakehead (Channa marulius). Several fish
species, such as hilsa shad (Tenualosa ilisha),
return from the Arabian Sea to spawn in
freshwater.
General Threats: Dams on the river reduce flows
in lower portions of the system and limit the
transport of fertile sediments downstream into
the delta. They also pose a serious threat to
the survival of the Indus River dolphin, as the
remaining dolphins become isolated into
smaller groups. Water extraction for
irrigation, runoff of chemicals into the rivers,
and introduced species also threaten the
freshwater species of the delta.
Palearctic
olga River Delta [157] – Kazakhstan, Russia
Russia
Geographic Location: Western Asia
Biodiversity Features: The rich delta of the Volga
River is one of the world's largest and most
important temperate deltas. Flows into the
delta separate into over 500 channels, arms
and rivulets and spread out onto the adjacent
floodplain, forming shallow lakes. The delta
supports 124 species of fish from 17 families,
many of which are large river, anadromous
species. It is considered one of the world’s
most productive areas for fish. The ecoregion
also supports millions of birds, including
swans, ducks, herons, terns, and ibis. ONE OF
EASTERN EURASIA’S LARGEST AND
MOST PRODUCTIVE RIVER DELTAS
General Threats: The natural flow regime of the
river and its sediment load has been altered by
dams upstream of the delta and by water
withdrawals. Changes in the hydrology have
negatively affected the productivity of the
delta and its fauna. Planned impoundments
V
Indo-Malayan
ndus River Delta [156] – Pakistan, India
Geographic Location: Western portion of the
Indian Subcontinent
Biodiversity Features: Originating at Lake
Ngangla Ringco high on the Tibetan Plateau,
the Indus flows more than 3,000 kilometers to
the Arabian Sea. Its waters are home to one of
the few species of freshwater dolphin
worldwide, the Indus River dolphin
(Platanista minor) and numerous species of
distinctive fishes, many of which live in or
migrate through the waters of the Indus River
Delta. Important food species like large
freshwater shrimp (Macrobrachium spp.) are
part of the abundant aquatic life of the delta.
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
and water diversions further threaten the
health of populations dependent upon the
delta ecosystem. Wastewater from industrial,
agricultural, and domestic sources is severe in
the Volga river. Cyanobacterial blooms and
deoxygentation have increased in recent years.
Selected Species: Sturgeon species found in the
delta are the Russian (Acipenser
gueldenstaedti), beluga (Huso huso), sterlet
(A. ruthenus), and stellate (A. stellatus)
sturgeons. Other migratory species include
whitefish (Salmonidae) and herrings
(Clupeidae). Rare fish species found here
include white-eyed bream (Abramis sapa) and
the endemic Volga lamprey (Caspiomyzon
wagneri). The delta contains unusual bird
species like Dalmatian pelican (Pelecanus
crispus), great white egret (Egretta alba), and
penduline tit (Remiz penduculinus).
common otter (Lutra lutra) and a subspecies
of smooth-coated otter (Lutra
perspicillatamaxwelli). Migrants such as
pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax pygmaeus),
lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus),
and red-breasted geese (Branta ruficollis)
winter in the wetlands and numerous other
species of waterbirds and birds of prey
frequent the ecoregion.
General Threats: Vast areas of wetlands have
been degraded or destroyed as a result of
channelization and damming, as well as water
withdrawals and drainage schemes. Planned
large dams and large-scale water withdrawals
upstream of the delta would decrease the
already low water levels in the delta and its
associated floodplains. Much of the fighting
during the prolonged Iran-Iraq War (19801988) and bombings during the Persian Gulf
War occurred in and around the wetlands and
caused considerable damage to the marsh
ecosystems. Another serious threat to the
wetlands is salinization, caused by the
continuous flushing of salts from irrigated
lands. The threat of large-scale oil pollution
from oil production in the region is also a
concern. Additionally, hunting and fishing
pressure in the marshes continues to be heavy.
M
esopotamian Delta and Marshes
[158] – Iran, Iraq, Kuwait
Geographic Location: Middle East
Biodiversity Features: At the northern end of the
Persain Gulf is the vast deltaic plain of the
Euphrates, Tigris and Karun rivers. This
complex of shallow freshwater lakes, swamps,
marshes, and seasonally inundated plains
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is
among the most important wintering areas for
migratory birds in Eurasia. Of the 278 species
of birds that have been recorded in the lower
Mesopotamia, 134 species are dependent to
some extent on the wetland habitats.
Cyprinids dominate the rich fish fauna of this
ecoregion. LARGE RIVER DELTA IN
SOUTHWESTERN ASIA WITH
GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING
MARSHLANDS
Selected Species: These marshes support almost
the entire world population of two bird
species, Basra reed warbler (Acrocephalus
griseldis) and Iraq babbler (Turdoides
altirostris). Other species unique to these
wetlands include two species of mammal
(Erythronesokia bunnii and Gerbillus
mesopotamiae) and several subspecies of fish.
More widespread freshwater-dependent
mammals found in the ecoregion include
anube River Delta [159] – Bulgaria,
Moldova, Romania, Ukraine, Yugoslavia
Geographic Location: Eastern Europe
Biodiversity Features: The Danube delta contains
some 11,000 km2 of wetlands, making it one
of the largest wetlands in Europe. The delta is
a unique habitat of canals, reedbeds, lakes,
and ponds, where over 280 species of birds
congregate. Historically, 73 native freshwater
fish and an additional 9 brackish-water
species were found in the lower Danube basin.
The basin is also home to approximately 88
freshwater molluscs (with 18 endemics), 75
dragonfly species, and 18 amphibian species.
ONE OF THE LARGEST EASTERN
EURASIAN RIVER DELTAS WITH
EXTENSIVE BIRD POPULATIONS,
DIADROMOUS FISH
Selected Species: The delta is an important site for
breeding populations of a number of rare or
D
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
imperiled waterbirds, including Dalmatian
pelican (Pelecanus crispus), white pelican
(Pelecanus onocrotalus), water rail (Rallus
aquaticus), pygmy cormorant (Phalacrocorax
pygmeus), and collared pratincole (Glareola
pranticola). Historically, ten diadromous fish
species occurred in the lower Danube River.
These included five sturgeon species
(Acipenser gueldenstaedtii, A. nudiventris, A.
stellatus, A. sturio, and Huso huso), European
eel (Anguilla anguilla), three shad (Alosa
caspia, A. immaculata, and A. maeotica), and
Tyulka sprat (Clupeonella cultiventris).
Today, A. nudiventris and A. sturio are exinct
in this ecoregion. Fish species endemic to the
lower Danube basin are a loach, Cobitis
megaspila, and the critically endangered,
monotypic Romanichthys valsanicola.
General Threats: The loss of two of this
ecoregion’s migratory fish species and the
imperilment of several more speaks to the
modified nature of this ecoregion’s aquatic
systems. Pollution, damming, and drainage
of wetlands disrupt the fragile ecology of the
delta. Industry, agriculture, livestock and
urban settlements have all increased the input
of sewage, agricultural and industrial waste,
and pesticides into the Danube’s water. Overexploitation of some birds and frogs may be a
problem, as are exotic species. Impacts from
recent human conflicts in the Danube basin
have undoubtedly had negative impacts on
this ecoregion.
only some of the migratory birds that breed in
the productive wetland. The rich delta also
supports abundant populations of fish and five
marine mammals. Some scientists think that
the ciscos (fish genus Coregonus) originated
here. GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING DELTA
OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN, GLOBALLY
IMPORTANT FOR NESTING BIRDS
Selected Species: Spawning fish reported from the
delta include Arctic lamprey (Lethenteron
japonicum), burbot (Lota lota), and Arctic
cisco (Coregonus autumnalis). Several
species of ciscos (Coregonus spp.) are also
found in the delta, including C. tugun, C.
sardinella, C. peled, C. muskun, and C. nasus.
A few of the many birds that visit or breed in
the delta are black brant (Branta bernicla),
common (Somateria mollissima) and Steller’s
(Polysticta stelleri) eiders, Sabine’s (Xema
sabini) and Ross’s (Rhodostethia rosea) gulls,
and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus).
General Threats: The Lena Delta Reserve was
expanded in 1995, making it the largest
protected area in Russia (61,000 km2). This
large expanse offers protection to the
abundant wildlife of the delta. However,
overfishing, particularly of cisco populations
within the refuge, is reportedly a concern.
Outside of the reserve, mining, forestry,
grazing, expanding agricultural activities,
water diversion for irrigation, and pollution
from fertilizers and pesticides may threaten
the water quality and quantity that reach the
delta.
ena River Delta [160] – Russia
Geographic Location: Northern Asia
Biodiversity Features: Siberia's Lena River rises
west of Lake Baikal and eventually flows
north before emptying into the Laptev Sea, an
arm of the Arctic Ocean. The river spreads out
over the alluvial plain of the delta into five
major channels and hundreds of smaller
streams and lakes, which provide habitat for
abundant wildlife. This arctic ecoregion
experiences seven months of winter before the
snow-covered tundra transforms into fertile
wetlands. Swans, divers, geese, ducks,
plovers, sandpipers, snipes, phalaropes, terns,
skuas, birds of prey, passerines and gulls are
L
Small Rivers
Relatively small rivers drain major portions of the
Earth’s surface. In contrast to larger systems, such
as the Amazon or Congo, the drainage basins of
these flowing waters are much smaller. In many
cases, these low order streams or rivers drain
directly into coastal waters. Small Rivers
encompass the full range of flow conditions and
attendant habitats, from headwaters to alluvial
lowlands.
Afrotropical
136
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
pper Guinea Rivers and Streams [161] – Côte
D’Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone
Geographic Location: West Africa
Biodiversity Features: Wet conditions have
existed more or less permanently over
evolutionary time in the Upper Guinea
ecoregion. The relative permanence of the
aquatic landscape has allowed speciation
through isolation and the persistence of relict
species in this refuge zone. The Guinean
mountain range (>1500 m elevation) and its
many waterfalls and rapids have also limited
the dispersal of aquatic species in the coastal
basins into other West African basins. In
particular, this ecoregion is distinguished by
two endemic genera of crabs and dozens of
endemic fish species. The many small river
basins that drain into the Atlantic are also
unique in their high fish richness by area.
THESE RIVERS CONTAIN A
DISTINCTIVE CONTINENTAL FAUNA
INCLUDING MANY ENDEMIC FISH
SPECIES.
Selected Species: The ecoregion includes several
fish species from a number of genera adapted
to turbulent waters: Amphilius, Paramphilius,
Chiloglanis, and Labeo. Individual fish
species include Epiplatys njalaensis, E.
olbrechtsi, and West African catfish
(Chrysichthys maurus). The endemic Mount
Nimba otter shrew (Micropotamogale
lamottei), which inhabits montane streams on
Mount Nimba, is endangered. The imperiled
pygmy hippo (Choeropsis liberiensis) inhabits
the forested watercourses of the lower coastal
basins. A number of frogs are restricted to this
ecoregion, such as Astylosternus occidentalis,
Hyperolius occidentalis, Cardioglossa
aureoli, and Bufo cristiglans.
General Threats:Deforestation is heavy within
certain areas of this ecoregion and much of
the original forest cover has been removed to
open land to agriculture. Mining of iron ore
and diamonds in Liberia is causing the
siltation of rivers and the loss of much
riverine vegetation. Another threat to the
biodiversity of the region is the political
instability in Liberia and Sierra Leone has
weakened the ability of these countries to
manage their natural resources.
U
adagascar Freshwater [162] –
Madagascar
Geographic Location: Island off southeast coast
of Africa
Biodiversity Features: The island has an elevated
plateau from which short, swift rivers flow
over a narrow strip of land as they descend to
the Indian Ocean to the east. But to the west,
long rivers flow down from the central
plateaus across sedimentary beds into the
Mozambique Channel. Due to climatic
variability throughout the island, the rivers
and streams are remarkably diverse, although
they all experience seasonal flooding and high
discharges. The freshwater fish of Madagascar
demonstrate high levels of endemicity,
particularly at higher taxonomic levels, with
fourteen endemic genera and one endemic
family (Bedotiidae). Several taxa also occupy
“key” basal phylogenetic positions, important
for understanding the evolution of fishes.
Endemic aquatic mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, gastropods, and crustaceans also
inhabit these freshwater systems. Although
poorly studied, aquatic insects are also
thought to be highly endemic at the generic
and species levels. ONE OF THE WORLD’S
MOST DISTINCTIVE FRESHWATER
BIOTAS WITH MANY REGIONAL AND
LOCAL ENDEMICS AND UNUSUAL
HIGHER TAXA
Selected Species: The majority of the endemic
freshwater fishes of Madagascar are from the
herring (Clupeidae), sea catfish (Ariidae),
bedotiid (Bedotiidae), sleeeper (Eleotridae),
rivuline (Aplocheilidae), goby (Gobiidae) and
cichlid (Cichlidae) families. A few of the
endemic freshwater fishes of Madagascar are
Chonophorus macrorhynchus, Teramulus
kienerie, and Rheocles alaotrensis. The region
contains a number of unusual aquatic plants,
and is home to the endemic aquatic tenrec
(Limnogale mergulus), one member of a
family of insectivorous mammals restricted to
Madagascar. Freshwater courses and their
adjacent habitats also support the rare
M
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
endemic turtle Eretmochelys
madagascariensis, a large aquatic lizard
(Scelotes astrolabi), and many endemic frogs.
A rich community of endemic decapod
crustaceans, including six species of
parastacid crayfishes (Astacoides spp.), at
least twenty speceis of atyid shrimps
(Caridina spp.), three species of palaemonid
shrimps (Machrobrachiumspp.), and nine
species of patamonid crabs, inhabit the
island’s rivers and streams. Madagascar also
has a rich freshwater gastropod fauna, with 30
species, 12 endemics and one endemic genus
(Melanatria).
General Threats: The freshwater fishes of
Madagascar are considered the island’s most
endangered vertebrates. Habitat degradation
due to deforestation and agriculture,
overfishing, and introduced species are
considered the main causes of species decline.
Deforestation of upland forests has resulted in
siltation, temperature increases, algal blooms
and flow increases from runoff. Overfishing
has played a major role in the decline of the
island’s native cichlid fauna and possibly
some of the larger Rheocles. In many rivers
and streams, exotic fish species now dominate
the fish fauna. Among the most problematic
exotic species are water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes), floating fern, Salvinia natans; and
fish including Xiphophorus helleri, Cyprinus
carpio, Carassius auratus, Micropterus
salmoides, Tilapia zillii, T. sparrmani, and
Ophiocephalus striatus.
genera live in these waters. The ecoregion has
the second highest fish species richness of
river systems in Africa. SOME OF THE
HIGHEST RICHNESS AND ENDEMISM
LEVELS FOR FRESHWATER BIOTAS IN
AFRICA, HIGH BETA DIVERSITY
Selected Species: Species include a variety of
endemic killifish (Aphyosemion spp.), barbs
(Barbus spp.), and cichlids (Cichlidae). Parts
of this ecoregion reportedly support the
highest densities of amphibian species in
mainland Africa. The most distinctive of
these, the goliath frog (Conraua goliath), is
the world’s largest living frog, with adults
reported to reach 3.25 kg in weight. These
waters are also home to the giant African
water shrew (Potomogale velox).
General Threats:The planned construction of
dams on many of these coastal rivers (e.g., the
Ntem and Kouilou rivers) and continued
deforestation in the area are the biggest threats
to the aquatic habitats and species in the
ecoregion. The aquarium trade and introduced
species also threaten native fish populations.
ape Rivers and Streams [164] – South
Africa
Geographic Location: Southern Africa
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregions rivers are
influenced by the surrounding fynbos
vegetation, which releases organic acids and
stains the waters a dark hue. Streams within
the region flow out of the Cape Fold
mountains, and consequently contain highgradient habitats. These waters support a
highly distinctive fish, invertebrate, and plant
biota, including a number of endemics. Many
of these species may be relictual. HIGHLY
DISTINCTIVE AQUATIC BIOTA,
EXHIBITING HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMSIM
Selected Species: The Cape is home to two nearendemic fish genera, Austroglanis and
Pseudobarbus, with two and six species in the
ecoregion, respectively. Of biogeographic
interest is the presence of Cape galaxias
(Galaxius zebratus), the distribution of the
Galaxiidae family in Australia, Africa, and
South America gives clear evidence for
C
ulf of Guinea Rivers and Streams [163] –
[163] – Angola, Cameroon, Democratic
Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea,
Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo
Geographic Location: Western Africa
Biodiversity Features: The rivers in this ecoregion
run through equatorial forest and savanna
before emptying into the Gulf of Guinea.
Some of the principal rivers are the Cross,
Ogooué, Sanaga, Nyong, Ntem, and Kouilou
Rivers. These rivers contain some of the
highest endemism levels for any of Africa's
riverine freshwater systems. At least ten
endemic species of crabs in several endemic
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
continental drift. Streams and their associated
wetlands and springs provide important
habitat for a number of endangered or
otherwise sensitive amphibian species. Among
these are Rose’s toadlet (Capensibufo rosei),
the endangered Hewitt’s ghost frog
(Heleophryne hewitti), Cape caco
(Cacosternum capense), the endangered Table
Mountain ghost frog (H. rosei), and the micro
frog (Microbatrachella capensis).
General Threats: Introduced species, particularly
North American gamefishes such as
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and
smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu), have heavily
impacted indigenous species. Water is in great
demand in this dry ecoregion, with both urban
and agricultural uses competing with the
needs of the unique aquatic fauna. The
construction of dams and interbasin water
transfers alter the natural flow regime and
block species movements. As urban and
agricultural areas in this ecoregion expand,
pollution will continue to pose an additional
threat.
Selected Species: The diverse assemblage of
spectacular forms found in New Guinea’s
freshwaters include sharks, sawfish, and large
saltwater crocodiles. Imperiled endemic fish
species include Oktedi rainbowfish
(Melanotaenia oktediensis) and glass blue-eye
(Kiunga ballochi). Multiple freshwater turtle
species are imperiled, including the Fly River
turtle (Carettochelys insculpta), two snakenecked turtles (Chelodina parkeri, C.
pritchardi), and two soft-shelled turtles
(Pelochelys bibroni and P. cantorii).
Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) and certain
other aquatic species are of great economic
importance as commercial food sources.
General Threats: Deforestation as a result of
commercial agriculture and industrial logging,
which leads to increased erosion and altered
hydrologic regimes, poses one of the most
significant threats. Road building in
association with logging has opened up new
lands to shifting agriculture. Pollution from
mining is a serious problem in this ecoregion,
and pollution from industrial logging,
agricultural processing, and urban sewage is
nearly as important. Overfishing, both for
subsistence use and the commercial trade,
threatens native species. Exotics such as
tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica) and water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) place
additional stresses on the island biota, and
populations of exotics are apparently growing
rapidly. The wildlife trade also threatens
reptiles such as the saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus), which is heavily hunted
in the Sepik River region and elsewhere for its
skins and live export.
Australasia
ew Guinea Rivers and Streams [165] –
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: New Guinea’s central
highlands divide the island into two faunal
provinces, with the southern rivers containing
the greater share of diversity. The freshwater
organisms of New Guinea are mostly of
marine origin, but they have evolved into
numerous forms. Within the enormous
southward-flowing Fly River alone there are
over 100 fish species, representing 33
families. The Sepik River, also large, is less
diverse but serves as a corridor for many
marine and marine-derived taxa. This
ecoregion also shares with Australia a diverse
freshwater crab fauna of the family
Parathelphusidae. DISTINCTIVE ISLAND
FRESHWATER FAUNA WITH HIGH
ENDEMISM AND UNUSUAL ADAPTIVE
RADIATIONS
N
ew Caledonia Rivers and Streams [166] –
New Caledonia (France)
Geographic Location: South Pacific Ocean
Biodiversity Features: New Caledonia's
exceptionally distinctive biota extends to its
freshwater ecosystems. The freshwater biota
contains endemic species of fish, crustaceans,
snails, other invertebrates, and plants. Ten
species of freshwater shrimp and a group of
rare freshwater sponges with at least four
species are found on the island. Over 70
N
139
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
species of freshwater fishes have successfully
invaded these island waters and at least 50
species of hydrobiid snails have been
described. GLOBALLY DISTINCTIVE
ISLAND BIOTA WITH UNUSUAL HIGHER
TAXA
Selected Species: Among the seventy-plus native
fishes, five species of migratory eel occur in
this ecoregion: Anguilla mozambica, A.
marmorata, A. megastoma, A. obscure and A.
reinhardtii. The freshwater snake-eel
(Lamnostoma kampeni) is also an unusual
inhabitant of these waters. New Caledonian
habitats support a wide array of molluscs,
including four genera of freshwater spring
snails (Kanakyella, Pidaconomus,
Caledoconcha, and Leiorhagium) that have
recently been described.
General Threats: Large areas of New Caledonia
are mined for nickel, iron, copper, gold and
other minerals. Threats also include
agriculture, grazing, logging, bush fires and
associated water pollution.
Barnett River gudgeon (Hypseleotris
kimberleyensis), and the only two members of
the endemic genus Kimberleyeleotris,
Mitchell gudgeon (K. hutchinsi) and Drysdale
gudgeon (K. notata). In addition to a number
of aquatic snakes, such as Liasis fuscus,
freshwaters in this ecoregion also support
populations of several aquatic lizards,
including Mitchell’s and Mertens’ water
monitors (Varanus mitchelli, V. mertinsi).
Turtles found in this ecoregion include
northern snake-necked turtle (Chelodina
rugosa), northern snapping turtle (Elseya
dentata), and Victoria short-necked turtle
(Emydura victoriae). Both freshwater
crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni) and
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)
occur here as well.
General Threats: Overgrazing and resulting
sedimentation are among the largest threats in
this ecoregion. Mining is also an important
land use, and tourism is becoming
increasingly popular. There is only one large
dam in the ecoregion. Potential problems are
associated with the presence of a number of
introduced species in this ecoregion’s rivers.
Two important areas for freshwater
biodiversity are found within the protected
areas of Drysdale River National Park and
Prince Regent Nature Reserve.
imberley Rivers and Streams [167] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Northwestern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Characterized by a rugged
landscape transected by number of perennial
streams and marked by ephemeral freshwater
swamps, this ecoregion exhibits a freshwater
fauna with high levels of endemism. In
particular, the fish fauna of nearly 50 species
has about 25% endemism. Notable for their
endemicity are several families of fish,
including gudgeons (Eleotridae), grunters
(Terapontidae), hardyheads (Atherinidae), and
rainbowfish (Melanotaeniidae). REGIONAL
CENTER OF DIVERSITY WITH HIGH
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM AMONG FISHES
AND OTHER TAXA
Selected Species: Freshwater fish include several
species of venomous eel-tail catfishes
(Tandanus spp.), Kimberley grunter
(Syncomistes kimberleyensis), Greenway’s
grunter (Hannia greenwayi), and pygmy
rainbowfish (Melanotaenia pygmaea).
Endemic fish in the Eleotridae family include
slender gudgeon (Hypseleotris ejuncida),
K
outhwest Australia Rivers and Streams
[168] – Australia
Geographic Location: Southwestern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Comprised of short coastal
rivers, this region exhibits lower species
richness than that of eastern Australia, but
high levels of endemism due to long periods
of isolation. Nine of fourteen fish species are
endemic, as are twelve of nineteen fairy
shrimp (Anostraca) species. The ephemeral
pools and marshes that form among granitic
outcrops also support unusual species adapted
to unpredictable water availability, such as
plants of the Lycopsida group, and
chrironomid midges. CENTER OF
ENDEMISM; ALSO HARBORS SEVERAL
PRIMITIVE HIGHER TAXA AND
SEVERAL SPECIES WITH HIGHLY
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
UNUSUAL FRESHWATER LIFE
HISTORIES.
Selected Species: Among this ecoregion’s
distinctive species is the salamanderfish
(Lepidogalaxias salamandroides), the only
species in the family Lepidogalaxiidae. The
salamanderfish may be related to galaxiids, of
which there are three endemic species in this
ecoregion as well: western minnow (Galaxia
occidentalis), black-stripe minnow (Galaxiella
nigrostriata), and western mud minnow (G.
munda). Other endemics are freshwater
cobbler (Tandanus bostocki), nightfish
(Bostockia porosa), western pygmy perch
(Edelia vittata), long-headed goby
(Afurcagobius suppositus), and King River
perchlet (Nannatherina balstoni). In addition,
the anadromous and monotypic pouched
lamprey (Geotria australis) inhabits this
ecoregion.
General Threats: A number of introduced species,
including rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus
mykiss) and brown trout (Salmo trutta), have
proliferated in streams and rivers of the
region. With the exception of one endemic
species, all of the exotic species far outsize
the native freshwater fauna found here.
Habitat loss, particulary of important
ephemeral pools; alteration of the natural flow
regime; and negative impacts from
agricultural practices, including loss of
riparian buffers, all pose threats to the native
biota. In addition, loss of natural vegetation in
many areas has led to increased salinization of
land and adjacent streams.
dragonflies (Odonata), mayflies
(Ephemeroptera), and mountain shrimp
(Syncarida), the latter restricted to Tasmania.
Tasmania is also home to 15 species of
galaxiid fishes in three genera. THE MOST
DISTINCTIVE FRESHWATER BIOTAS IN
AUSTRALIA ARE FOUND IN THE
AQUATIC HABITATS OF THIS
ECOREGION, INCLUDING MANY LOCAL
ENDEMIC SPECIES AND RELICT TAXA.
MANY SPECIES OF ANCIENT
GONDWANAN ORIGIN, INCLUDING THE
LUNGFISH
Selected Species: The most famous resident of
eastern Australia’s freshwater systems is the
platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus). The
ecoregion includes an unusual group of
gastric-brooding frogs in the genus
Rheobatrachus. A large number of freshwater
snails in the family Hydrobiidae have very
localized distributions within portions of the
ecoregion. Characteristic fish species include
one of the world’s largest freshwater fish
(reaching lengths greater than 1.5 m), Murray
cod (Maccullochella peelii), and lungfish
(Neoceratodus fosteri), which is the only
living representative of the Ceratodontidae
family. Among the many endemic fishes are
Murray jollytail (Galaxias rostratus), the
primitive spotted bonytongue (Scleropages
leichardti), and the migratory Australian
grayling (Prototroctes maraena), which may
be the only extant member of its genus and is
considered vulnerable. Tasmania has a highly
endemic fish fauna of its own, including
Shannon paragalaxias (Paragalaxias
dissimilis) and Tasmanian whitebait (Lovettia
sealii). Distinctive endemic crayfish include
the massive Tasmanian Astacopis gouldi, and
the diminutive Tenuibranchiurus glypticus.
General Threats: Threats to freshwater
biodiversity are numerous. Rivers and
streams have been highly modified by the
construction of weirs and dams,
channelization, and the removal of riparian
vegetation. Agricultural, urban, and industrial
pollution are growing problems in some areas.
Introduced species, including fish and aquatic
plants, threaten natives; these exotics include
species translocated from other Australian
astern Australia Rivers and Streams
[169] – Australia
Geographic Location: Eastern Australia
Biodiversity Features: Both species richness and
endemism are high in eastern Australia’s
streams, in contrast to streams in western
regions. Southeast Australia has a particularly
species-rich and endemic crayfish (family
Parastacidae) fauna, and the ecoregion’s
freshwater fish fauna is distinguished by its
high endemicity as well. Rivers, lakes, and
springs of this ecoregion contain numerous
relict species, including many species of
E
141
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
regions. Aquaculture threatens to further the
spread of nonnative species, as well as to
release wastewater to freshwater ecosystems.
Forest clearing for agriculture and timber
production, and subsequent increases in
sedimentation, may be one of the most serious
problems.
Geographic Location: Southwestern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The small rivers and
streams draining the old and relatively stable
Western Ghats host a highly endemic aquatic
biota. Over 100 fish and about 20 percent of
the mollusc species are endemic to this
ecoregion. Additionally, nearly 100
amphibian species may be endemic to this
ecoregion. ISOLATED REGION
CHARACTERIZED BY SMALL COASTAL
DRAINAGES WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Eighteen fish species in six
families are recognized as threatened,
including Malabar batasio (Batasio
travancoria), Peninsular hilltrout
(Lepidopygopsis typus), six species in the
genus Hypselobarbus, and Indian blind catfish
(Horaglanis krishnai). Two endemic genera
of gastropods, Turbinicola and
Cremnoconchus, also live here.
General Threats: Deforestation and its consequent
effects on water quality and flow regimes pose
the largest threats to freshwater systems in this
ecoregion, particularly through increased
sedimentation. Conversion of forest to
agriculture (e.g., rubber plantations) is an
additional threat. Fish are also harvested
intensively by growing populations.
Urbanization, construction of dams, and water
diversion projects are expected to increasingly
threaten the integrity of these systems.
Indo-Malayan
i Jiang Rivers and Streams [170] –
China, Vietnam
Geographic Location: Southeastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: The southern margin of
China is characterized by a distinctive
landscape of karst limestone, where hills,
sinkholes, and caverns abound. This
landscape is traversed by the Xi Jiang River,
China’s second largest river. The ecoregion
defined by the river and its tributaries contains
over 380 freshwater, brackish, and
anadromous fish species, and approximately
120 of these may be endemic. DISTINCTIVE
FISH FAUNA EXHIBITING HIGH DEGREE
OF RICHNESS FOR FISHES IN A
TEMPERATE REGION, INCLUDING
PRONOUNCED ENDEMISM.
Selected Species: This ecoregion’s migratory fish
species include the rare Chinese sturgeon
(Acipenser sinensis) and two shads
(Tenualosa reevesii and Clupanodon thrissa).
General Threats: Over 3000 dams have been built
on the Xi Jiang River and its tributaries,
blocking the migration of freshwater and
anadromous species. Over seventy-five
percent of land in the basin is cropland and
eighty percent of the original forest has been
lost. Thus, the landscape around the rivers
and streams has been severely changed,
leaving little of the natural vegetation to
buffer water flowing overland to the streams.
One result is water pollution. Population in
the delta of this river is expected to double
over the next 25-50 years, and with an
increasing population will come an increasing
need for fresh water.
X
outhwestern Sri Lanka Rivers and Streams
[172] – Sri Lanka
Geographic Location: Island to the Southeast of
India, southern Asia
Biodiversity Features: Much of Sri Lanka is arid;
consequently there are few perennial rivers.
However, the southwestern region’s wet zone
is characterized by numerous rivers that arise
in the high mountains of the central part of the
island. These diverse river basins support
endemic populations of aquatic plants,
bivalves, and fish. Sri Lanka’s known
freshwater species include 90 fish and 21
crabs, yet ongoing studies suggest that the
number of undescribed species is potentially
quite large, especially given revision of earlier
S
estern Ghats Rivers and Streams [171] –
India
W
142
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
taxonomies. DISTINCTIVE ISLAND
FAUNA WITH HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Several fish species of an
endemic barb genus, Puntius, are considered
vulnerable: P. cumingii, P. nigrofasciatus, P.
martenstyni, P. pleurotaenia, and P. titteya.
One species, P. bandula, is crictically
endangered. A number of other endemics are
found in these streams, including several
species of concern: a loach
(Lepidocephalichthys jonklaasi), rasporas
(Rasbora wilpita, R. vaterifloris), and a
gourami (Malphuhutta kretseri).
General Threats: Deforestation for fuelwood and
agriculture, along with instream habitat
alteration, has damaged many of the
freshwater ecosystems. A number of species
adapted to still or slow-water environments
are threatened by conversion of habitats for
rice cultivation. The introduction and
dispersal of several exotic species has
increased pressure on natives. Pesticide use
and collection of fish for the aquarium trade
pose additional threats.
dentata), giant Asian pond terrapin (Heosemys
grandis), and bigheaded turtle (Platysternon
megacephalum). The Salween delta and
associated wetlands also support populations
of fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Asian
small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), and
Siamese crocodile (Crocodylus siamensis).
General Threats: Intensive agriculture, fishing,
and mining are all threats in this ecoregion.
Until recently, hills in the drainage of the
Salween were extensively logged, but this
activity has been banned out of concern that
siltation increases flooding downstream. In
addition, the construction of dams and
interbasin water transfers pose significant
problems for the integrity of these freshwater
systems, and in particular for migratory
species. As this part of Southeast Asia is
poised to undergo rapid economic
development, a large increase in the number
of dams on the Salween and its tributaries
seems almost inevitable. Mitigation of the
effects of dams will be an important
conservation strategy for this region.
undaland Rivers and Swamps [174] –
Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion contains a
diversity of freshwater habitats, including hill
streams, lowland floodplains, and peat
swamps. The fish and decapod crustaceans of
this ecoregion are remarkably rich and
differentiated, with endemic species found in
many individual river basins. Known
freshwater fish species total 272 in Sumatra
and 394 in Borneo. While many of these are
common to both islands, Borneo has 149
endemic fish and Sumatra has 30. LIKELY
THE RICHEST FRESHWATER FAUNAS IN
ASIA WITH MUCH ISLAND AND LOCAL
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Endemic freshwater fish include
several shark catfish of the Pangasius genus;
several bettas (Betta spp.), four species of
hillstream loaches (Protomyzon spp.), and
tapah (Wallago maculatus). Also present is
the endangered Asian arowana (Scleropages
formosus).
S
alween River [173] – China, Myanmar,
Thailand
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: The Salween River
originates in the eastern highlands of the
Tibetan Plateau and flows through valleys that
are at first steep and narrow, then increasingly
broad as the river appraoches the tropical
lowlands. Eventually it enters the Andaman
Sea in eastern Myanmar. About 140 fish live
in this river and approximately one-third of
these are endemic. Minnows (Cyprinidae) are
the most diverse group of fish. This area is
also home to the world’s most diverse turtle
community, with between 10 and 15 genera of
turtles represented, many of which are riverine
species. HABITATS IN THIS ECOREGION
SUPPORT A RICH AND ENDEMIC
FRESHWATER FAUNA
Selected Species: Endemic fish species include
Hampala salweenensis and Hypsibarbus
salweenensis. Freshwater turtles found in the
Salween include stream terrapin (Cyclemys
S
143
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
species other than fish include Mabee’s
salamander (Ambystoma mabeei), dwarf
waterdog (Necturus punctatus), Neuse River
waterdog (N. lewisi), ringed map turtle
(Graptemys oculifera), Everglades crayfish
(Procambarus alleni), and Florida applesnail
(Pomacea paludosa).
General Threats: This ecoregion is in one of the
most highly populated areas in the United
States, and it is rapidly growing. Despite the
fact that this is a well-watered region, humans
are competing with aquatic species for water.
Interbasin water transfers and dams are
prevalent, and new projects are planned.
Aquatic habitats are further modified through
widespread channelization. Pollution from
acid rain, deforestation, roads, agriculture,
urbanization, and industrialization places
additional stresses on native species.
Introduction of nonnative species like Asiatic
clam (Corbicula fluminea) and zebra mussel
(Dreissena polymorpha) threaten native
mussel populations, and exotic fish pose
similar threats to native fish.
General Threats: Deforestation for logging,
conversion to agriculture, overfishing, exotics,
the aquaculture industry, and mining pollution
threaten these habitats and their native
species. Proposed hydropower dams on highgradient streams would jeopardize the natural
flow regime and species movements.
Nearctic
outheastern Rivers and Streams[175] –
United States
Geographic Location: Southeastern North
America
Biodiversity Features: This large region, covering
nearly 10 percent of the United States, holds
some of the most species-rich coastal river
ecosystems in the world. Within the Roanoke
River basin alone, more than 200 fish species
are found, of which six are endemic. Other
highly diverse aquatic groups include
bivalves, snails, and crayfish. One of few
natural lakes in the Southeast United States,
Lake Waccamaw was likely formed by a
meteoric impact and harbors several endemic
fish—a highly unusual evolutionary
phenomenon. ONE OF THE MOST
DIVERSE COASTAL RIVER
ECOREGIONS, WITH HIGH RICHNESS
AND ENDEMISM OF FISH AND
FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATES
Selected Species: Fish species include local
endemics such as Waccamaw silverside
(Menidia extensa), Waccamaw killifish
(Fundulus waccamensis), and Waccamaw
darter (Etheostoma perlongum). Numerous
other fishes found in the ecoregions streams
include cyprinids (e.g, fieryback shiner
(Cyprinella pyrrohmela), redlip shiner
(Notropis chiliticus), blackmouth shiner
(Notropis melanostomus), blacktip shiner
(Lythrurus atrapiculus)), darters (e.g.,
Choctawhatchee darter (E. davisoni), southern
logperch (Percina autroperca), Florida sand
darter (Etheostoma bifascia), Okaloosa darter
(E. okaloosae)), suckers (e.g., greater jumprock
(Moxostoma lachneri), grayfin redhorse
(Moxostoma sp.)), and larger species like
alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula). Aquatic
S
acific Northwest Coastal Rivers and
Streams [176] – United States
Geographic Location: Northwest coast of North
America
Biodiversity Features: The rivers and streams of
the northwestern United States, specifically
the Sacramento/San Joaquin River basin in the
Central Valley of California, the Klamath
River basin, and coastal streams and rivers of
Oregon, contain many endemic species.
These rivers also support large numbers of
migratory fish that ascend from the ocean to
freshwater environments to spawn.
DISTINGUISHED BY LARGE-SCALE
MIGRATIONS OF ANADROMOUS FISH,
CONTAINS NUMEROUS ENDEMIC
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Selected Species: The most prominent migrating
species are salmon, including pink
(Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum (O. keta),
chinook (O. tshawytscha), coho (O. kisutch),
and sockeye (O. nerka). Other migrating fish
include multiple species of trout, lamprey,
sturgeon, sculpin, and stickleback. Some of
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the endemic fish species are Pit-Klamath
brook lamprey (Lampetra lethophaga),
western brook lamprey (L. richardsoni), white
sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus),
Sacramento blackfish (Orthodon
microlepidontus), Klamath smallscale sucker
(Catostomus rimiculus), and Sacramento
squawfish (Ptychocheilus grandis). Endemic
invertebrates include Shasta crayfish
(Pacifastacus fortis) and endemic syncarid
shrimp species (Syncaris spp.)
General Threats: Clear-cut logging causes severe
damage to these freshwater systems, through
siltation, increased water temperatures, and
altered flow regimes. Introduced species
threaten native fish and invertebrates; of the
present-day fish fauna in the region, nearly 40
percent may be introduced species, most from
eastern North America. Other threats include
water diversion and impoundment, which,
among other effects, disrupt fish migration
routes. In addition, there is growing concern
that warming ocean temperatures may
adversely affect migrating salmonids during
the oceanic portion of their life cycle. In some
areas, overfishing is also a problem.
anaktuvukensis), and numerous anadromous
salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha, O. nerka,
O. mykiss, O. gorbuscha, O. keta, and O.
kisutch). Endemic fish found here are Olympic
mudminnow (Novumbra hubbsi) and Salish
sucker (Catostomus sp.).
General Threats: Sedimentation from clear-cut
logging, development near urban areas, and
expanding agriculture pollutes some of the
rivers and streams in this area, although large
portions of the ecoregion are in areas with few
people. Oil spills, pipelines, dams, and
overfishing are other threats to the migrating
fish and other species of this region.
Destructive logging practices are the largest
and most extensive threat. In addition, there is
growing concern that warming ocean
temperatures may adversely affect migrating
salmonids during the oceanic portion of their
life cycle.
Neotropical
uianan Freshwater [178] – Brazil, French
French Guiana (France), Guyana,
Suriname, Venezuela
Geogrpahic Location – northeastern South
America
Biodiversity Features: The coastal rivers of this
ecoregion drain the Guyana Shield and
contain a wide range of flowing water
habitats—cataracts, rapids, and riparian
flooded forests, among others. Though poorly
investigated, these rivers are known to support
a very diverse, highly intact, and notably
endemic freshwater fauna. In many rivers,
local endemism is the result of isolating
waterfalls. INTACT FRESHWATER
FAUNA EXHIBITING HIGH DEGREE OF
ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Among the numerous species
found in this important freshwater system are
the imperiled arapaima (Arapaima gigas),
giant South American river turtle
(Podocnemis expansa), black caiman
(Melanosuchus niger), and arowana
(Osteoglossum bicirrhosum). This ecoregion
provides some of the best remaining habitat
for giant river otter (Pteronura brasiliensis).
G
ulf of Alaska Coastal Rivers and
Streams [177] – Canada, United States
Geographic Location: Upper western coast of
North America, including Kodiak Island, the
Alexander Archipelago, Vancouver Island and
the Queen Charlotte Islands
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion is
particularly important for its high
concentrations of anadromous fish. These
species serve as keystone elements by
transferring marine-derived nutrients to the
freshwater realm on an annual basis. Parts of
this ecoregion escaped glaciation and harbor
localized endemics, particularly among cavedwelling invertebrates. ONE OF MOST
IMPORTANT REGIONS FOR
ANADROMOUS FISH SPAWNING RUNS
Selected Species: Species include Arctic lamprey
(Lampetra japonica), broad whitefish
(Coregonus nasus), Alaska whitefish (C.
nelsoni), Arctic cisco (C. autumnalis),
Angayukaksurak char (Salvelinus
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
General Threats: The freshwater habitats of this
ecoregion remain relatively intact and support
a generally stable freshwater biota. However,
valuable game species, such as the enormous
arapaima and some reptiles, are imperiled as a
result of overexploitation and an illegal border
trade. Deforestation, as a result of logging,
fuelwood harvest, mining, and agriculture, has
led to erosion, sedimentation, and altered
hydrologic regimes. Extraction of trees for
telephone and electricity poles is also a
serious problem in certain forest types, and
many wildfires have resulted from charcoal
and agricultural production. Agricultural
activities contribute pesticides to the
ecoregion’s waters, and industrial and
domestic wastes have polluted much of the
water on the coastal plain. Gold and bauxite
mining are important activities in this
ecoregion, and a series of cyanide spills linked
to gold mining activities signals a continuing
threat in this ecoregion. Finally, water
extraction may become a problem, even in this
well-watered area.
Selected Species: Characteristic native Antillean
freshwater fishes include Cuban gar
(Attractosteus tristoechus), Hispaniolan
gambusia (Gambusia hispaniolae), green
rivulus (Rivuluscylindraceus), and Hispaniola
pupfish (Cyprinodon bondi). The most
threatened New World crocodile, Crocodylus
rhombifer, survives in the Zapata Swamp, a
located in southwestern Cuba. The
widespread American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus) also occurs in this ecoregion.
General Threats: Clearing of forests and
conversion of land to agriculture are major
threats to the integrity of the freshwater
systems of the islands. Growing human
populations put pressure on these freshwater
systems through discharge of untreated
sewage and other pollutants resulting from
urban development. Introduction of exotic
species, particularly tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus), have been detrimental to native
fish populations.
reater Antillean Freshwater [179] –
Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto
Rico (United States).
Geographic Location: Caribbean
Biodiversity Features: Unlike the fauna of most
island freshwater streams, the species found in
Greater Antillean streams are generally not
derived from marine organisms, but are more
closely related to continental forms. This
ecoregion has a high degree of endemism,
with at least 70 species of native freshwater
fishes, many of which are restricted to
individual river basins. The family
Poecillidae, with five genera and over 40 fish
species, dominates the fish fauna. Seven
species of freshwater crabs from one genus
are endemic to Cuba. Karstic systems are a
largely unexplored habitat type on these
islands and will likely result in the discovery
of more endemic freshwater species.
UNUSUAL FRESHWATER FORMS
DERIVED FROM CONTINENTAL
ANCESTORS, INCLUDING ENDEMIC
FISH AND CRABS
alkan Rivers and Streams [180] – Albania,
Albania, Bosnia and Herzogovina, Bulgaria,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia,
Turkey, Yugoslavia
Geographic Location: Southeastern Europe
Biodiversity Features:Much of southern Europe
escaped recent glaciation, thus diversity
within drainages tends to be higher than in
northern Europe. In addition to escaping
glaciation the Balkans contain extensive areas
of karst topography that support an endemic
troglobitic freshwater biota. The Balkans
region hosts an extremely diverse and highly
endemic gastropod fauna, with about 200
known species. For example, the Sava River
alone harbors 103 gastropod species, of which
54 are endemic. Many endemic fish species
and genera are also present in the ecoregion.
DISTINCTIVE EUROPEAN FISH AND
MOLLUSC FAUNA WITH RELATIVELY
HIGH LEVELS OF REGIONAL AND
LOCAL ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Restricted mainly to the
Dalmatian karst area of Bosnia-Herzogovina,
Palearctic
G
B
146
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the highly endangered Dalmatian barbel
gudgeon (Aulopyge hügeli) inhabits both
above-ground rivers and subterranean karst
rivers. Subterranean watercourses in the
ecoregion also support populations of the
highly endangered and endemic olm, or blind
salamander (Proteus anguinus), as well as
many endemic invertebrates. Endemic trout
live in the rivers and lakes of this ecoregion,
including Ohrid (Salmo letnica), marbled
(Salmo marmoratus), and belushka
(Acantholingua ohridana) trouts, as well as S.
dentex. The ecoregion is home to a number of
other endemic and rare fishes, many of which
are vulnerable, endangered, or even critically
endangered. Among these species are Greek
brook lamprey (Eudontomyzon hellenicus),
Leuciscus illyricus, and Phoxinellus ghetaldii.
General Threats: The aftermath of recent conflicts
in this region includes large-scale movements
of refugees across the region and pollution
and fires originating from bombed industrial
sources. Runoff of agricultural chemicals and
industrial waste, as well as untreated sewage
effluents, also pollute the waterways in many
parts of this ecoregion. Dams have altered the
hydrology of many of the rivers in this region
and planned projects are expected to continue
to drastically change the environments in
which many native species have evolved.
There is great concern about the ability of the
many localized endemics to survive these
changes. The ecoregion also includes a large
number of introduced species that are believed
to negatively impact native species. For
example, hybridization of the rare marbled
trout, Salmo marmoratus, with introduced
brown trout, S. trutta, has reduced the genetic
integrity of the native species.
Amur River supports more fish species than
any other Russian river with over 120 species.
Molluscs and crustaceans are especially
diverse, comprising a special Far East
complex. Of the molluscs, approximately a
dozen species may face extinction. This
ecoregion also contains some of Asia’s most
extensive temperate reedbeds and wet
meadows. These wetlands support a rich bird
fauna, including endangered cranes, along
with some endemic and rare plant species.
ONE OF THE RICHEST FRESHWATER
ECOREGIONS IN EURASIA,
PARTICULARLY FOR FISH SPECIES,
ANCIENT RIVER SYSTEMS
Selected Species: Sturgeons and migratory salmon
include Amur (Acipenser schrenckii),
Sakhalin (A. mikadoi), and kaluga (Huso
dauricus) sturgeon, and chum (Oncorhynchus
keta) and pink (O. gorbuscha) salmon. The
threatened red-crowned (Grus japonensis) and
white-naped (G. vipio) cranes are protected in
wetland reserves adjacent to the Amur River.
Other inhabitants include soft-skinned Far
Eastern turtle (Amyda sinensis), Ussuri softshelled turtle (Trionyx sinensis), Amur pike
(Esox reichertii), Amur whitefish (Coregonus
ussuriensis), the mussel, Middendorffinaia
ussuriensis, and long-tailed clawed
salamander (Onychodactylus fischeri).
General Threats: Fishing pressure in parts of this
ecoregion is intense, including poaching of
salmon on breeding grounds for roe and
driftnetting for salmon in international waters.
Oil and gas drilling threaten fish habitat
through dumping of drilling muds and the
potential of oil spills. Heavy metal loading of
waterways is occurring due to mining in the
region. Logging of surrounding forests also
places stress on the rivers and streams of this
region, as riparian buffers are logged and
sedimentation increases.
ussian Far East Rivers and Wetlands
[181] – China, Mongolia, Russia
Geographic Location: Eastern coast of north Asia
Biodiversity Features: Headwater streams,
floodplain lakes, deltas, and highland lakes
are among the diversity of habitats represented
in this ecoregion. The ecoregion supports a
high fish diversity and globally outstanding
populations of salmon and sturgeon. The
R
Large Lakes
Scattered across the Earth’s surface are a number
of Large Lakes, characterized as such by large
surface areas and often by very deep water. Many
of these lakes are quite old and contain a high
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Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
diversity of habitats. These systems support fishes
and other aquatic organisms that are uniquely
adapted to these lacustrine conditions. Some of
these lakes support abundant animal populations,
species with unusual morphologies, or diverse
species assemblages.
zooplankton in the pelagic zone and, in turn,
provide food for the four predatory
centropomids, Lates angustifrons, L. mariae,
L. microlepis, and L. stappersii. These aquatic
habitats are also important to the persistence
of a number of frogs, including Bufo
kisoloensis, B. keringyagae, Cardioglossa
cyaneospila, and Nectophryne batesii.
General Threats: The introduction of exotic fishes
(tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, and Nile
perch, Lates niloticus) has decimated the
native cichlids of Lake Victoria, with nearly
200 species of cichlids estimated to have been
lost. Overfishing has been a substantial force
leading to declines in species abundance.
Runoff from urban areas, pollution from
industrial activities, and deforestation on steep
banks also threaten the health of the lakes.
Harvesting of species for the aquarium trade is
a potential threat to fish populations, although
the impact is unknown.
Afrotropical
ift Valley lakes [182] - Burundi, Democratic
Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda,
Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia
Geographic Location: East-central Africa
Biodiversity Features: The Great Rift Valley,
created by the moving of tectonic plates
beneath the crust of Africa, is home to many
lakes that harbor extraordinary endemic
species assemblages. Some, such as Lakes
Malawi (>800 m deep) and Tanganyika
(>1400 m deep), have formed in the rifts, but
the vast Lake Victoria is actually located in a
shallow depression between the two rifts.
Several small soda lakes in the eastern rift
represent a globally rare habitat type.
Upwards of 800 cichlids live in the lakes, with
many more species yet to be discovered. The
lakes also support high numbers of endemic
molluscs and crustaceans. Lake Tana hosts
one of only two known flocks of cyprinid fish
species in the world and is the only one that
remains intact. The species radiations of
cichlids in the Rift Valley lakes rival
radiations of terrestrial fauna in the Galápagos
and serve as a classic example of evolutionary
adaptation. GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING
ADAPTIVE RADIATIONS OF FISH IN
TROPICAL LAKES, EXTRAORDINARY
LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
Selected Species: The Rift Valley lakes are
primarily known for the extensive radiations
of fish species in the family Cichlidae.
Endemic species of the Clariidae, Claroteidae,
Mochokidae, Poecilidae, Mastacembelidae,
Centropomidae, Cyprinidae, Clupeidae and
other families are also found in these lakes. A
unique pelagic fish community has evolved in
Lake Tanganyika including two endemic
clupeids, Limnothrissa miodon and
Stolothrissa tanganicae, that feed on
R
Neotropical
igh Andean Lakes [183] – Argentina,
Bolivia, Chile, Peru
Geographic Location: Western South America
Biodiversity Features: Freshwater and saline lakes
are scattered throughout this ecoregion,
including some of the highest elevation lakes
in the world. These high altitude lakes, such
as Lake Titicaca in Peru and Bolivia, are not
particularly rich in species but they contain
many endemic fish and molluscs. For
example, Lake Titicaca hosts 23 endemic
species of the fish genus Orestias and 15
endemic gastropods. Some of the lakes also
support huge colonies of flamingos
(Phoenicoporrus spp.). UNIQUE HIGHALTITUDE FRESHWATER LAKE BIOTA
AND SALINE LAKE COMMUNITIES,
IMPORTANT RADIATIONS IN SEVERAL
FISH TAXA
Selected Species: Numerous Orestine fishes occur
in these still-water habitats, such as Orestias
chungarensis, O. laucaensis, and O.
pentlandii. The climbing (Astroblepidae) and
pencil (Trichomycteridae) catfishes are also
characteristic of the high-altitude lakes and
streams of the Andes. The threatened James
H
148
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
this ecoregion. Lake Baikal’s fish are
distinguished by a flock of 36 species in the
sculpin family Cottidae, an endemic family
(Comephoridae), and distinct stocks of
Coregonus, Thymallus, and Lota species.
The amazing aquatic diversity of the lake
includes 147 species of gastropods, 255
species of shrimp-like amphipod species, and
80 species of flatworm.
General Threats: Although industrial
development is significant, natural habitats are
not as highly fragmented as in other regions of
Russia. Major threats stem from pulp,
aluminum, and other industrial enterprises that
dump pollutants into the lake, its tributaries,
and the atmosphere. Forest clearance, fires,
agriculture, and grazing also pose significant
threats.
(Phoenicopterrus jamesi) and Andean (P.
andinus) flamingoes, as well as the endemic
horned coot (Fulica cornuta) and more
common Chilean flamingo (P.chilensis), live
in the lake environs.
General Threats: The fragile systems of these
high elevation lakes are threatened by runoff
of sediments and contaminants from mining,
agriculture, and livestock grazing activities.
Water quality has declined in several lakes
due to the input of untreated sewage and
pollution from industrial sources. Overfishing
and introduction of exotic species threaten
fish populations, particularly in Lake Titicaca.
Palearctic
ake Baikal [184] – Russia
Geographic Location: Central Asia
Biodiversity Features: Due to 25 million years of
isolation and a diversity of deep-water
habitats, the biodiversity of Lake Baikal (also
the deepest lake in the world, at 1,741 m) is
unrivaled. There are about 2,500 species of
known plants and animals in the lake, of
which 1,500 are endemic. Underwater "reefs"
of giant sponges, a unique biological
phenomenon, support a great diversity of fish,
crustaceans, molluscs, and other invertebrates.
Several large endemic fish inhabit deeper
waters and form part of the prey base of the
endemic Baikal seal (Phoca sibirica), the only
entirely landlocked seal species in the world.
Among the lake’s many habitats are recently
discovered hydrothermal vents at a depth of
about 400 meters that support sponges,
bacterial mats, snails, transparent shrimp, and
fish. ANCIENT COLD TEMPERATE LAKE
OF CENTRAL ASIA WITH UNIQUE
SPONGE REEFS AND ASSOCIATED
INVERTEBRATE AND FISH
COMMUNITIES, DEEP AND OPEN
WATER COMMUNITIES UNUSUAL AS
WELL, VERY HIGH RICHNESS AND
ENDEMISM FOR HABITAT TYPE,
INCLUDING ENDEMIC FRESHWATER
SEAL
Selected Species: The Baikal seal (Phoca sibirica)
may be the best-known endemic species of
L
ake Biwa [185] – Japan
Geographic Location: Far-eastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: Lake Biwa is one of the
oldest lakes in the world, estimated to have
originated some 4 million years ago. It is
surrounded by mountains and is fed by 460
streams. It has high species richness and
endemism, with 38 gastropods (19 endemics),
16 bivalves (9 endemics), 4 endemic fish
species; and 70 aquatic plants. The coastal
areas of the lake are also important wintering
areas for waterfowl, with over 50,000 birds
arriving in a typical year. HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM FOR TEMPERATE LAKE
Selected Species: Fish species include sunayatume
(Lampetra mitsukurii), ayu (Plecoglossus
altivelis), deme-moroko (Squalidus japonica),
Rhinogobius similis, and unagi (Anguilla
japonica). Four of the fishes endemic to this
lacustrine system are a catfish (Silurus
biwaensis), isaza (Chaenogobius isaza),
honmoroko (Opsaiichthys uncirostris), and
Gnathopogon caerulescens. Endemic
molluscs of the genera Heterogen,
Semisulcospira, Radix, Gyraulus, Anodonta,
Corbicula, and Pisidium are present in the
lake.
General Threats: The lake is the largest in Japan
and is relied upon to supply water for 14
million people, as well as industrial and other
L
149
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
uses within the watershed. Although the lake
is located in a protected area, it suffers from
threats associated with recreational use, floodcontrol measures, overfishing, and
eutrophication from excess nutrient inputs.
More than one-fourth of the watershed has
been converted for paddy field agriculture and
conifer plantations.
is an urgent need to protect Barombi Mbo due
to the many threats it faces, as well as to guard
against the introduction of exotic species.
Australasia
akes Kutubu and Sentani [187] –
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: New Guinea's relatively
small Lake Kutubu contains 11 endemic fish
species, a phenomenon rarely seen in tropical
lakes outside of those in the Rift Valley of
Africa. Lake Sentani contains two endemic
fish. Invertebrates are poorly known for this
ecoregion. DISTINCTIVE ISLAND BIOTAS
AND HIGHLY ENDEMIC FISH FAUNAS,
UNUSUAL FOR SMALL TROPICAL
LAKES
Selected Species: Endemic fish species include
Kutubu tandan (Oloplotosus torobo), Lake
Kutubu rainbowfish (Melanotaenia lacustris),
Kutubu hardyhead (Craterocephalus
lacustris), Adamson’s grunter (Hephaestus
adamsoni), Lake Kutubu mogurnda
(Mogurnda kutubuensis), blotched and
variegated mogurndas (M. spilota and M.
variegata), and Sentani rainbowfish
(Chilatherina sentaniensis).
General Threats: This ecoregion is located within
one of the least populated areas of Papua New
Guinea. Lake Kutubu is threatened by
overfishing and oil developments nearby, with
associated road-building activities and
potential for oil spills. Introduced fish species
could be very harmful to the endemic species
found in these lakes.
L
Small Lakes
Generally characterized by less surface area and
shallower waters than Large Lakes, Small Lakes
tend to support fewer taxa. However, many of
these areas support levels of endemism that are
extraordinarily high for the size of the systems.
Afrotropical
ameroon Crater Lakes [186] –
Cameroon
Geographic Location: Western Africa
Biodiversity Features: The crater lakes located in
this ecoregion include Barombi Mbo, Bermin,
Dissoni (Soden), Benakouma, Kotto, and
Mboandong. The lakes formed in the hollow
depressions of the craters left by former
volcanoes that stretch inland from the sea. The
ancient nature of these lakes together with
their isolation has led to an extremely high
level of endemism. Over 75% of the fish
species and approximately one-third of the
aquatic insects found in the crater lakes are
endemic.
Selected Species: The fish fauna is dominated by
cichlids, of which there are four endemic
genera (Konia, Myaka, Pungu and
Stomatepia). In addition to endemic fish, there
are undescribed endemic cardinid shrimps in
Lake Dissoni. The fish-eating colubrid snake,
Afronatrix anoscopus, lives in Lake Bermin.
The aquatic fauna of Lake Benakouma
remains largely unexplored.
General Threats: Threats vary from lake to lake.
Lake Barombi Mbo is an example of a lake
under high fishing pressure and suffering from
the effects of deforestation, overfishing, and
excessive water extraction. Others, like Lake
Bermin, remain relatively undisturbed. There
C
entral Sulawesi Lakes [188] – Indonesia
Geographic Location: Indonesia
Biodiversity Features: Many endemic species live
in these old, isolated lakes and several groups
of fishes, crabs, prawns, and molluscs are the
product of species radiations. Approximately
sixty endemic molluscs, over twenty-five
endemic fish, ten shrimps, and three crabs are
known from the central Sulawesi lakes.
Species radiations have occurred in the
following fish families: the sailfin silversides
C
150
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
(Telmatherinidae), halfbeaks
(Hemiramphidae), and ricefishes
(Adrianichthydae). The Matano-Towuti lake
system alone harbors twenty fish, twelve
molluscs, one endemic snake, and seven
plants. Lake Matano and the nearby lakes also
support many rare aquatic plants, including
floating ferns. DISTINCTIVE AND HIGHLY
ENDEMIC BIOTA OF TROPICAL ISLAND
LAKES, SPECIES RADIATIONS
Selected Species: Distinctive species include
Matano ricefish (Oryzias matanensis),
Matanna water snake (Enhydris matannensis),
and an endemic goby (Glossogobius
matanensis).
General Threats: Potential threats to the
freshwater fauna include lakeshore nickel
mining, commercial fishery development,
species introductions, and the effects of
human population growth.
establishment of exotic species. For example,
the introduction of common carp (Cyprinus
carpio) and tank goby (Glossogobius giuris)
have caused the near-extinction of the Lake
Lanao species flock. Logging and subsequent
erosion is a serious threat to the water quality
of the ecoregion’s freshwater habitats, as are
mining and agriculture to a lesser extent.
ake Inle [190] – Myanmar
Geographic Location: Southern Asia
Biodiversity Features: This relatively shallow
mountain lake at 900-m elevation supports
nine endemic fish species in three endemic
genera. Over twenty species of gastropods, of
which one-third may be endemic, are found in
the lake. UNUSUAL LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM FOR LAKE FAUNA OF
INDOCHINA
Selected Species: Endemic or characteristic fish
species include the Inle swamp eel
(Chaudhuria caudata) and Inle barb (Sawbwa
resplendens).
General Threats: The lake has been drastically
modified through land reclamation. Floating
gardens have been constructed within the lake
and in many places the lake is merely a maze
of canals between these plots. Runoff of
pesticides and fertilizer from these lands
pollute the lake, as does sedimentation from
cattle grazing and runoff of sewage from
surrounding lands.
L
Indo-Malayan
hilippines reshwater [189] – Philippines
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: The streams and lakes of
this island ecoregion support high numbers of
endemic species, particularly of fish.
Historically, this ecoregion was home to 30
endemic fish species, including a radiation of
18 endemic cyprinid species in Lake Lanao.
Many catadromous fish species from marine
families occur in freshwaters and migrate to
the ocean to spawn. There is also a highly
endemic crab fauna on this island, as well as
endemic copepods associated with Lake
Lanao. HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
AND ONE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT
RADIATIONS OF TROPICAL LAKE
FISHES IN ASIA
Selected Species: Endemic species such as Puntius
lindug, P. baoulan, and P. tumba have been
driven to the brink of extinction by introduced
species. This ecoregion also supports disjunct
populations of the highly endangered
Philippine crocodile (Crocodylus
mindorensis).
General Threats: Many of the Philippines’
endemic species face extinction from the
P
unnan Lakes and Streams [191] – China
Geographic Location: Southern Asia
Biodiversity Features: Several large, freshwater
lakes are situated on the Yunnan Plateau at
elevations of 1800-2000 m. These tend to
occupy deep grabens, trenches created by
faulting of adjacent mountains, but the lakes
themselves are not necessarily deep as they
have filled partially with alluvial sediments.
These plateau lakes support some of the most
diverse freshwater ecosystems in the entire
country. Both Dianchi and Er Hai, for
example, contain rich fish faunas. Despite
their location in separate river basins (Yangtze
and Mekong, respectively), taxonomic
similarities of these lakes exceed differences.
Dianchi historically supported twenty-five
Y
151
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
native fish species, of which eleven are
endemic (all but two are apparently extinct),
and Er Hai supported seventeen native fish
species, of which nine are endemic. Other
endemics in this ecoregion include aquatic
plants, invertebrates, and amphibians. This
region’s karstic geology has also produced
numerous caves, in which at least fourteen
cave fishes live. UNUSUAL ENDEMISM
FOR SUBTROPICAL LAKES IN
SOUTHERN ASIA
Selected Species: Numerous endemic fish species
in the genera Cyprinus, Schizothorax,
Anabarilius, and Yunnanilus occur in this
ecoregion. Several lakes historically
contained faunas with over half their fish
species endemic. Exact numbers of species
and endemics are unknown.
General Threats: Lake shores have been
deforested for centuries and are today
encircled by intensive rice agriculture.
Increased inputs of silt and fertilizer from the
rice fields, and human and industrial waste
from nearby areas, all affect the quality of the
water. Moreover, many of the lakes support
aquaculture and fisheries that may not be
sustainable under the force of today’s
vigorous economy. Lake Dianchi, which has
lost most of its endemic fish species, is an
example of a lake that has suffered from
sewage, industrial pollutants, and introduced
species. These lakes are found in one of only
two remaining subtropical forests in China on
the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, but
deforestation along the lakes and streams has
caused soil erosion and destroyed habitat.
Pollution is also a significant threat.
faunas in which over half of the species are
endemic. In addition, the Aguascalientes
warm-water aquifer and its subterranean biota
underlie portions of the ecoregion.
NEOTROPICAL LAKES AND STREAMS
WITH UNUSUAL HIGH LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM AMONG FISH SPECIES
Selected Species: Species include numerous
endemic livebearers (family Poecillidae),
splitfins (Goodeidae), silversides
(Atherinidae), pupfishes (Cyprinodontidae),
cichlids (Cichlidae), and characids
(Characiformes). Among the numerous fish
species whose distributions are restricted to this
ecoregion are Mexican brook lamprey
(Lampetra geminis), Lerma chub (Algansea
barbata), leopard splitfin (Xenotaenia
resolanae), bagre catfish (Ictalurus dugesii),
charal (Chirostoma chapalae), Potosi pupfish
(Cyprinodon alvarezi), flatjaw minnow
(Dionda mandibularis), black lyre (Poecilia
latipinna), graceful priapella (Priapella bonita),
Chapala chub (Algansea popoche), scowling
silverside (Chirostoma aculeatum), and
largetooth silverside (C. arge). Endemic
amphibians include Rana megapoda, R.
montezumae and a near-endemic salamander
genus, Ryacosiredon. Freshwater habitats also
support a distinctive and endemic invertebrate
fauna, including La Medialuna crayfish
(Procambarus roberti), La Medialuna shrimp
(Palaemonetes lindsayi), and the crayfish’s
obligatory parasite, La Medialuna ostracod
(Ankylocythere barbouri).
General Threats: The freshwater species of this
largely xeric region must compete with
agriculture and burgeoning human populations
for the limited water supply. Of great concern
is the tapping of aquifers, which threatens the
survival of several spring fish. Water
withdrawals and diversions for agriculture,
combined with pollution from industrial
waste, agriculture, and urbanization threaten
the quality and quantity of water available to
the freshwater biota of this ecoregion.
Invasive aquatic plants (e.g., water hyacinth,
Eichhornia crassipes, and introduced
nonnative fish like blue tilapia, Oreochromis
aureus) could potentially cause the decline of
native species.
Neotropical
exican Highland Lakes [192] –
Mexico
Geographic Location: Central America
Biodiversity Features: A number of endorheic
lakes, thermal springs and streams occur in
this ecoregion. These habitats are
characterized by unusual amphibian and
invertebrate species, as well as fish species
radiations in several lakes. In particular, Lake
Chapala and the Rio Lerma support fish
M
152
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
(Craterocephalus dalhousiensis), Dalhousie
mogurnda (Mogurnda sp.), and Dalhousie
goby (Chlamydogobius gloveri). Other
endemics found at Dalhousie Springs are at
least six hydrobiid snails, a blind amphipod
crustacean, and possibly one crayfish and one
frog species. Endemic plants to the mound
springs in general include Halosarcia
fontinalis and Eriocaulon carsonii.
General Threats: In this arid ecoregion, any water
withdrawals or other modifications to the flow
regime pose serious threats to aquatic species.
Exotics, including Australian natives
occurring outside this ecoregion, pose a threat
to indigenous taxa primarily through predation
and hybridization. Illegal fishing for local
consumption and commercial trade is a
serious problem. Overgrazing of surrounding
lands by introduced rabbits and livestock has
led to sedimentation of these fragile aquatic
ecosystems. Large populations of feral and
domesticated grazing animals also pollute
waters with their wastes. Proposed dams and
water diversions pose a future threat, as do
commercial fisheries.
Xeric Basins
In many cases, flowing and still water habitats of
the Xeric Basins MHT are oases in the desert.
Highly variable water temperatures, water
chemistry, and flows often characterize aquatic
habitats in arid systems. These wide fluctuations
support a very specialized biota, often comprised
of large numbers of endemic species. The role of
springs and subterranean flows in these areas may
be of critical importance for the maintenance of
these habitats.
Australasia
entral Australian Freshwater [193] Australia
Geographic Location: Central Australia
Biodiversity Features: Characterized by the some
of the most unpredictable flow patterns of any
continent, freshwater systems in arid Australia
support species with amazing adaptations to
environmental variability. This ecoregion is
defined primarily by the interior-draining
Lake Eyre and Bulloo-Bancannia drainage
basins, though it also overlays a portion of the
Great Artesian Basin, one of the world’s
largest artesian basins. Around the artesian
basin occur numerous mound springs and
spring-fed complexes, such as Dalhousie
Springs. This ecoregion has high levels of
ecoregional and local endemism, as well as
several relict taxa. Taxa exhibiting
exceptional levels of endemism include fish,
wetland-dependent plants, amphipods,
ostracods, isopods, and hydrobiid snails
(greater than 20 species in at least 2 endemic
genera). HIGH LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
AND RELICT TAXA, PARTICULARLY
AMONG AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES
Selected Species: A large portion of this
ecoregions’ freshwater species exhibit highly
restricted ranges, though a few, such as
spanged perch (Leiopotherapon unicolor), are
more widespread. The Dalhousie Springs
fauna is notable for its extremely high
endemicity. Endemic fish include Dalhousie
catfish (Neosilurus sp.), Dalhousie hardyhead
C
Nearctic
hihuahuan Freshwater [194] – Mexico,
United States
Geographic Location: Southern North America
Biodiversity Features: The river basins of this
xeric ecoregion are remarkably different from
one another, each containing unique species
that evolved following a series of tectonic
events and resulting geographic isolation.
Within Cuatro Ciénegas, an interior basin
containing hundreds of spring-fed pools in a
desert environment, about half of the 20
species of fish are endemic. Twenty-three of
the 34 species of freshwater molluscs in
Cuatro Ciénegas are also endemic. Some of
these fish and mollusc species are restricted to
individual pools of only a few square meters
in size. Other taxa have not diverged
appreciably from ancestral forms and are
important relict species. THESE AQUATIC
HABITATS SUPPORT A DIVERSE
SUBTROPICAL DESERT BASIN FAUNA
C
153
Freshwater Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
WITH A HIGH DEGREE OF LOCAL
ENDEMISM. GLOBALLY OUTSTANDING
ADAPTATIONS OF CUATRO CIÉNEGAS
BIOTA
Selected Species: Species here include the aquatic
box turtle (Terrapene coahuila), the endemic
black softshell turtle (Trionyx ater), pond
slider (Pseudemys scripta), plain-bellied water
snake (Nerodia erythrogaster), and Cuatro
Ciénegas cichlid (Cichlasoma minckleyi).
Three endangered endemic fishes are Cuatro
Ciénegas shiner (Notropis xanthicara), Cuatro
Ciénegas darter (Xiphophorus gordoni), and
sardinilla (Lucania interioris). Other endemic
fishes are Cuatro Ciénegas gambusia
(Gambusia longispinis), robust gambusia (G.
marshi), yellowfin gambusia (G. alvarezi),
Conchos pupfish (Cyprinodon eximius),
Comanche Springs pupfish (C. elegans),
bighead pupfish (C. pachycephalus), Devil’s
River minnow (Dionda diaboli), and
roundnose minnow (D. episcopa). Among the
endemic invertebrates, which are found
predominantly in spring-fed habitats, are a
number of aquatic snails and amphipods: Pecos
assiminea (Assiminea sp.), Phantom Spring
cochliopa (Cochliopa texana), Phantom Lake
tryonia (Tryonia cheatumi), Phantom Spring
amphipod (Gammarus hyalelloides), San
Solomon amphipod (G. sp.), and Noel’s
amphipod (G. desperatus).
General Threats: The largest threat to freshwater
diversity may be water withdrawals associated
with population growth and agricultural
activities. The construction of irrigation
canals and the resultant lowering of water
levels leads to the loss of critical habitat in
this water-poor environment. Overgrazing,
introduced species, potential large-scale
tourism, mining, and pollution also threaten
many freshwater communities. In addition, a
number of exotic species have been
introduced, such as the cichlid Hemichromis
guttatus and the crayfish Procambarus clarkii.
EVOLUTIONARY RADIATIONS AND
Geographic Location: Western Asia on the
Eastern Mediterranean
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion has diverse
freshwater habitats, particularly compared to
surrounding drier areas. These include both
running-water and lake environments. This
ecoregion historically supported about twenty
species and ten subspecies of endemic fish,
many with very local distributions. Lakes are
abundant in this ecoregion and are important
habitat for migrating waterbirds. THE
AQUATIC HABITATS OF THIS
ECOREGION SUPPPORT A LEVEL OF
ENDEMISM AMONG FISHES THAT IS
HIGH FOR THE PALEARCTIC
Selected Species: A number of endemic fish
species within the ecoregion that are of
conservation concern include Alburnus akili,
two subspecies of Capoeta capoeta,
Chondrostoma holmwoodii, Leucalburnus
kosswigi, Phoxinellus anatolicus, Phoxinellus
egridiri, and Aphanius burduricus. Waterbirds
that occur in abundance include great bustard
(Otis tarda), ruddy shellduck (Tadorna
ferrugininea), and common crane (Grus grus).
General Threats: Habitat loss, excessive water
diversions, and pollution are the principle
threats to the fish fauna of this ecoregion. In
particular, pollution from industry,
agriculture, and domestic sources has been
blamed for declines in several imperiled
species. Introduced species, particularly
zander (Stizostedion lucioperca), threaten
natives through predation, and overfishing is a
problem for some lake species. Draining of
wetlands for malarial control and conversion
to agriculture is also reducing the amount of
available habitat for aquatic organisms. At
least one dam has adversely affected an
endemic species of fish.
Palearctic
A
natolian Freshwater [195] – Syria, Turkey
Turkey
154
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Pelagic Westerlies
MARINE
REALM
The Pelagic Westerlies are the temperate open
oceans, defined by the globe encircling Westerly
winds. Prevailing wind systems define the
boundaries of Pelagic Westerlies in both the
Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Poleward,
this region is bordered by the Polar front, and
toward the equator it is defined by the tropical
Trade Winds. The temperate waters within this
region represent a biological transition between
the polar and trade wind biomes; taxonomic
composition at all trophic levels shows
characteristics of each region.
Although the marine realm includes a total of 10
MHTs, four of these were not assessed for the
Global 200: Pelagic Trades, Pelagic Westerlies
Abyssal, and Hadal (see the main text above for a
discussion of this issue). We provide brief
descriptions of these areas below.
Pelagic Trades
Surface waters are differentially heated in the
summer and winter months, resulting in a change
in the depth of the thermocline, or the level in the
water column at which the temperature drops
drastically and creates a barrier to vertical mixing.
In the spring (and less reliably in the autumn),
upwelling of nutrient rich bottom waters typically
occur, resulting in phytoplankton blooms. The
seasonal nature of productivity in these waters
supports a number of migratory species that are
able to exploit the patchy food resources.
Migrants also take advantage of favorable water
temperatures. Migrations from north to south and
from the pelagic zone to the coastal and
freshwater zones are common, particularly in fish.
For example, the tunas move poleward as the
water warms and towards the equator as it cools.
Migratory herring and other clupeids return to the
coastal zone to spawn, and the largely pelagic
North Atlantic and North Pacific salmon migrate
to freshwater to spawn. Numerous pelagic
carnivores in the Pelagic Westerlies ecosystems
are fish, though diversity is not as high as in
warmer seas.
The Pelagic Trades comprise roughly 45 percent
of the total area of the open ocean, extending from
the equator polewards to approximately 30
degrees north and south. Here the globe encircling
Trade Winds meet the Westerlies, a convergence
zone of global wind patterns. In contrast to the
Pelagic Westerlies and many other marine
ecosystems, the layer of mixed water at the
surface is maintained continuously and water
temperatures are relatively consistent throughout
the year. This ecosystem is one of the most
taxonomically diverse of the pelagic types. It is in
these waters that pelagic fish reach their greatest
development. A great variety of shoaling clupeids,
loosely schooling tuna, and solitary sharks inhabit
the tropical pelagos and comprise multiple and
complex food chains.
Other distinguishing features of the Pelagic
Trades ecosystems include extensive vertical
migrations and the existence of cyanobacterium
mats. Vertical migrations occur at all seasons and
in all areas of the Pelagic Trades. A substantial
proportion of organisms, especially copepods,
shrimp, myctophid fish, and squids rise to the
surface at dusk to feed in the safety of darkness
and descend to depths of 200-500 m at dawn.
During windless periods of the year, it is also
common to see the vast colored mats of the
cyanobacterium Trichodesmium (four species).
These loose colonial mats offer a substrate for a
wide range of organisms.
Abyssal
Beyond the coastal margins and continental
shelves, at depths of 5,000 meters or more, lie a
large proportion of the world’s ocean habitats.
These deep ocean floor habitats are characterized
by topographical variation that includes areas of
flat plains, extensive hills, eroded plateaus, and
seamounts. These underwater mountains are
155
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
formed by volcanic activity and may rise over a
kilometer above the sea floor.
Hadal
Deep-sea trenches comprise the deepest parts of
the world’s oceans. At depths greater than 6,000
meters these areas are formed by the subduction of
the earth’s crustal plates. Among the best known
of these areas is the Marianas Trench as well as
trenches associated with numerous volcanic
islands in the Pacific: Tonga, the Philippines, the
Aleutians, and the South Sandwich islands
Water temperatures are quite cold, generally
ranging from 2-4º C, although temperatures tend
to vary little. In fact, variation declines with
increasing depth. Water pressure—or hydrostatic
pressure—is extreme and is measured in tonnes
per square centimeter. Light levels are greatly
reduced at these depths. Consequently, many
nutrients arrive in the form of organic matter that
rains down from the pelagic zone above or is
washed down from continental shelves. Bottom
communities are dominated by numerous species
of worms, nematodes, and other mud-dwelling
invertebrates. Among the more interesting habitats
found in these areas are thermal vents, or areas of
the ocean floor where steam is released from the
Earth’s crust. Unique communities in these
systems are dependent on bacteria that use
hydrogen sulfide instead of sunlight for primary
production. The giant clam, Calyptogena
magnifica; the giant mussel, Bathymodiolus
thermophilus; and a number of gastropods that
feed on abundant bacteria comprise a portion of
the fauna.
Faunal composition in the hadal regions of the
oceans is marked by reduced numbers of fishes,
molluscs, sponges, and bryozoans. Other groups
common in marine environments, such as
decapods, brachiopods, and turbellarians, have not
been found here. Overall, the fauna is
characterized by high levels of trench endemism
and certain morphological similarities: blindness,
large size compared to related species found in
shallower waters, and decreased pigmentation or
color. Species that tolerate these extreme
environments represent highly specialized and
adapted faunas.
Among the better studied taxa are molluscan
communities, including herbivorous species such
as cocculiniform limpets and xilophagaid clams.
Given the proximity of these deep-water regions
to volcanic islands, these filter feeders depend in
part on dead plant material washing into the
trenches from nearby terrestrial systems, as well
as ocean shelves. Amazingly, these mollusks may
feed on everything from mangrove seedlings to the
fruits and berries of rain forest trees.
Typical inhabitants found in the abyssal regions of
the Ocean are several species of squid, including
Histioteuthis spp. Other organisms; such as the sea
pig (Phylum Echinoderms) and other sea
cucumbers (Paelopatides spp. among others),
tripod fishes (Bathypterois spp.), numerous
isopods, giant tube worms (Riftia spp.), and
suspension feeding cup sponges (Hyalonema
spp.), represent but a portion of the benthic
biodiversity found at these depths. The deep sea
medusa (Periphylla periphylla) and the swimming
cucumber (another Echinoderm) are two of the
organisms which freely move through the water
column. Migrations of organisms, including fish,
from shallower depths appear to be uncommon.
Anglerfish (Meanocetus johsoni) are just one of
the bizarre looking fishes adapted to these abyssal
environments.
Polar
Low temperatures, low salinity, and extensive ice
are typical of the polar ocean. Ice cover may be
present in the form of extensive sheets or drift ice
and icebergs carried by polar currents. This ice
cover does not prevent light from penetrating
waters below the surface. Thus, cold temperatures
do not seem to limit diversity, but productivity
may be limited by the lack of nutrients due to the
cold temperatures. Ice provides important habitat
in the form of breeding platform from which seals
breed and search for food. Polar bears in the
156
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Arctic, and penguins in the Antarctic, also rely on
the ice for habitat. Warm water upwellings create
breaks in the ice. Not only are the corresponding
ice-free areas nutrient-rich, but also they are often
predictable year-to-year, providing habitat and
access to food for seabirds and mammals.
Channichthyidae—“bloodless fishes” that
function with an absence of hemoglobin.
General Threats: Overfishing, global warming,
the weakening of the ozone layer, and
pollution pose the greatest threats to the
region.
In terms of species assemblages, both the Arctic
and Antarctic support resident and migratory
mammals and birds, but the Arctic Ocean is
characterized by a diversity of fish species while
the Southern Ocean is not. Antarctica’s benthic
(bottom dwelling) community has greater species
richness and higher levels of endemism—
including several species of “bloodless fish”—but
fewer phyla are represented than in the Arctic.
Crabs, sharks, most benthic fish and snails, large
clams, and amphipods are present in the Arctic but
missing from Antarctic Seas.
Arctic
ering Sea [197] – Canada, Russia, United
States
Geographic Location: Northern Pacific Ocean and
western Arctic Ocean
Biodiversity Features: The Bering Strait and
associated islands are critical to marine life
migrating to and from summering grounds in
the Chukchi Sea and elsewhere in the Arctic
Ocean. The region supports huge seabird
populations, including nearly 2 million murres
and auklets, and is home to one of the largest
salmon runs in the world. There are also
extensive kelp forests and eelgrass beds in
coastal lagoons. ONE THE MOST DIVERSE
AND RICHEST SUBPOLAR AND POLAR
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS IN THE WORLD
Selected Species: The strait is used by 14 species
of marine mammals, such as the endangered
bowhead (Balaena mysticetus), several
species of seals (Family, Phocidae), sea lions
(Family Otariidae), and the Pacific walrus
(Odobenus rosmarus). Salmonids include
sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka),
chinook (O. tshawytscha), steelhead (O.
mykiss), and chum (O. keta). Other
characteristic species include the red king crab
(Paralithodes camtschatica) and yellowfin
sole (Limanda aspera).
General Threats: Overfishing, global warming,
coastal mining, and pollution from shipping
are the major threats to the region.
B
Antarctic
A
ntarctic Peninsula & Weddell Sea [196]
Geographic Location: Antarctic Peninsula &
Weddell Sea
Biodiversity Features: The Weddell Sea supports
a rich marine ecosystem, where huge
quantities of krill provide food for diverse
populations of fish and marine mammals. The
Weddell Sea also supports thriving colonies of
penguins that lay their eggs and raise their
young on the Antarctic Peninsula. THE
MOST DIVERSE AND PRODUCTIVE
ANTARCTIC MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Selected Species: Species include king penguin
(Aptenodytes patagonicus), emperor penguin
(A. forsteri), Weddell seal (Leptonychotes
weddellii), crabeater seal (Lobodon
carcinophagus), humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae), Southern right whale
(Eubalaena australis) minke whale
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata) and hourglass
dolphin (Lagenorhynchus cruciger). Over 200
species of fish from various groups are known
to live in Antarctica. The most numerous are
species belonging to the Notothenioidei
suborder. Within this suborder and endemic to
Antarctic waters are the families of
Nototheniidae, Harpagiferidae,
Artedidraconidae, Bathydraconidae, and
arents-Kara Sea [198] – Norway, Russia
Geographic Location: Arctic Ocean north of
Norway and Russia
Biodiversity Features: These waters are highly
productive, allowing inland tundra to be
occupied by breeding seabirds; nesting
colonies of migrating seabirds abound. Arctic
terns breed here, before traveling 36,000 km
B
157
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
to winter in Antarctica. Abundant marine
mammal populations occur in this ecoregion.
The ecoregion includes the Franz-Josef-Land
nature reserve, the largest marine protected
area on the Northern Hemisphere. ONE OF
THE TWO RICHEST AND MOST
PRODUCTIVE REGIONS OF THE ARCTIC
OCEAN
Selected Species: Birds include little auk (Alle
alle), barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis), pinkfooted goose (Anser brachyrhynchus),
Sabine's gull (Xema sabini), and white-billed
diver (Gavia adamsii). Arctic cod
(Boreogadus saida), flatfish (Order,
Pleuronectiformes), smelt (Family,
Osmeridae), polar bear (Ursus maritimus),
bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus), walrus
(Odobenus rosmarus), and narwhal (Monodon
monoceros) live here.
General Threats: Oil and gas development and
fisheries impacts pose severe threats to the
region. Radioactive materials dumped in the
Barents-Kara Seas may have severely
impacted the ecosystem, resulting in the
deaths of millions of sea stars, shellfish, seals,
porpoises and fishes.
Many fish species seek out enclosed bays and
estuaries, or migrate into freshwater streams to
spawn. Estuaries, bays and lagoons in these
regions provide abundant food supplies for
numerous marine species as well as important
breeding and nursery habitats. Highly productive
benthic communities support an abundance of
larger predators, such as tuna.
Mediterranean
editerranean Sea [199] – Albania, Algeria,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Cyprus,
Cyprus, Egypt, France, Gibraltar (United
Kingdom), Greece, Israel, Italy, Lebanon,
Libya, Malta, Monaco, Morocco, Slovenia,
Spain, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Yugoslavia
Geographic Location: Mediterranean Sea
Biodiversity Features: Rocky reefs, seagrass
meadows, and upwelling areas are particularly
important habitats that support Mediterranean
marine biodiversity. Seagrass meadows
provide important habitat—especially as
breeding, feeding, and resting areas—for
numerous marine species, particularly fish,
crustaceans, and marine turtles. These
meadows produce more than 80 percent of the
annual fish yield in the Mediterranean. The
grasses also stabilize the seashore and
maintain water quality, particularly through
oxygen production. The rocky reef ecosystems
provide habitat for the endangered
Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus
monachus) as well as several endemic fish and
invertebrates. The Ligurian Sea represents the
most significant upwelling area in the
Mediterranean. THIS UNUSUAL SEA HAS
SIGNIFICANT ENDEMISM IN A RANGE
OF TAXA AND IS BIOLOGICALLY
DISTINCTIVE FROM THE ADJACENT
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Selected Species: The endangered Mediterranean
monk seal (Monachus monachus),
Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus
galloprovincialis), mullets (Mugilidae spp.),
gilthead sea bream (Sparus auratus), sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax), and greater flamingo
(Phoenicopterus ruber) are a few of the
M
Temperate Shelf and Seas
Temperate Shelf and Seas are highly productive
regions supporting resident as well as migratory
species during various life cycle stages. The
relative shallowness of these regions (the
continental shelf extends to an average maximum
depth of 150 meters) leads to seasonal
stratification of the water column based on
temperature. Seasonality, the mixing of fresh and
oceanic waters, and tides create temperate shelf
and sea environments that are highly variable.
Fish aggregations reflect seasonal abundance of
phytoplankton and are highly localized.
Freshwater from coastal rivers mixes with saline
ocean water further contributing to habitat
variability. Coastal currents tend to move organic
matter along coastlines enhancing the large-scale
drifting phenomenon. Tidal action also increases
turbidity while facilitating the exchange of
nutrients from the sea bottom into the water
column.
158
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
characteristic species found in these waters.
Fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), harbor
porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), striped
dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) and several
other species of dolphins are all found in this
ecosystem, as are loggerhead (Caretta
caretta), green (Chelonia mydas), and
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) sea
turtles.
General Threats: Coastal development, intensive
tourism, and land reclamation for agriculture
place pressures on key wildlife habitats in the
Mediterranean. Local and regional problems
related to pollution, specifically effluent from
domestic and industrial sources, oil
transportation and refineries, and agricultural
runoff, are beginning to have an impact on
wildlife. Furthermore, these pollution issues
threaten human populations and fisheries. Ten
species of sea grass in the region are now
considered endangered as the result of intense
development, sand excavation, urbanization,
and the release of untreated sewage into the
sea. The dumping of untreated sewage is also
a major public health issue, as increased
numbers of microorganisms have led to an
increase in several diseases. The rocky coasts
of islands and archipelagos are less threatened
than the seagrass meadows, largely due to the
difficulty in accessing these areas, but also
because of lower urbanization pressure.
However, they are vulnerable to and suffer
from pollution and trampling by tourists. The
fisheries of this region have been
overexploited and many local fisheries are
declining as consequence of indiscriminate
trawl fishing and high levels of bycatch.
Selected Species: Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus),
harbour seal (Phoca vitulina), Atlantic puffin
(Fratercula arctica), Arctic tern (Sterna
paradisaea), porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus),
Arctic cod (Boreogadus saida), Arctic char
(Salvelinus alpinus), and capelin (Mallotus
villosus). Several species of whales are found
in this productive region, including minke
whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), killer
whale (Orcinus orca), beluga whale
(Delphinapterus leucas), narwhal (Monodon
monoceros), bowhead whale (Balaena
mysticetus), northern bottlenose whale
(Hyperoodon ampullatus) and blue whale
(Balaenoptera musculus).
General Threats: Overfishing and pollution pose
the greatest threats to this region.
rand Banks [201] – Canada, St. Pierre and
Miquelon (France), United States
Geographic Location: Atlantic Ocean off
northeast North America
Biodiversity Features: The Grand Banks is a
highly productive region, supporting huge
schools of pelagic fish, groundfish, and
feeding whales. This area contains
approximately 111 species of marine annelid
worms and about 30 species of marine
mammals. Historically, the area supported
some of the world’s most productive fisheries,
but overfishing and other activities have
seriously degraded the ecosystem and
depleted its biota. ONE OF THE RICHEST
AND MOST PRODUCTIVE UPWELLING
ZONES OF THE WESTERN NORTH
ATLANTIC
Selected Species: Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua),
and Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus) are
part of the rich ecosystems that support an
impressive mammal fauna. Besides beluga
whales, marine mammals include the
endangered northern right whale (Eubalaena
glacialis), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), fin
whales (Balaenoptera physalus), and
humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae).
General Threats: Overfishing, especially of
herring and cod, has seriously altered marine
communities. Pollution poses another major
threat to this region. Offshore dumping and
G
North Temperate Atlantic
ortheast Atlantic Shelf Marine [200] –
Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
France, Germany, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia,
Sweden, United Kingdom
Geographic Location: North Atlantic Ocean
Biodiversity Features: ONE OF THE MOST
DIVERSE AND PRODUCTIVE
UPWELLING AREAS IN THE NORTH
ATLANTIC
N
159
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the discharge of industrial and domestic
wastes from major cities have severely
degraded both estuaries and coastal waters.
Eutrophication has resulted from sewage
discharges, mariculture, fish processing
plants, and pulp and paper mill effluents.
Toxic contamination from agriculture and
industry has further degraded these waters.
Historically, beluga whale (Delphinapterus
leucas) populations have been under intense
hunting pressure in the St. Lawrence Estuary.
Presently, belugas suffer from diseases
associated with a suppressed immune system
and the concentration of industrial toxic
products (e.g., DDT) in their blubber.
merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus), oldsquaw
(Clangula hyemalis), bufflehead (Bucephala
albeola), green-backed heron (Butorides
virescens), black-crowned night heron
(Nycticorax nycticorax), and numerous
shorebirds.
General Threats: High levels of urban
development and pollution from agriculture
introduce contaminants and cause
eutrophication and anoxic conditions in the
bay. Overfishing and habitat destruction
represent other anthropogenic disturbance
factors.
North Temperate Indo-Pacific
ellow Sea [203] – China, North Korea, South
Korea
Geographic Location: Western Pacific Ocean near
the temperate coast of Eurasia
Biodiversity Features: The semi-enclosed Yellow
(Huanghai) Sea is located between China and
Korea and is one of the largest shallow areas
of continental shelf in the world. The Yellow
Sea depression has depths in the range of 70 –
80 m and provides the major overwintering
ground for numerous species of fish and
invertebrates. REGIONAL CENTER OF
ENDEMISM FOR INVERTEBRATES AND
FISHES
Selected Species: Dugong (Dugong dugon),
Trepang (Apostychopus japonicus), Abaloni
(Haliotis sp.) Dall’s (Phocoenoides dalli),
Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus),
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green
(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
turtles. Among the numerous species of fish
found here are pacific herring (Clupea
pallasii), chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus),
as well as the newly discovered species,
Pleurosicya sp. (Family, Gobiidae), are
present here.
General Threats: The heavily populated countries
of this ecoregion impact inshore habitats
through industrial pollution, domestic sewage
and agricultural runoff. Coastal waters are
polluted by a wide range of contaminants,
ranging from chemicals such as PCBs and
DDT, to tar balls and heavy metals. Such
hesapeake Bay [202] – United States
Geographic Location: Eastern North
America
Biodiversity Features: The Chesapeake Bay and
Delaware Bay complex is one of the largest
estuaries on Earth. The region is highly
productive, with commercially vital fisheries,
particularly for blue crab and historically for
oysters. ONE OF NORTH AMERICA’S,
AND THE WORLD’S, LARGEST AND
MOST PRODUCTIVE TEMPERATE
ESTUARIES
Selected Species: Atlantic blue crab (Callinectes
sapidus), American oyster (Crassostrea
virginica), horseshoe crab (Ilynassa
polyphemus), soft-shelled clam (Mya
arenaria), hard clam (Mercenaria
mercenaria), marsh periwinkle (Littorina
irrorata), and northern diamondback terrapin
(Malaclemys terrapin) are characteristic of
this ecoregion. Anadromous fish species
include American shad (Alosa sapidissima),
Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), alewife
(Alosa pseudoharengus), and striped bass
(Morone saxatilis). Other fish species include
oyster toadfish (Opsanus tau), the sheepshead
minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus), and the
marsh killifish (Fundulus confluentes), found
in muddy marshes and other wetland areas.
Among the many bird species are clapper rail
(Rallus longirostris), tundra swan (Cygnus
columbianus), Atlantic brant (Branta
bernicla), wood duck (Aix sponsa), hooded
Y
C
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
contaminants degrade very slowly and may
enter the human food chain through seafood.
Semi-enclosed areas have been described as
the most polluted, reflected in the poor health
of the region’s inhabitants. Major dam and
water abstraction projects threaten sediment
flux in the inshore waters of this ecoregion.
southern right whales (Eubalaena australis).
Punta Tombo represents the largest breeding
colony of Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus
magellanicus), containing approximately
1,000,000 individuals. Early this century, fur
seals and sea lions (Family, Otariidae) were
heavily exploited for their fur and oil,
resulting in a dramatic decline of local
populations, especially of fur seals. This
ecoregion supports a very important fishery,
especially for hake (Merluccius hubbsi),
common squid (Loligo spp.), and shortfin
squid (Illex argentinus). ONE OF THE MOST
PRODUCTIVE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS OF
THE SOUTHERN ATLANTIC OCEAN
WITH ABUNDANT MARINE MAMMAL
AND SEABIRD POPULATIONS
Selected Species: Southern sea lion (Otaria
byronia), southern elephant seal (Mirounga
leonina), South American fur seal
(Arctocephalus australis), southern right
whale (Eubalaena australis) humpback whale
(Megaperta novaengliae), and Commerson’s
dolphin (Cephalorhynchus commersonii) are
among the numerous mammal species found
here. Marine birds include Magellanic
penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus), imperial
cormorant (Phalacrocorax atriceps) and palefaced sheathbill (Chionis alba).
General Threats: Fisheries in the Southwest
Atlantic have dramatically increased in the
last decade, due to increased fishing activities
and bycatch. Presently, the management and
control of fisheries are linked more to political
interests than to proper technical management
of the marine resources. The Patagonian
region supports intense oil activities and
ecosystems have suffered from major oil spills
as well as release of contaminated ballast
water. Penguins have been particularly
affected by oil contamination during their
migratory movements along the Patagonian
coast. In the vicinity of cities, sewage,
industrial and harbor pollution are other
causes for concern. Tourism is increasing in
this area, and could pose a threat to local
wildlife, particularly to southern right whales
during their breeding and calving activities. In
general, the area suffers from a lack of a
khotsk Sea [204] – Japan, Russia
Geographic Location: Northwestern Pacific
Ocean
Biodiversity Features: The Sea of Okhotsk is by
far the richest of the Russian seas in terms of
seabird numbers, with well over three million
pairs. The cool but fertile waters of the region
support enormous fisheries that provide food
for numerous birds. ONE OF THE RICHEST
NORTH TEMPERATE MARINE
ECOSYSTEMS IN THE WORLD AND THE
PACIFIC BASIN
Selected Species: Golden king crab (Lithodes
aequispina), Steller’s sea lion (Eumetopias
jubatus), northern fur seal (Callorhinus
ursinus), Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides
dalli), ribbon seals (Phoca fasciata), Steller’s
sea eagle (Haliaeetus pelagicus), common and
thick-billed murre (Uria aalge and U. lomvia),
as well as tufted and horned puffin
(Fratercula cirrhata and F. corniculata) are
found in this region.
General Threats: Industrial and domestic
pollution, oil exploration and overfishing are
the most relevant threats.
O
Southern Ocean
atagonian Southwest Atlantic [205] –
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay
Geographic Location: Southeast coast of South
America
Biodiversity Features: This area provides
important breeding habitat for marine seabirds
and mammals along the East Coast of
Argentina. Specifically, Peninsula Valdés, a
well-known international tourist destination,
harbors the only continental breeding colony
of southern elephant seals (Mirounga
leonina). The gulf waters of Peninsula Valdés
provide breeding and calving grounds for
P
161
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
proper coastal development and management
plan.
dolphins, porpoises, and smaller whales. ONE
OF THE MOST DIVERSE AND
PRODUCTIVE PACIFIC SOUTH
TEMPERATE AND SUBPOLAR
ECOSYSTEMS
Selected Species: The endemic erect-crested and
yellow-eyed penguins (Eudyptes sclateri and
Megadyptes antipodes) are found here.
Several other penguins can be seen in these
waters: snares penguin (Eudyptes robustus),
little penguin (Eudyptula minor), and
Fiordland crested penguin (Eudyptes
pachyrhynchus), Shy albatross (Diomedea
cauta), royal albatross (D. epomophora),
northern giant petrel (Macronectes halli),
southern giant petrel (M. giganteus), and
Australasian gannet (Sula serrator) are but a
few of the other birds. Marine mammals
include southern elephant seal (Mirounga
leonina), New Zealand fur seal
(Arctocephalus forsteri), Hooker’s sea lion
(Phocarctos hookeri), dusky dolphin
(Lagenorhynchus obscurus), Hector’s dolphin
(Cephalorynchus hectori), sperm whale
(Physeter catodon), and southern right whale
(Eubalaena australis).
General Threats: Overfishing is the primary
threat. In the more populated coastal areas,
prominent problems are over-exploitation of
living resources and environmental
degradation. Sewage discharge, industrial
contaminants, agricultural runoff, habitat
clearance for construction (residential and
tourist), mining residues, oil exploitation and
associated pollution, inappropriate coastal
development, and solid waste disposal are
relevant threats. In some areas, introduced cats
and rats have destroyed colonies of native
shorebird species (e.g., Kermadec petrel,
Pterodroma neglecta).
outhern Australian Marine [206] – Australia
Geographic Location: Coastal marine
ecosystems of southern Australia
Biodiversity Features: This area contains one of
the world’s largest marine floras, including
about 25 percent of the world’s red algae, of
which 75 percent are endemic. THIS
ECOREGION DISPLAYS GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING LEVELS OF ENDEMISM
IN MARINE INVERTEBRATES AND IS AN
IMPORTANT AREA FOR SOUTHERN
OCEAN MARINE MAMMALS
Selected Species: Wandering albatross (Diomedea
exulans), black-browed albatross (D.
melanophris), northern giant petrel
(Macronectes halli), flesh-footed shearwater
(Puffinus carneipes), short-tailed shearwater
(P. tenuirostris), Australasian gannet (Sula
serrator), rockhopper penguin (Eudyptes
chrysocome), and little penguin (Eudyptula
minor) are among the numerous seabirds
found in this area. Other marine species
include the Australian sea lion (Neophoca
cinerea), southern right whale (Eubalaena
australis), loggerhead (Caretta caretta),
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green
(Chelonia mydas) and leatherback
(Dermochelys coriacea) turtles, great white
shark (Carcharodon carcharias), weedy
seadragon (Phyllopteryx taeniolatus)and
southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus).
General Threats: Marine pollution, coastal
development, overfishing, and long-line
fishing, which is associated with high levels
of bycatch (e.g., albatross), are threats to the
species found here.
S
ew Zealand Marine [207] – New Zealand
Geographic Location: Marine ecosystems
around New Zealand in the southern Pacific
Ocean
Biodiversity Features: These marine systems
support a rich diversity of aquatic plants, fish,
bivalves, seabirds, and marine mammals,
including sperm whales (Physeter
macrocephalus) and a diverse community of
N
Temperate Upwelling
Temperate Upwelling regions are continental
margins characterized by the regular upwelling up
of nutrient rich bottom waters to the surface.
These regions are highly productive and are
associated with large fisheries and
correspondingly large populations of marine
162
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
mammals and seabirds. Species diversity is
variable and often includes species entrained from
deep upwelled water.
habitat for numerous other species. The
burrowing starlet sea anemone (Nematostella
vectensis) is just one of many important
invertebrates. Numerous marine mammals are
found here, including the sea otter (Enhydra
lutris), northern elephant seal (Mirounga
angustirostris), California sea lion (Zalophus
californianus), northern fur seal (Callorhinus
ursinus), Guadalupe fur seal (Arctocephalus
townsendii), Steller’s sea lion (Eumetopias
jubatus), grey whale (Eschrichtius robustus),
and harbor seal (Phoca vitulina). Cetaceans
include pilot whale (Globicephala
maerorynchus), and killer whale (Orcinus
orca), northern right whale (Eubalaena
glacialis). Other species include Pacific green
turtle (Chelonia agassizii), olive ridley turtle
(Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta), leatherback turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea), Townsend’s
shearwater (Puffinus auricularis), ashy stormpetrel (Oceanodroma homochroa), Heerman’s
gull (Larus heermanni), Xantu’s murrelet
(Synthliboramphus hypoleucus),and brown
pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis).
General Threats: Regional coastal waters have
become polluted, especially near major cities,
leading to problems of contaminated seafood.
A major threat to the region comes from oil
shipping accidents . Overfishing poses a
serious threat to the region.
Upwelling is largely a result of the effect of
prevailing and local winds on oceanic currents.
Upwelling associated with eastern boundary
currents, (e.g., the California Current in the North
Pacific Ocean) is driven by the wind’s deflection
of surface waters away from the continental
margin, resulting in cooler bottom water rising to
the surface. Cross circulation brings water rich in
nutrients from lower in the water column to the
subsurface layers, resulting in similarly high
productivity. The reliance on currents and wind
patterns for productivity causes these regions to be
sensitive to the effects of large-scale climate
oscillations associated with El Niño events. The
breakdown of typical wind patterns results in an
interruption of nutrient upwelling and consequent
decline of fish and sea birds.
North Temperate Indo-Pacific
alifornian Current [208] – Canada, Mexico,
United States
Geographic Location: Northeastern temperate
Pacific Ocean along the coast of temperate
North America
Biodiversity Features: The area off the coast of
California and Oregon supports huge
populations of marine mammals, seabirds, and
fishes. The area is best known for its extensive
kelp forests and associated sea otters
(Enhydra lutris). There is some endemism in
invertebrates and fishes within the region.
HIGHLY DIVERSE AND PRODUCTIVE
UPWELLING ECOSYSTEMS OF THE
NORTHEASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN
Selected Species: Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares), yellowfin sole (Limanda aspera),
Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus),
California skate (Raja inornata), shovelnose
guitarfish (Rhinobatos productus), longfin
gunnel (Pholis clemensi), and numerous
species of anadromous salmon (Oncorhynchus
spp.), as well as great white sharks
(Carcharodon spp.) are found here. Giant kelp
(Macrocystis pyrifera) provides important
C
South Temperate Atlantic
enguela Current [209] – Namibia, South
Africa
Geographic Location: Southeastern Atlantic
Ocean near the southwestern coast of Africa
Biodiversity Features: The Benguela Current
flows north along the west coast of South
Africa and Namibia, where it is the site of
productive cold upwellings. In the south it
meets the warmer Aghulhas Current flowing
east from the Indian Ocean and in the north it
interacts with the warmer Angolan current
flowing south. Abundant populations of fish,
seabirds and marine mammals occur, as well
as important migratory bird populations in
coastal lagoons and bays. THE MOST
PRODUCTIVE UPWELLING ZONE IN THE
B
163
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
SOUTH EAST ATLANTIC WITH
ABUNDANT FISH, SEABIRD AND
MARINE MAMMAL POPULATIONS
Selected Species: Species include Jackass penguin
(Spheniscus demersus), disk lamp shell
(Discinisca tenuis), rock lobster (Jasus
lalandii), pilchard (Sardinops ocellatus), Cape
horse mackerel (Trachurus capensis), hake
(Merluccius capensis), Cape fur seal
(Artocephalus pusillus), southern right whale
(Eubalaena australis), and the rare
Heaviside’s dolphin (Cephalorhynchus
heavisidei).
General Threats: Persistent overharvesting of
many commercially valuable species and
products (e.g., pilchard, anchovy, rock lobster,
and seabird guano), as well as industrial
harbor development, especially in Walvis Bay.
(Sterna lorata), and Inca tern (Larosterna
inca).
General Threats: Periodic variation in
productivity due to shifting wind patterns
related to the El Niño phenomenon cause
populations to collapse, making this
ecosystem very vulnerable to conventional
intensive fishery practices. Upland activities
such as mining, urbanization, and the release
of untreated wastes have impacted these
marine waters.
gulhas Current [211] – Mozambique, South
South Africa
Geographic Location: Southwestern Indian
Ocean near the southeastern coast of Africa
Biodiversity Features: The warm waters of the
Aghulhas Current flow southward along the
Indian Ocean on the southeast coast of Africa,
allowing for a high species diversity,
including both endemic and Indo-Pacific
species. The coasts harbor a mix of
mangroves, vast offshore coral reefs, and sea
grass beds that provide food resources and
habitat for seabird colonies, nesting sea
turtles, and numerous fishes. The Bazaruto
National Park, an archipelago off Vilanculos,
is home to over 100 individual dugongs
(Dugong dugon), and five species of nesting
sea turtles. South Africa’s De Hoop Nature
Reserve includes a marine reserve with
several species of dolphins (Family,
Delphinidae) and the southern right whale
(Eubalaena australis). DIVERSE
ASSEMBLAGE OF SPECIES, INCLUDING
SOME ENDEMISM
Selected Species: Fish include the shallow-water
Cape hake (Merluccius capensis), blackhand
sole (Solea bleekeri), yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares), and albacore (T. alalunga).
Dugong (Dugong dugon), inhabits this region,
as do several species of dolphins (Family,
Delphinidae), porpoises (Family,
Phocoenidae), and breeding southern right
whale (Eubalaena australis). Five species of
sea turtles, including leatherback
(Dermochelys coriacea), loggerhead (Caretta
caretta), and green (Chelonia mydas) breed in
this region; the hawksbill (Eretmochelys
A
South Temperate Indo-Pacific
umboldt Current [210] – Chile, Ecuador,
Peru
Geographic Location: Eastern Pacific Ocean
along the coast of South America
Biodiversity Features: Winds that blow across the
mountains of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile move
surface water offshore and cause upwelling of
deeper, nutrient rich waters. This is one of the
world's most productive marine ecosystems.
This marine ecoregion sustains extraordinary
numbers of marine birds, mammals, and fish.
ONE OF THE WORLD’S MOST
PRODUCTIVE UPWELLING AREAS, THE
LARGEST IN THE SOUTHEASTERN
PACIFIC OCEAN
Selected Species: Three species of fish occur in
extreme abundance and are the basis for much
of the food chain: anchoveta (Engraulis
ringens), sardine (Sardinops sagax), and jurel
(Trachurus symmetricus). Other species
include Chilean dolphin (Cephalorynchus
eutropia), Burmeister’s porpoise (Phocoena
spinipinnis), marine otter (Lutra felina),
southern sea lion (Otaria flavescens), and
South American fur seal (Arctocephalus
australis). Birds include Elliot’s storm-petrel
(Oceanites gracilis), Humboldt penguin
(Sphniscus humboldti), Guanay cormorant
(Phalacrocorax bouganvilli), Peruvian tern
H
164
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
other invertebrates. Ten percent of the world’s
dugong (Dugong dugon) population occurs at
Shark Bay in this ecoregion. Shark Bay also
contains excellent examples of the colonyforming cyanobacterium, also known as
stromatalites. THE LARGEST BARRIER
REEFS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN WITH
SOME ENDEMISM AND GLOBALLY
OUTSTANDING DIVERSITY. ONE OF
THE LARGEST AND MOST SPECIES
DIVERSE SEAGRASS MEADOWS IN THE
WORLD
Selected Species: Some common fish species
include damselfish (Parma spp.), wobbegong
shark (Orectolobus spp.), and long finned sea
pike (Dinolestes lewini). Among the endemic
species found here are red crab (Gecarcoidea
natalis), and a species of starshell, Astraea
tentoriiformis. Australian sea lion (Neophoca
cinerea), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops
truncatus), dugong (Dugong dugon), saltwater
crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), flatback
turtle (Narator depressa), green turtle
(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea), sooty tern (Sterna
fuscata), and twelve species of sea snakes
have been recorded. At least three whale
species are regularly sighted around the reefs
and lagoons during migration seasons. They
are the humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae), Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera
edeni) and the minke whale (B.
acutorostrata).
General Threats: Habitat destruction and siltation,
mainly resulting from agricultural activities
and from dredging or mining reef rock for
sand, are adversely affecting the reef.
Dredging for shipping access and the
subsequent dumping of dredge spoil represent
a serious threat to reefs in some areas.
Another cause of reef destruction comes from
the introduction of material pollution in the
water, usually arising from the use of adjacent
land, waterholes or waterways. Degradation
and destruction of habitat as a result of
recreational and tourist activity around the
reefs is another factor. Traditional fishing
practices have some impact on the fauna and
flora (e.g., birds are killed for food in large
imbricata) and olive ridley (Lepidochelys
olivacea) also exist here.
General Threats: Loss of mangrove forests,
siltation of coral reefs, destructive fishing
practices (e.g., use of fine mesh nets and
dynamite), and overfishing pose threats to
these habitats. Poor rural sewage treatment
leads to contamination, while poor farming
practices and deforestation contribute to
sedimentation and degradation of seagrasses
and coral reefs. High levels of sedimentation
have significantly altered the ecology of
Zambezi River delta—a major river that
drains into these marine waters. High levels of
traffic associated with crude oil transport from
the Arabian Gulf have resulted in
contamination from tankers spills and
discharge of polluted ballast waters.
Tropical Upwelling
Similar to the Temperate Upwelling MHT, high
productivity resulting from the upwelling of
nutrient rich bottom waters characterizes Tropical
Upwelling habitats. These regions are distinct
from other tropical waters in that the bottom
waters bring cool water and nutrients to the
surface. Contrasted with the warm, highly saline,
and nutrient poor waters typical of tropical marine
ecosytems, the resulting habitats support
distinctive species and systems. The combination
of high productivity and tropical climates produce
unique communities that often harbor endemic
species. In addition, large numbers of fish and sea
birds are found here, as are a diversity of sea
turtles and marine mammals.
Central Indo-Pacific
estern Australian Marine [212] –
Australia
Geographic Location: Off western
Australian coast
Biodiversity Features: Coral reefs extend for over
3,000 km along the western coast of Australia,
with numerous reef systems. A wide variety of
reefs are found, ranging from open ocean
atolls to fringing and barrier reefs. The reefs
contain a great diversity of fish, corals, and
W
165
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
numbers, birds and turtle eggs are taken, and
turtles and dugongs are killed). Oil spills have
also occurred in the area and oil exploration
poses a major potential threat.
between mainland Mexico and the Baja
Peninsula
Biodiversity Features: This was once an
enormously rich region, with major nutrient
influxes from the Colorado River. It remains a
globally important site with high level
productivity and endemism. HIGHLY
PRODUCTIVE SUBTROPICAL SEA WITH
UNUSUAL ENDEMISM IN
VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES
Selected Species: The gulf supports an endemic
porpoise species, the endangered vaquita
(Phocoena sinus), and is a vital breeding area
for the Forster's tern (Sterna forsteri). Other
species include blue whale (Balaenoptera
musculus), resident populations of the fin
whale (Balaenoptera physalus), California
gull (Larus californicus), Mexican rockfish
(Sebastes macdonaldi), roughjaw frogfish
(Antennarius avalonis), Pacific seahorse
(Hippocampus ingens), and the endemic
totoaba fish (Cynoscion macdonaldi). Marine
turtles include black (Chelonia agassizi),
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive
ridley, (Lepidochelys olivacea) and
loggerhead (Caretta caretta).
General Threats: Sedimentation from and
diversion of the Colorado River for irrigation
has seriously altered the ecology of the gulf.
Overfishing poses a threat to species such as
the endemic and threatened totoaba fish
(Cynoscion macdonaldi). Further, bottom
trawling destroys eelgrass beds and kills
shellfish. Pollution and mining represent other
important threats to biodiversity in this region.
Eastern Indo-Pacific
anama Bight [213] – Colombia, Ecuador,
Panama
Geographic Location: Northwest South America
Biodiversity Features: Estuaries of major river
systems dominate the pacific coastline of
these countries. On the offshore islands in
areas away from the influence of freshwater,
there are limited coral formations. Coral
diversity here is lower than on the Caribbean
side, but coral cover, tends to be much higher.
Ninety percent coverage is common, a level of
coverage rarely found in the Caribbean.
Selected Species: Loggerhead turtle (Caretta
caretta), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys
olivacea), leatherback turtle (Dermochelys
coriacea), South American fur seal
(Arctocephalus australis), humpback whale
(Megaptera novaeangliae), common rorqual
(Balaenoptera physalus), sperm whale and
(Physeter catodon), red-footed booby (Sula
sula) and Black storm-petrel (Oceanodroma
melania) live here. Numerous species of fish,
including those in the families Isophoridae,
Serranidea and Scaridae inhabit these waters,
as do decapod crustaceans, including many
that are endemic to the area.
General Threats: Bleaching and coral mortality,
assumed to be associated with El Niño events,
has been recorded in many areas. Outbreaks of
the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster
planci) have reduced coral populations.
Domestic pollution, massive deforestation,
and destruction of the reefs associated with
fishing and spearfishing are general threats.
Siltation produced by soil runoff has
destroyed many coral areas. Other threats
include mining, dam construction,
transshipment of oil spills and pesticide use.
P
alápagos Marine [215] – Ecuador
Geographic Location: Marine ecosystems
around the Galápagos Islands in the eastern
tropical Pacific
Biodiversity Features: The marine ecosystems of
the Galápagos Islands, like their terrestrial
counterparts, include a diverse flora and
fauna, with high levels of endemism. A
number of rare and endangered species occurs
here, including endemic flightless cormorants
(Phalacrocorax harrisi) and marine iguanas
(Amblyrynchus cristatus). THIS
PRODUCTIVE ECOREGION HAS AN
G
ulf of California [214] – Mexico
Geographic Location: Eastern Pacific
G
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
UNUSUAL LEVEL OF ENDEMISM FOR
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS AND RARE
ADAPTATIONS OF SPECIES
Selected Species: The area contains a mixture of
central and eastern Pacific faunas with a
distinct Galápagos endemic component. Some
species present in this area include an endemic
black coral (Anthipates panamensis), green
turtle (Chelonia mydas), flightless cormorant
(Phalacrocorax harrisi), Galápagos penguin
(Spheniscus mendiculus), waved albatross
(Diomedea irrorata), and lava gull (Larus
fuliginosus) and marine iguana (Amblyrynchus
cristatus). California sea lion (Zalophus
californianus), an endemic fur seal
(Arctocephalus galapagoensis), fin whale
(Balaenoptera physalus), sei whale (B.
borealis), minke whale (B. acutorostrata),
humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae),
killer whale (Orcinus orca), and false killer
(Pseudorca crassidens) comprise a portion of
the mammalian fauna in these waters.
General Threats: The reefs are under the pressure
from human activities, especially exploitation
of marine resources. Overfishing poses a
significant threat to these ecosystems.
Increasing tourism and associated activities
could be a problem if not properly regulated.
journey. The Bijagos also support an unusual
population of marine hippopotamuses
(Hippopotamus amphibius). ONE OF THE
RICHEST AND MOST PRODUCTIVE
UPWELLING AREAS OF THE EASTERN
TROPICAL ATLANTIC OCEAN
Selected Species: One of the few places where the
hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius)
ventures into the sea. Other species include
green turtle (Chelonia mydas), olive ridley
turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) and West
African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis).
Some fishes are the sardine (Sardinops
ocellata), the pilchard (Sardina pilchardus),
the Spanish sardine (Sardinella aurita), the
horse mackerel (Tracharus sp.) and hake
(Merluccius spp.). Marine mammals include
the breeding humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae).
General Threats: Overfishing poses a serious
threat to the area. Licensed foreign vessels
exploit the fisheries, but do little for the local
economy since profits are exported. Further
environmental problems are urban
development, runoff as a product of soil
erosion, release of agrochemical products,
sewage discharge and oil pollution.
Tropical Coral
Eastern Tropical Atlantic
The greatest known species diversity of any
marine ecosystem is found in coral reefs. Tropical
Coral reefs are fragile and diverse habitats that
exist in sunlit waters along continental and island
margins. Healthy reefs are typically found in clear
waters that are nutrient poor. Temperature
restrictions also limit the location and survival of
reefs; an increase of one or two degrees above the
usual maximum temperatures can result in
bleaching. Coral reefs are characterized by
structural complexity, low levels of environmental
fluctuations, clear water, and advanced age—
modern reefs represent approximately 6,000 years
of growth. An estimated 600,000 square
kilometers of coral reefs are scattered over an area
of about 150 million square kilometers of tropical
oceans.
anary Current [216] – Canary Islands
(Spain), Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritania,
Mauritania, Morocco, Senegal, Western
Sahara (Morocco)
Geographic Location: Off northwestern coast of
Africa
Biodiversity Features: Driven by prevailing
winds, the Canary Current flows
southwestward along the coast of West Africa,
bringing cool water towards the equator. As
the wind moves the surface water, nutrient
rich water from below the surface moves
upward. This upwelling creates a highly
productive region, especially for deep-sea fish
and lobsters. The Banc d’Arguin and Bijagos
Archipelago are highly productive, shallow
water ecosystems that support millions of
Palearctic migratory birds during their
C
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
The vertical growth and complexity of reef
structures provide numerous niches for different
species to fill. In addition to the calcium carbonate
structure that the diverse corals species provide,
numerous species of attached sponges and algae
help to give the reefs their form. Fishes,
invertebrates, and cryptofauna—organisms that
bore into, attach to, or hide within the
heterogeneous structure of the reef—exploit the
varied reef habitats. Open water also provides
habitat for a number of species, including
barracuda (Sphyraena spp.), sharks, whales and
other Cetaeceans. Along with the warm waters
and low nutrient levels, the diversity of reef
species is thought to be associated intermittent
levels of natural disturbance, such as storms.
Tropical corals likely have the highest betadiversity among marine ecoregions.
these reefs. Coral bleaching has been reported
in the coastal waters around different islands.
Pollution has severely affected some areas,
especially, closed bays. Illegal collecting and
exploitation of reef resources are further
causes for concern.
ulu-Sulawesi Seas [218] – Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: Abundant coral reefs,
mangroves, and seagrass beds of the Lesser
Sundas support one of the richest array of
coral reef animals and plants in the world.
These coral ecosystems are some of the most
diverse on Earth, with over 450 species of
scleractinian corals compared to 50 in the
Caribbean and around 200 in the western
Indian Ocean. Fish diversity reaches its
highest level worldwide in this region. ONE
OF THE MOST DIVERSE MARINE
COMMUNITIES ON EARTH WITH
GLOBALLY HIGH FISH AND CORAL
DIVERSITY
Selected Species: Among the fishes that
characterize this ecoregion are giant
bumphead parrot-fish (Bolbometapon
muricatus), Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus
undulatus), jacks (Carangidae spp.),
needlefishes (Belonidae spp.), barracudas
(Sphyraena spp.), and various species of
sharks (Selachimorpha spp.). The area
supports exensive turtle populations; green
(Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Erethmochelys
imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys
olivacea), leatherback (Dermochelys
coriacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
are found. Two other aquatic reptiles include
the water monitor (Varanus salvator), and
saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). The
manta ray (Manta birostris) also roams these
seas. Based on recent research efforts, eight
cetaceans are known from these two seas: the
spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris),
spotted dolphin (Stenella atterruata),
bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus),
Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griscus), Fraser’s
dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), short-finned
pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus),
S
Central Indo-Pacific
ansei Shoto [217] – Japan
Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean off
eastern Asia
Biodiversity Features: Nansei Shoto Islands, a
chain of islands off southwestern Japan,
contain diverse coral reefs that support many
endemic fish species as well as populations of
marine birds and mammals. SUBTROPICAL
ECOSYSTEMS OF THE WESTERN
PACIFIC OCEAN WITH UNUSUAL
ENDEMISM FOR THE HABITAT TYPE
Selected Species: Loggerhead turtles (Caretta
caretta), dugong (Dugong dugon), anemone
fish (Amphiprion clarkii), Japanese parrotfish
(Calotamus japonicus), and numerous other
fish species as well as non-coral invertebrates
and tropical marine algae are found in this
ecoregion. This region provides breeding
habitat for the endangered northern right
whale (Eubalaena australis), other marine
mammals include finless porpoise
(Neophocaena phocaenoides).
General Threats: Important threats to the
biodiversity in this region come from soil
runoff—a phenomenon related to construction
and agricultural practices—that leads to
increasing sedimentation. The outbreak of
crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci),
a predator of corals, poses a serious threat to
N
168
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
dwarf sperm whale (Kogia simus), and
Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris).
The endangered dugong (Dugong dugon) is
known to feed in the area. Birds include the
critically endangered Chinese crested tern
(Thalasseus bernsteini).
General Threats: Coastal erosion, sedimentation,
and nutrient runoff from the land, coral
mining and collection, overexploitation of sea
turtles, rock mining and collection of fishes
for the aquarium trade comprise the primary
threats to marine environments throughout
this ecoregion. Destructive fishing practices,
such as dynamite fishing and cyanide fishing,
are also of concern.
pacificus), black-naped tern (Sterna
sumatrana), and lesser frigatebird (Fregata
ariel) are present in the area.
General Threats: Widespread logging activities
have resulted in erosion of land surfaces and
are leading to damaging sedimentation.
Unregulated, localized cutting of mangroves is
underway, including systematic clearing for
coconut plantations. Light industry residues as
well as sewage discharge result in degraded
water quality. Illegal dynamite fishing and
hunting of crocodiles and turtles poses a
serious threat to local fauna. The increase of
tourism and its associated impacts represents
another cause for concern.
ismarck-Solomon Seas [219] – Indonesia,
Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia, Torres
Strait, and Northern Great Barrier Reef
Biodiversity Features: These waters are home to
globally outstanding coral reef assemblages
that are among the most diverse in the world.
Bound to the north and south by deep ocean
trenches, these seas contain numerous small
islands. In close proximity to both the Great
Barrier Reef and the highly diverse East
Indian region, these waters potentially contain
unique and complex species assemblages,
including a number of endemic species.
SOME OF THE WORLDS MOST DIVERSE
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS WITH SOME
ENDEMISM, INCLUDING SOME OF THE
MOST INTACT CORAL COMMUNITIES
IN THE SOUTHWESTERN PACIFIC
Selected Species: Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata) rookeries exist here. Leatherback
(Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelonia
mydas), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea),
and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles
swim in these waters, as do Blainville’s
beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris),
dugong (Dugong dugon), and finless porpoise
(Neophocaena phocaenoides). Fish families
include butterfly fishes (Chaetodontidae),
seabasses (Serranidae), pipefish (Sygnatidae)
and sea horses (Hippocampus spp). Giant clam
(Tridacnidae sp.), giant triton (Charonia
tritonis), wedge-tailed shearwater (Puffinus
B
B
anda-Flores Sea [220] -Indonesia
Geographic Location: Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: The diverse and complex
coral reefs and marine ecosystems of Papua
New Guinea and the Moluccas support
numerous endemic species of coral, fish and
invertebrates, as well as populations of marine
turtles, dugongs, and giant clams. The reefs
and lagoon complexes also contain seabird
rookery islands. ONE OF THE MOST
DIVERSE MARINE COMMUNITIES ON
EARTH WITH GLOBALLY HIGH FISH
AND CORAL DIVERSITY
Selected Species: Carpet shark (Eucrossorhinus
dasypogon), catshark (Hemiscyllium
ocellatum), big grouper (Epinephelus sp.) and
moray eel (Gymnothorax flavomarginatus) are
but just a few of the numerous fishes present
here. These habitats also support Dugong
(Dugong dugon), Blainville’s beaked whale
(Mesaplodon densirostris), hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle
(Chelonias mydas), and leatherback turtle
(Dermochelys coriacea).
General Threats: Dynamite fishing, shark fin
fisheries, deforestation, uncontrolled tourism,
and toxins and erosion from logging and
mining pose threats to the region. Localized
oil spills have been reported. Sewage
pollution in some populated areas is also
affecting water quality.
ew Caledonia Barrier Reef [221] – New
N
169
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Caledonia (France)
Geographic Location: South Pacific
Biodiversity Features: New Caledonia’s marine
waters harbor the second longest double
barrier reef in the world, which reaches a
length of 1,500 km. Reef formations have high
geomorphologic and species diversity and are
of outstanding biogeographical interest. Much
of the enormous species diversity in New
Caledonia is yet unclassified and new species
of fish and invertebrates are being discovered.
The reefs provide one of the main nesting
sites for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and
dugongs (Dugong dugon) are found in these
waters. Several endemic mollusks are present,
as are several rare crab species. THIS
BARRIER REEF IS A REGIONAL CENTER
OF ENDEMISM IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC.
SECOND LARGEST BARRIER REEF IN
THE WORLD
Selected Species: Fish diversity is high; at least
1,000 species have been documented. These
fish include the endemic sea bass
(Luzonichthys williamsi), and numerous
species within the families Labridae,
Pomacentridae, Gobidae, Serrandiae,
Chaetodontidae, and Apogonidae. Major
commercial fish include representatives from
the following families: Serranidae, Lutjanidae,
Lethrinidae, Mullidae, Labridae. New species
of fish and invertebrates are being
documented, including a new species of
extremely rare amphipod (Didymochelia
ledoyerisp), and a new species of palaemonine
shrimp (Brachycarpus crosnieri). A diverse
population of water striders (Xenobates spp.
and Halovelia spp.) exists here. Other
invertebrates of interest include two species of
giant clams (Tridacna gigas and Hippopus
hippopus). Over 600 species of sponges find
habitat in these waters, as well as 5,500
species of mollusks, 5,000 species of
crustaceans, and over 350 species of algae.
The dugong (Dugong dugon) and other marine
mammals exist here. Numerous waterbird
species utilize these waters; twenty-three
known species of marine birds breed here,
including the red-footed booby (Sula sula),
sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), lesser noddy
(Anous tenuirostris), and brown noddy (A.
stolidus). Marine turtles include green
(Chelonic mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata), loggerhead (Carettta caretta) and
leatherback (Dermochelys coricea).
General Threats: The great majority of coral reefs
are reported to be in good health, with the
exception of the eastern reefs that receive
mining effluent. Nickel mining and bush fires
greatly intensify erosion and natural
sedimentation processes, particularly when
coupled with cyclone flood surges. Coral reef
morphology has been affected by heavy
sedimentation in lagoon areas near river
mouths, a problem exacerbated by the
destruction of sediment-retaining mangroves;
some reefs have been buried under more than
8 m of silt. The loss of mangrove swamps is of
major concern, as is the loss of other coastal
habitats and spawning areas (e.g., seagrass
beds and fringing reefs) for marine fish and
invertebrates. Coastal development (e.g.,
infilling and construction work on reef flats
and mangroves) poses a threat, as impact
studies are uncommon. Marine pollution by
metals and hazards related to shipping are of
further concern. A rapid increase in the
number of sailing vessels has increased anchor
damage on reefs and pollution from direct
discharge of sewage. The use of TBT
(tributyl-tin) anti-fouling paints (banned in
Europe) adds to pollution levels. Industrial
and domestic pollution is often severe around
large towns, due to insufficient sanitation
networks. Aquaculture effluent contributes to
raised nutrient levels, causing hyper
sedimentation and some eutrophication.
Overfishing for the aquarium trade, and for
commercial, recreational, and subsistence
purposes poses a large threat. Small-scale
infestations of the coral-feeding crown-ofthorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) have
damaged reefs. Collection of marine
organisms on the reef flats is of increasing
concern. Some rare species sought by
collectors may be in danger of extinction,
especially endemic species such as
Cymbiolacca thatcheri and Lyria grangei.
Overexploitation of sea cucumbers and
trochus shells (collected for export) threatens
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
stocks, as does recreational and speargun
fishing.
(Sousa chinensis), and spinner dolphin
(Stenella longirostris).
General Threats: Eutrophication, especially
related to runoff from agricultural
development (e.g., sugar cane), has reduced
coral reef diversity and spatial cover.
Dumping of dredge spoil in the sea adversely
affects reefs by increasing turbidity and
sedimentation. Oil exploration and production
and their related dangers (e.g., accidental oil
spills from islands and especially from passing
ships) represent a threat. Overfishing,
especially trawl and line fisheries, has a strong
impact on the local marine fauna. Outbreaks
of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster
planci) have occurred, destroying a high
proportion of hard coral cover.
reat Barrier Reef [222] – Australia
Geographic Location: Northeast coast of
Australia
Biodiversity Features: The Great Barrier Reef is
the largest barrier reef system in the world,
extending 2,000 km from the low-latitude
tropics to temperate zones. Comprised of the
most diverse reef types, habitats, and
environmental regimes, this is an area of
enormous scientific importance. Northern
tropical waters are highly diverse, though
there are relatively few endemic species. In
contrast, the temperate portions of the reef
have low overall species diversity but a higher
proportion of endemic species. This enormous
system and its diversity of habitats support
many forms of marine life. There are an
estimated 1,900 species of fish, approximately
350 species of hard-reef-building corals, more
than 4,000 mollusk species, and over 400
species of sponge have been collected. In
addition, these reefs harbor important nesting
sites for numerous seabird species. THE
LARGEST BARRIER REEF IN THE
WORLD WITH SOME ENDEMISM IN FISH
AND INVERTEBRATES
Selected Species: Unique habitats and breeding
sites for the largest populations of dugong
(Dugong dugon), and for saltwater crocodile
(Crocodylus porosus) are found within this
ecosystem. Additionally, the region contains
nesting grounds of global significance for the
green turtle (Chelonia mydas), as well as for
the flatback turtle (Natator depressa).
Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata),
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and
olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtles
also use habitats in this area. Other species of
interest include greater crested tern
(Thalasseus bergii), black cod (Epinephelus
daemelii), humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae), minke whale (Balaenoptera
acutorostrata), killer whale (Orcinus orca),
bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus),
Irrawaddy river dolphin (Orcaella
brevirostris), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin
G
ord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine [223] –
Australia
Geographic Location: South Pacific off eastern
Australia
Biodiversity Features: This area has a rich
diversity of fish and invertebrates, particularly
echinoderms. UNUSUAL LEVELS OF
ENDEMISM IN FISH AND
INVERTEBRATES AROUND THESE
ANCIENT AND LONG-ISOLATED
ISLANDS
Selected Species: The islands support significant
populations of seabirds, including flesh-footed
shearwater (Puffinus carneipes), wedge-tailed
shearwater (P. pacificus), black-winged petrel
(Pterodroma nigripennis), white-bellied storm
petrel (Fregatta grallaria), masked booby
(Sula dactylatra), grey noddy (Procelsterna
albivittata) and white tern (Gygis alba).
Southern right whales (Eubalaena australis)
breed here, and five species of beaked whales
(Family, Ziphiidae), and dusky dolphins
(Lagenorynchus obscurus) inhabit these
waters. Marine turtles include green (Chelonia
mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata),
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and
loggerhad (Caretta caretta).
General Threats: There is some pollution from
sewage effluent. Coral die-offs as a result of
polluted groundwater have been reported.
Sub-Antarctic currents periodically denude
L
171
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
the coral reef, but tropical currents support the
recolonizing process.
southward extension of the continental shelf.
Much of the wildlife on these islands is
endemic, including 112 species of endemic
birds. Extensive fringing reefs exist, as well as
a 320 km-long barrier reef on the west coast.
While poorly known scientifically, these reefs
may prove to be the most diverse and best
preserved in the Indian Ocean. EXTENSIVE
CORAL ECOSYSTEMS AND ONE OF THE
LARGEST BARRIER REEFS IN THE
INDIAN OCEAN, SOME ENDEMISM
Selected Species: The endemic bird species
include Nicobar megapode (Megapodius
nicobariensis), Nicobar green imperial pigeon
(Ducula aenea nicobarica), and Nicobar
emerald dove (Chancophaps indica augusta)
Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata),
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and
olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtles
nest in the region, as does the saltwater
crocodile (Crocodylus porusus). Marine
mammals include dugong (Dugong dugon),
finless porpoise (Neophocaena hocaenoides),
and Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon
densirostris). Rich fish and invertebrate
faunas exist on the reefs; fish families include
Labridae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, and
Blenniidae; nine species of seagrass are
present.
General Threats: An influx of people from the
mainland as well as refugees from Bangladesh
and Sri Lanka exert stress on the natural
resources of these islands. Exploitation of
mangroves for firewood, charcoal, and
housing material are jeopardizing the survival
of mangrove ecosystems. Increasing human
settlement and development of aquaculture
and agriculture in mangrove areas results in
the complete loss of certain mangrove species.
Moreover, development of tourism and
recreational activities pose increasing threats
to this ecoregion.
alau Marine [224] – Palau
Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean off
Southeast Asia
Biodiversity Features: Palau is considered to have
some of the richest and most diverse coral
reefs in the Pacific, with 300 species of coral.
Micronesia's reefs also support diverse
communities of coral, fish, and marine
mammals. SOME OF THE MOST INTACT
EXAMPLES OF OPEN PACIFIC
CORALINE ATOLL ECOSYSTEMS
Selected Species: Finless porpoise (Neophocoena
phoaenoides), Blainsville beaked whale
(Mesoplodon densirostris), and ginko-toothed
beaked whale (M. ginkodens) inhabit these
waters. Invertebrate species include all seven
known species of giant clam (Tridacnidae
spp.), Marine turtles inlcude hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata), and green
(Chelonia mydas) leatherback (Dermochelys
coriacea), olive ridley (Lepidochelys
olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta).
General Threats: Overfishing and destructive
fishing practices such as the use of cyanide
and dynamite threaten the reefs. Pelagic
fishing for sharks is a major problem.
Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (crown-ofthorns starfish) have occurred in many areas.
Sewage dumping from urban settlements
represents an important problem in the area. In
some areas the development of roads, runoff,
coastal dredging and the use of reef material
for construction are of major concern. Oil
spills and insecticides have a localized impact.
Native fauna (e.g., turtles) is coming under
increasing hunting pressure.
P
ndaman Sea [225] – Andaman and Nicobar
Islands (India), Indonesia, Malasia,
Myanmar, Thailand
Geographic Location: Bay of Bengal, off southern
coast of Asia
Biodiversity Features: Unlike the LakshadweepChagos chain, the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands are high volcanic islands, arising from
a submerged mountain chain that follows the
A
Eastern Indo-Pacific
T
ahitian Marine [226] - Cook Islands (New
Zealand), French Polynesia (France)
Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean
Biodiversity Features: These isolated oceanic
islands are located at a greater distance from a
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
continent than any other islands in the world.
The Marquesas, along with Hawai'i and Easter
Island, have the highest percentages of marine
endemism of any island or island group in the
Pacific. HIGHLY ISOLATED MARINE
ECOSYSTEM WITH UNUSUAL
ENDEMISM IN INVERTEBRATES AND
FISH
Selected Species: Several species of marine
turtles, including green (Chelonia mydas),
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata),
leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and
olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), as well
as humpback whale (Megaptera
novaeangliae), several species of giant clams
(Tridacna gigas, T, squamosa, T. maxima,
Hippopus hippopus), Phoenix petrel
(Pterodroma alba), Christmas shearwater
(Puffinus nativitatis), coconut crab (Birgus
latro), and the spiny lobster (Panulirus sp.),
are among the numerous species found in this
region.
General Threats: On the major islands, land
runoff and sedimentation have limited reef
development in many areas. Urbanization and
associated anthropogenic pollutants from
sewer outfalls, agricultural practices, sugar
mill discharges, power plant effluents,
dredging activities and non-point source
runoff have serious impacts on the water
quality. With the increase in fishing
technology and demand, overfishing is a
persistent problem on the high islands.
Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish
(Acanthaster planci) have been reported in
several areas.
566 species) because of their geographic and
hydrographic isolation. In general, the marine
fauna here is genetically differentiated from
its Indo-West Pacific roots, although not well
diversified. Hawaiian waters provide
wintering ground for marine mammals; more
than half of the 2000 remaining North Pacific
humpback whales (Megaptera novaenglie)
winter in Hawaii. THESE HABITATS
SUPPORT THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF
ENDEMISM FOR MARINE FISHES IN THE
WORLD
Selected Species: Many species of coral exist in
Hawaiian reefs, including several species of
endemic cauliflower coral (Pocillopora spp).
Endemic fishes include fantail filefish
(Pervagor spilosoma), several species of
angelfishes ( Genicanthus personatus,
Centropyge spp), Hawaiian anthias
(Pseudanthias thompsoni, ), yellow margin
basslet (Liopropoma aurora), Hawaiian
grouper (Epinephelus quernus), and five
species of butterflyfishes (Chaetodon spp).
Other endemic species include the Hawaiian
spiny lobster (Panulirus marginatus) and the
regal slipper lobster (Arctides regalis).
Approximately 1000 species of mollusks
occur in Hawaiian waters, 20 percent of which
are endemic. Hawaiian waters host the green
(Chelonia mydas), and leatherback turtles
(Dermochelys coriacea): loggerheads (Caretta
caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
and Kemp's ridley (L. kempii) turtles are
infrequent visitors. Hawai’ian waters provide
the only endangered humpback whale
(Megaptera novaenglie) breeding ground in
the United States, and Laysan (Diomedea
immutabilis) and black-footed albatross (D.
nigripes) have their main breeding grounds on
the islands. The impressively large eagle rays
(Aetobatus narinari), and the endemic
Hawai’ian monk seal (Monachus
schauinslandi) also inhabit this ecoregion.
General Threats: Overfishing, coastal
development, pollution, and introduced
species are all major threats.
awaiian Marine [227] – Hawaii (United
States)
Geographic Location: North Pacific
Biodiversity Features: The Hawaiian Archipelago
is situated in relative isolation in the
subtropical fringe of the North Pacific.
Hawaiian reefs provide an excellent example
of reef evolution, as the fringing and barrier
reefs are geologically young and continue to
form as the volcanic islands mature.
Endemism in shore fishes reaches its highest
level globally in the Hawaiian Islands (23% of
H
R
173
apa Nui [228] – Chile
Geographic Location: Southeastern Pacific
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Biodiversity Features: Rapa Nui, or Easter Island,
is the eastern node of Polynesia and all of
Oceania. It sits in the middle of the
southeastern Pacific Ocean, 3,760 km west of
the Chilean mainland and 2,000 kilometers
southeast of the closest other inhabited island.
Submarine volcanoes and mineral deposit
formations characterize the ocean floor in this
region. The marine flora of Rapa Nui is
among the least well known in the Pacific.
Extreme geographic isolation allows for a
high degree of endemism; these waters have
the second highest rate of endemism of shore
fishes in Oceania with 22% of the 126 species
restricted to the ocean surrounding Rapa Nui.
This region has its own unique molluscan
assemblage and 166 taxa of marine algae are
represented in these waters.
Selected Species: A wide variety of nesting sea
birds exist on Rapa Nui and surrounding
islands, including masked booby (Sula
dactylatra) grey noddy (Procelstrena
albivitta), great and lesser frigatebird (Fregata
minor and F. ariel). The dusky dolphin
(Lagenorhynchus obscurus) also exists here.
Indo-Pacific species comprise 70% of the fish
in these waters. The fish families with the
highest diversity are Labridae, Muraenidae,
Holocentridae, Balistidae, Serranidae,
Carangidae, Scorpaenidae, Pomacentridae,
and Kyphsidea. Several newly discovered
species of fish include a scorpionfish,
Rhinopias cea, and the scrawled filefish
(Alutera scripta). Numerous mollusk species
in the intertidal areas, including the newly
discovered genus of pontocypridid
(Peripontocypris), the recently discovered
pendunculate barnacle, Neolepas rapanuii,
and the first sessile barnacle from a deep-sea
hydrothermal vent on a mid ocean ridge which
is classified in the previously monotypic
genus Eochionelasmus.
General Threats: Marine habitats have been
impacted by upland activities such as
unregulated grazing on limited pasture space
and the clearing of once lush palm forests for
agriculture. An effort by the Chilean
government to accelerate island development
has resulted in the construction of new
housing projects and increases in paved areas,
which divert rainfall. Tourism is the largest
industry on the island, and the use of National
Park land for the construction of hotels, as
well as the construction of a major port
threaten the quality of these marine habitats.
iji Barrier Reef [229] –Fiji
Geographic Location: South Pacific
Biodiversity Features: The 320 islands in Fiji are
surrounded by waters home to a diverse ocean
environment that includes barrier and fringing
coral reefs, mangroves, deep pelagic areas,
and eelgrass beds. These habitats and others
are considered internationally and regionally
important sites for marine biodiversity and
support hundreds of species of fish, marine
turtles, and nesting seabirds. The coral reefs in
this region have species assemblages that are
among the most diverse in the world.
REGIONAL CENTER OF ENDEMISM IN
THE SOUTH PACIFIC AND EXTENSIVE
CORAL REEF FORMATIONS.
Selected Species: Most abundant fishes include
the delicate round herring (Spratelloides
delicatulus), luminous cardinalfish
(Rhabdamia gracilis), and spotted sardinella
(Amblygaster sirm). Over 340 species of
cryptic shelled mollusks are found in shallow
subtidal and intertidal shelter habitats. Two
species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas and
Hippopus hippopus), green turtle (Chelonia
mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys
coriacea), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys
olivacea), and dugong (Dugong dugon) are
among the species found in this ecoregion.
General Threats: Some of the reef areas and
mangroves of the more populated islands have
been drastically altered. Run-off from
pollution and sewage discharge from urban
areas, and siltation due to dredging have
lowered fish populations and injured natural
habitats in and around the capital of Suva as
well as Nadi and Lautoka areas of Viti Levu.
Overfishing and introduced species pose
further threats. Marine turtles are hunted for
their shells and meat and small tropical fish
F
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
are collected for the aquarium trade, fueling
the destruction of reef areas.
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
has caused significant damage to the reefs.
The construction of groynes, breakwaters and
jetties has caused locally severe disturbance to
some fringing reefs. Anchor damage and
siltation caused by speedboats are increasingly
problematic. Other threats include pollution
from factories, increased shipping traffic with
the associated risk of oil spills and dumping,
inadequate waste disposal, and the overuse of
water pumps and fertilizers for agriculture.
Western Indo-Pacific
M
aldives, Chagos, Lakshadweep Atolls
[230] – Chagos Archipelago (United
Kingdom), India, Maldives, Sri Lanka
Geographic Location: Indian Ocean off southern
Asia
Biodiversity Features: The Maldives, the Chagos
Archipelago, and Lakshadweep form the
Laccadive-Chagos chain that extends
southward from India to the Central Indian
Ocean. These islands are composed entirely of
atolls with extensive and largely intact reefs as
well as sandy islands. The Maldives comprise
perhaps one of the world's most complex reef
systems. The Chagos Archipelago has the
largest expanse of undisturbed reefs in the
Indian Ocean, as well as some of the most
diverse. In addition to five atolls, including
Great Chagos Bank, the world's largest atoll in
terms of area, there are two areas of raised
reef and several large submerged reefs. The
Chagos reefs are of particular interest for the
presence of an endemic coral, Ctenella
chagius. The Maldives and Chagos islands are
important nesting sites for green turtles
(Chelonia mydas) and many of the islands in
the chain have seabird nesting colonies.
THESE CORAL REEF AND ATOLL
COMMUNITIES ARE THE MOST
EXTENSIVE IN THE INDIAN OCEAN.
THE LARGEST ATOLL SYSTEM IN THE
WORLD
Selected Species: Green turtle (Chelonia mydas),
hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata),
olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea),
loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), white tern
(Gygis alba), lesser frigatebird (Fregata
ariel), common dolphin (Delphinus delphis),
Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris),
finless porpoise (Neophocaena
phocaenoides), and Blainsville’s beaked
whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) inhabit these
waters.
General Threats: The greatest threat to these reefs
comes from the relatively rapid establishment
and growth of the tourist industry as well as
from the introduction of mechanized fishing.
Clearance of terrestrial vegetation for
development leads to siltation. Coral mining
ed Sea [231] – Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea,
Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen
Yemen
Geographic Location: Northeast Africa and
Middle East
Biodiversity Features: The Red Sea is the
warmest and most saline of the world's seas.
No permanent coastal rivers or streams flow
into the Red Sea, and it is partially isolated
from the open ocean. Together, these features
contribute to a unique flora and fauna. The
diverse and spectacular coral reefs for which
the Red Sea is renowned are found only in the
central and northern portions, where the reefs
are well developed and drop steeply into deep
water. DISTINCTIVE CORAL
ECOSYSTEMS COMPRISING A
REGIONAL CENTER OF ENDEMISM FOR
FISH AND INVERTEBRATES
Selected Species: Marine turtles inlclude green
(Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta
caretta), leatherback (Eretmochelys
imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys
oliacea), and hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata). Birds include Saunder’s tern
(Sterna saundersi), white-cheeked tern (S.
repressa), great black-headed gull (Larus
icthyaetus), pink-backed pelican (Pelicanaus
rufescens), the brown booby (Sula
leucogaster), white-eyed gull (Larus
leucophtalmus), and osprey (Pandion
haliaetus). Other species include dugong
(Dugong dugon), Blainsville’s beaked whale
(Mesoplodon desirostris), white-tip reef shark
(Triaenodon obesus), butterflyfishes
(Chaetodon spp.), giant clams (Tridacna
spp.), and several species of dolphins (Family,
Delphinidae) Seventeen percent of fish are
R
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
endemic; greater than 90% of dottybacks
(Family, Pseudochromidae) and triplefins
(Family, Tripterygiidae) are endemic.
General Threats: Overfishing, spearfishing,
souvenir collecting, scuba diving, and the use
of the coast for recreational activities
represent major disturbances to these coral
reefs. Oil exploration and transport have
resulted in several oil spills. Sewage
discharge, chemical pollution, and
sedimentation from urban development pose
further threats to the Red Sea's coral reefs.
Industrial and urban development, as well as
extensive coastal development, landfilling,
and coastal engineering are dramatically
altering certain coastal areas.
breeding ground worldwide. HIGHLY
PRODUCTIVE HABITATS THAT
REFLECT EXTREME BIOPHYSICAL
REGIMES. ENDEMISM AMONG ALGAL
COMMUNITIES.
Selected Species: A wide variety of invertebrates
and algae exist, including Sargassopsis
zanardinii, a species that is endemic to the
Arabian coastline. Fishes, such as barracudas
(Sphyraena spp.), wrasses (Family, Labridae),
and damselfish (Family, Pomacentridae),
characterize these waters. Dugong (Dugong
dugon), and several species of turtles,
including the green (Chelonia mydas),
hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive
ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and
loggerhead (Caretta caretta), are found in the
Arabian Sea. Of the baleen whales, Bryde’s
(Balaenoptera edeni), minke (B.
acutoristrata), fin (B. physalus), blue (B.
musculus) and humpback (Megaptera
novaengliae) whales have been recorded. The
toothed whales include sperm (Physeter
macrocephalus), orca (Orcinus orca), and
false killer (Pseudorca crassidens). At least a
dozen species of dolphins (Family,
Delphinidae) as well as the finless porpoise
(Neophocaena phocaenoides) exist in the
Arabian Sea.
General Threats: Some of the world’s busiest oil
tanker routes traverse The Arabian Sea. As a
result, many areas suffer high inputs of oil to
the water, both from spills and the discharge
of dirty ballast water. Anchor damage,
sedimentation, and other pollution effects are
also associated with shipping and transport.
Mining operations contribute to
contamination, resulting in effluents with
elevated temperatures that contain heavy
metal contaminants. Fishing pressures from
traditional fisheries as well as destructive fish
collecting practices (e.g., dynamiting) have
resulted in fish population declines and habitat
degradation. In response, species composition
for fishes, shrimp, and other biota has been
altered in many areas. Residential and
commercial development has resulted in
eutrophication associated with sewage,
fertilizer and other effluents. Recreation and
tourism also contribute to eutrophication and
rabian Sea [232] – Djibouti, Iran, Qatar,
Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia,
United Arab Emirates, Yemen
Geographic Location: Waters off the Arabian
Peninsula and north of the Indian Ocean
Biodiversity Features: The Arabian Sea has some
of the most extreme climatic regimes due to
seasonal fluctuations in air and water
temperatures. Thus, it harbors excellent
examples of ecosystem (e.g., coral reef)
responses to natural environmental stresses. A
diversity of marine habitats exists, including
coral reefs with over 75% cover in selected
areas and sea grass beds that provide
important breeding and nursery habitats
especially for mollusks. Mangrove areas exist
with selected stands reaching 6m in height, as
do subtidal sandy and mud ecosystems that
support rich biological assemblages (>600
species). Seasonal brown, green, and red algal
flora and seasonal kelp communities,
including several endemic species, represent
important components of this region’s
biodiversity. Upwelling effects result in highly
productive pelagic waters and high plankton
productivity along the Oman Coast that
support an enormous diversity of small
herbivores. Marine fauna includes several
species of sea snakes, dolphins, whales and
sea turtles, including the loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta), a species that relies on the
Arabian Sea’s Masirah Island for its largest
A
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
reef degradation. War-related activities
provide another source of environmental
damage, including marine pollution and
habitat degradation from oil.
(Cypraecassis rufa). Mangrove species
include crab plover (Dromas ardeola),
African spoonbill (Platalea alba), Madagascar
malachite kingfisher (Alcedo vintsioides), and
Madagascar fish eagle (Haliaeëtus
vociferoides).
General Threats: The major causes of coastal
degradation are soil erosion, domestic,
agricultural and industrial pollution, and
tourist activities. Agriculture and
deforestation lead to severe erosion with
subsequent flushing of sediments, affecting
rivers and coral reef areas. Tourism and
associated overcollection of shells and coral
pose another threat. Mangroves are heavily
exploited for firewood, charcoal production,
and for protein resources (fish, crustaceans,
mollusks). The abundance of mangrove
oysters (Crassostrea cucullata) has been
decreasing rapidly because of the high level of
uncontrolled exploitation. Overfishing and the
use of destructive fishing practices (e.g.,
dynamite, toxins, harpooning, nets with
smaller than legal mesh size) are problematic.
The pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) has
reportedly been overharvested to the point of
virtual extinction and the red helmet shell
(Cypraecassis rufa) has become rare due to
heavy collection pressures by the ornamental
shell industry.
ast African Marine [233] – Kenya,
Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia,
Geographic Location: Western Indian Ocean on
the eastern coast of Africa
Biodiversity Features: Comprised of
approximately 3,200 hectares of mangrove,
the Rufiji Delta is one of the most important
coastal wetlands in East Africa. Elsewhere
along the coastline of Tanzania and Kenya,
coral reefs form an almost continuous fringing
reef. On Mafia and other islands, patch reefs
predominate on the western sides and welldeveloped fringing reefs on the eastern sides
that may be among the finest remaining reefs
in the region. Reefs around Mafia alone
support 350 species of fish and 40 genera of
corals. Another portion of this ecoregion, the
Basaruto Archipelago supports a diverse range
of marine habitats, including deep-sea areas,
coral reefs, rocky intertidal areas, sandy
beaches, tidal sand flats, seagrass meadows,
and mangrove communities. Several endemic
marine species occur here. The region also
contains mangrove and extensive seagrass
beds. ONE OF THE MOST DIVERSE
CORAL, MANGROVE, AND SEAGRASS
COMPLEXES IN THE WESTERN INDIAN
OCEAN, INCLUDING EXTENSIVE
MANGROVES AND CORAL REEFS THAT
EXHIBIT SOME ENDEMISM IN REEF
INVERTEBRATES AND FISH
Selected Species: Important species include
dugong (Dugong dugon), breeding humpback
whale (Megoptera novaenglia), Blainville’s
beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris).
Gervais’ beaked whale (M. europaeus), green
turtle (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead turtle
(Caretta caretta), hawksbill turtle
(Eretmochelys imbricata), roseate tern (Sterna
dougallii), greater crested tern (Thalasseus
bergii), masked booby (Sula dactylatra),
brown noddy (Anous stolidus) and mollusk
species such as the pearl oyster (Pinctada
margaritifera) and the red helmet shell
E
est Madagascar Marine [234] – Comoros,
Madagascar, Mayotte and Iles Glorieuses
Glorieuses (France), Seychelles
Geographic Location: Southwestern Indian
Ocean, east of Mozambique
Biodiversity Features: The marine habitats
surrounding this and other islands are diverse
and include extensive and large barrier
reefs—including one of the very few (less
than 10) known true double barrier reefs in the
world—mangrove forests, and mudflat
ecosystems. These reef-lagoon environments
are highly diverse, and include barrier and
fringing reefs, inner reefs, pinnacles, and faro
formations (small annular-shaped reefs
resembling a small atoll). The diversity of
corals is high, with over 60 coral genera
present. The barrier reefs of southwest
W
178
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
bowdoini) and Blainville’s (M. densirostris)
beaked whales. The dugong (Dugong dugon)
is also found in these waters, but are rare due
to overhunting.
General Threats: Sedimentation of coral reefs and
mangrove forests has resulted from land
degradation. Poverty, the effects of colonial
exploitation, and rapid population growth, has
resulted in increased pressures on resources.
Destructive practices include heavy grazing
pressures, deforestation, increased
construction on slopes in coastal villages, and
unsustainable agricultural practices (e.g.,
cropping over steep slopes, short fallow
periods, slash-and-burn). Agricultural
problems are an indirect result of the land
tenure system within which farmers may claim
property rights over any land they clear. The
destruction of coastal sandbars has worsened
sedimentation problems. The lack of sewage
treatment networks results in raw wastes being
channeled into coastal waters and dumped
into coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps.
Residues from pesticides such as DDT also
find their way into the marine waters. High
levels of traffic associated with crude oil
transport from the Arabian Gulf results in oil
contamination from tanker spills and
discharge of dirty ballast waters. Excavation
of coral for cement production and building
destroys the reefs, as does collection of corals
and shells, which also results in a disturbance
for breeding turtles. Crown-of-thorns starfish
(Acanthaster planci) infestations pose threats,
especially when coupled with other
destructive forces, as the proliferation of these
starfish often appears to correlate with an
increase in sediment from land sources.
Overfishing is another problem, as stocks are
now being fished to capacity due to the
development of more sophisticated fishing
skills. Destructive fishing practices (e.g., the
use of fixed nets that capture juveniles, beach
seines, speargun fishing, and the use of poison
and insecticides) also degrade reef habitats.
Madagascar are the most extensive in the
Indian Ocean and among the largest in the
world, with approximately 200 km of true
barrier reef (including the 18-24 km-long Gran
Recífe de Toliara) and a number of offshore
coral islands. The Toliara reefs have high fish
diversity, harboring over 550 species, and
support an important artisanal fishery.
Seagrass beds are of major importance as
habitats for endangered species such as
dugong (Dugong dugon) and several marine
turtle species. The marine waters provide one
of the world’s most important nesting sites for
the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and nursery
areas for humpback (Megaptera noveangliae)
and other whales. These waters are home for
35% of all cetaceans worldwide and provide
outstanding examples of virtually undisturbed
sanctuaries. Because of its relatively
undisturbed state, the area could serve as
reference sites for worldwide coral reef
monitoring and for scientific observations of
underwater flora and fauna. AMONG THE
LARGEST REEF ASSEMBLAGES
WORLDWIDE. DIVERSITY OF MARINE
HABITATS WITH HIGH DIVERSITY AND
RELATIVELY INTACT CONDITION
Selected Species: Over 200 species of corals are
found here; together they form reefs that
house a high diversity of sponges, mollusks
(over 400 species) and fishes (over 550
species). Fish include the coelacanth
(Lahimeria chalumnae), silvertip shark
(Carcharinus albimarginatus) and the
threatened kei goby (Oligdepis keimsis). More
familiar to many people are the two breeding
species of turtles: hawksbill (Eretmochelys
imbricata) and green (Chelonia mydas). Other
sea turtle species are occasionally observed,
including the leatherback (Dermochelys
coriacea), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and
olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea). An
outstanding diversity and quantity of
cetaceans are found including sperm whale
(Physeter macrocephalus), breeding
humpback whale (Megaptera novaengliae),
spectacled porpoise (Australophaena
dioptrica), Burmeister’s porpoise (Phoceona
spinipinnis), dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus
obscurus), and Andrew’s (Mesoplodon
Western Tropical Atlantic
M
179
esoamerican Reef [235] – Belize,
Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico
Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
Geographic Location: Central America
Biodiversity Features: The Belize Barrier Reef is
the largest barrier reef in the Western
Hemisphere. Associated with the reef are
extensive areas of relatively pristine coastal
wetlands, lagoons, seagrass beds, and
mangrove islands, which provide critical
habitats for threatened species such as sea
turtles and manatees (Trichetus spp.).
LARGEST BARRIER REEF IN THE
WESTERN HEMISPHERE
Selected Species: Loggerhead turtle (Caretta
caretta), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys
imbricata), green turtle (Chelonia mydas),
American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus),
Caribbean manatee (Trichetus manatus),
magnificent frigatebird (Fregata
magnificens), red-footed booby (Sula sula),
brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), and
olivaceous cormorant (Phalacrocorax
olivaceous) are characteristic of this system.
Although many species are wide-ranging,
sharks such as the bull shark (Carcharhinus
leuca), nurse shark (Ginglymostoma
cirratum), reef shark (C. springeri), and
scalloped hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini)
can be found in this ecoregion. Similarly,
several species of manta rays are found in this
ecoregion, including the southern stingray
(Dasyatis americana), cownose ray
(Rhinoptera bonasus), and yellow stingray
(Urolphus jamaicensis). Other species include
the great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda),
spotted moray eel (Gymnothorax ocellatus)
and 50 to 60 endemic coral species.
General Threats: Hurricanes are one of the
principal disturbance factors affecting these
reefs. Natural destruction becomes a threat
when coupled with anthropogenic
disturbances. Rapidly growing pressure from
coastal development, tourism, and
deforestation for agriculture, resulting in
siltation from soil erosion, pollution from
herbicides and fertilizers, all pose threats.
Commercial and recreational overfishing, as
well as oil spills, also threaten the integrity of
this this reef system.
Cayman Islands (United Kingdom), Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico (United States), Turks and Caicos
Islands (United Kingdom), United States
Geographic Location: Caribbean
Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes the
Andros Barrier Reef, located 2-5 km offshore
of the island of Andros in the western
Bahamas. The reef is considered one of the
finest barrier reefs in the Caribbean. Other
sites in the region include habitat for the
endangered American crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus). REGIONALLY OUTSTANDING
COMPLEX OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
WITH UNUSUAL BIOPHYSICAL
FEATURES
Selected Species: Species include conch
(Strombus gigas), white-tailed tropicbird
(Phaethon lepturus), black-capped petrel
(Pterodroma hasitata). Fishes of interest
include stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma
viride), clown wrasse (Halichoeres
maculipinna), cherub fish (Centropye argi),
Nassau grouper (Epinephalus striatus), and
spotted drum (Equetus punctatus). The
humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)
breeds here.
General Threats: Severe development pressures in
this region, as well as poverty and high population
growth rates have led to intensive and unplanned
land use. Population densities exceed 500 people
per square kilometer on some islands, and the
effects can be seen in the loss of mangroves and
over exploitation of coral reef resources.
Untreated wastes from coastal cities, towns, and
tourist centers have led to degraded water quality,
anoxia, fish kills, coral bleaching, and, in some
cases, pollution induced diseases. High organic
loads from sugar cane mills and food-processing
plants contribute to the water pollution, as does
industrial effluent that often contains heavy
metals. Dredge-and-fill operations, eroded
sediment from coastal deforestation and poor
agricultural practices, fishing with bottom trawls,
and oil spills are further threats that have taken
their toll on important habitats, including seagrass
beds and their associatedfish nurseries.
S
reater Antillean Marine [236] – Bahamas,
G
outhern Caribbean Sea [237] - Aruba
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
(Netherlands), Columbia, Netherlands Antilles
(Netherlands), Panama, Trinidad and Tobago,
Venezuela
Geographic location: Southern Caribbean
Biodiversity Features: The southern Caribbean
Sea is home to extensive seagrass meadows,
mangrove forests, and coral reefs that provide
breeding habitat for many species of fish and
shellfish. The Gulf of Paria between
Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago is
particularly rich and provides a basis for
major marine fisheries.
Selected Species: Manatees (Trichechea spp.),
regionally endangered loggerhead (Caretta
caretta), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback
(Dermochelys coriacea), olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea), and Kemp’s ridley
(L. kempii) turtles live in the south Caribbean
Sea. Marine fish species include Bocon
toadfish (Amphichthys cryptocentrus), and the
hogfish (Cachnolaimus maximus). A newly
discovered species from the drum and croaker
family, Stellifer chaoi, calls these waters
home.
General Threats: Chemical pollution produced by
industry and agriculture, silt from dredge and
fill operations, and poor land management
pose threats to these ecosystems, as do
untreated wastes from coastal cities, towns,
and tourist centers (10% of wastes are
currently treated). Eutrophication and anoxia
in nearshore waters have led to the decline of
reefs and seagrass beds. Industrial wastes and
hydrocarbon pollution has resulted in fish
kills. Mercury pollution is a threat, especially
in Venezuela’s Puerto Moron. Chronic oil
pollution from oil drilling in Venezuela,
Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados has wiped
out mangrove swamps, seagrass meadows, and
coral reefs. The loss of topsoil due to slash
and burn forest clearing for large monoculture
agricultural productions has resulted in
sedimentation. Overfishing of reefs and
harvesting of mangrove wood for fuel is a
further threat. In terms of tourism, this region
is second only to the Mediterranean. Coupled
with overpopulation and rapid growth in
coastal cities, tourism has led to degradation
of coastal habitats. Impacts on species
includes the death of sea turtles and marine
mammals from ingestion of floating tar, as
well as loss of nesting sites for turtles and
hunting for meat and shells, and drownings in
fishing nets (e.g., shrimp trawls).
ortheast Brazil Shelf Marine [238] – Brazil
Brazil
Geographic Location: Northeastern Brazil, south
of the Amazon River delta
Biodiversity Features: The combination of a wide
continental shelf (up to 350 km) and low
levels of freshwater input in this region allow
for a variety of habitats, including mangrove
forests, fringing and barrier reefs, and
estuaries that act like inland extensions of the
continental shelf. Where the shelf narrows in
the central section of the Northeast Brazil
Shelf region, the substrate consists almost
entirely of carbonate sediments and is
impacted by the South Equatorial Current.
The wide Abrolhos Bank of the east Brazil
shelf supports more diverse conditions, as it
forms a physical barrier to the Brazil Current,
and upwelling and land input become more
significant. Taken together, these physical
conditions create a diversity of shelf types,
which in turn are home to large variety of
species. DIVERSE SHELF HABITATS
SUPPORT A WIDE VARIETY OF MARINE
SPECIES, INCLUDING IMPORTANT
BREEDING GROUNDS FOR HUMPBACK
WHALES IN THE ATLANTIC
Selected species: This region provides a tropical
breeding ground for humpback whales
(Megaptera noveangliae), as well as the
smalleye hammerhead (Sphyrna tudes).
Several species of marine turtles, including
the breeding leatherback (Dermochelys
coriacea) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas),
exist in these waters, as do the hawksbill
(Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley
(Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead
(Caretta caretta) turtles.
General Threats: Overfishing, including
destructive fishing practices, as well as
development threaten the reefs across this
ecoregion. Recreational activities and tourism
N
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Marine Global 200 Ecoregion Descriptions
further damage the integrity of the reef
ecosystem.
182