Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 1
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching: The Journey of 12 Preservice Teachers.
Submitted to “Science Education” on March 15, 2010
Danielle Dani, Assistant Professor
Ohio University
252 McCracken Hall
Athens, OH 45701
dani@ohio.edu
Phone: 740-593-4438 fax: 740-593-0477
Helen Meyer, Associate Professor
CECH, ML 0002
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH 45221-0002
Helen.meyer@uc.edu
Phone: 513-556-5115 fax: 513-556-1581
Debbie Jackson, Assistant Professor
Cleveland State University
2121 Euclid Ave., CB 272
Cleveland, Ohio 44115-2214
d.jackson1@csuohio.edu
Phone: 216-687-3753 Fax: 216-875-9875
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 2
Abstract
This article reports on a research study that took place in a secondary science methods
class designed to explore preservice science teachers’ understanding of culturally relevant
science. The unique features of the course included the use of science content that drew on the
home lives of urban students; providing opportunities for preservice teachers and urban students
to engage in inquiry-based activities and conversations as equals; and structuring time and space
for preservice teachers to explore and reflect on their experiences with urban students. Our goal
was to explore the development of preservice teachers’ conceptions of culturally relevant science
as a result of participation in this unique methods course. Data was gathered about the preservice
teachers’ perceptions of culturally relevant science teaching using a qualitative case study
research design. Findings elaborate the preservice teachers’ emerging conceptions of urban
students and perceptions of their roles as teachers. These views have the potential to inform
science teacher preparation for culturally relevant science teaching.
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 3
Reforms in science education advocate scientific literacy for all children and
empowerment to participate in science beyond secondary school (American Association for the
Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1986a; AAAS, 1986b). In urban public schools in the United
States this task is made more difficult by the increasing cultural disparity between the children in
urban classrooms and the homogeneity of the teaching force, a trend pointed out by Banks
(1991) and Grant & Secada (1990) in the early 1990s that continues to escalate today (Terrill &
Mark, 2000; Lee & Luykx, 2007). The cultural disparity between the student and teacher
populations increases the likelihood that urban secondary students will not experience instruction
as relevant to their lives or life experiences (Hamovitch, 1996).
The current disparity in demographics by no means indicates that teachers and students
need to come from the same racial/ethnic backgrounds for effective teaching to occur (LadsonBillings, 1995). The increasing student diversity highlights the need for teacher educators to
prepare science teachers who not only understand science but also the knowledge and ways of
knowing that “non-mainstream” (Lee & Luykx, 2007) culture students bring to their science
classes (Gay, 2002; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Wiener (2000) pointed out that, “urban teachers
often work detached from the community and family resources that would help them to
understand their students’ lives, needs and interests” (p. 371). This detachment, along with the
commonly held assumption of the scarce living circumstances of urban youth (Delpit, 1993;
1995), creates a limited vision of what teaching in an urban setting requires (Lee, Spencer &
Harpalani, 2003) and is further exacerbated by science curricular materials that do not
incorporate experiences and examples from specific cultural groups. Inclusion of culturally
relevant examples may promote higher achievement in science and more positive attitudes
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 4
towards science (Aikenhead, 1997).
As science teacher educators, we feel compelled to increase the cultural awareness of the
preservice teachers in our classes in an attempt to dispel these overriding perceptions of urban
communities. The purpose of this study was to systematically explore the development of
preservice teachers’ conceptions of culturally relevant science as a result of participation in a
unique methods course. The course provided preservice teachers with concrete experiences with
urban youth and opportunities to reflect on culturally relevant science. The course majority of the
course took place at a local urban high school.
Culturally relevant science
Barton and Osborne (2001) defined a critical science education framework by
highlighting what makes science relevant to students. This framework can be used to understand
how science knowledge is developed in the traditional school setting, as well as to provide a lens
through which we begin to understand how science knowledge in different cultural communities
is developed. The primary tenets of their framework included the belief that: “the production of
scientific knowledge is linked to the social uses and needs for … [the] knowledge” (p 15);
“scientific knowledge is … tentative and imbued with the values of the individual and the culture
in which it is generated” (p 16); and that “science is a social practice with social responsibilities”
(p 17). To summarize, the fundamental ways of and purpose for learning science may be similar
across all cultural groups; however, because the needs, values, and social responsibilities vary, so
will the relevance of the science. In order for school science to be relevant to urban secondary
students, the content selected must offer knowledge of value to the students. It should reflect
relevant social and community needs, and be useful within the community. If preservice science
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 5
teachers are going to make science applicable to urban students, they need a deep understanding
of what makes science relevant to the students and how to employ instruction that allows them to
identify and use the cultural knowledge of their students.
Beliefs about students
Most teacher candidates begin their teacher education programs with beliefs that
challenge the goals of equitable education for all students (Bryan & Atwater, 2002). An example
of such beliefs is that culturally diverse students are academically less capable than other
students (Byrnes, Kiger, & Manning, 1997; Foster, 1997; Kozol, 1991). These beliefs are rooted
in perceptions of students’ lack of motivation for learning and their need for control (Bryan &
Atwater, 2002). Teachers who believe that students are less capable also believe that authority
and control are imperative for learning (Barnes & Barnes, 2005; Solomon, Battistich, & Hom,
1996). As a result, these teachers hold lower expectations of diverse students and believe that
their curriculum cannot be challenging nor inquiry-based. Subsequently, students in high poverty
schools are generally afforded less autonomy, fewer opportunities to interact with one another,
and a less stimulating classroom environment. In these cases, the teachers’ beliefs serve as
impediments to effective instruction (Grant & Secada, 1990). To illustrate, even though
preservice and practicing teachers agreed that they were most engaged during an open-ended
inquiry activity, they assumed that urban students need more structure and that the “cookbook”
approach should be used first in their classrooms, despite the fact that many of them found it to
be boring (Barnes & Barnes, 2005).
Culturally relevant science and teacher education
Terrill and Mark (2000) suggested three specific strategies that teacher education
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 6
institutions can implement to increase preservice teachers’ cultural knowledge and their ability to
use this knowledge to make their teaching relevant. A first step for teacher educators was to
design specific interventions that “would model how to teach in ways that recognize and adjust
to the cultural differences of school children” (p. 154). These interventions should occur in
conjunction with opportunities for teacher educators and preservice teachers to explore and
reflect on how knowledge is culturally bound. A second measure was to increase preservice
teachers’ experiences with urban youth and children of color. Finally, they believed that teacher
educators and preservice teachers needed to explore and address their own cultural status, racial
identities, and the impact this has on knowledge production and use. Terrill and Mark’s
suggestions purport to increase preservice teachers understanding of cultural relevance and
enable preservice teachers to engage in teaching urban high school students with a critical
science perspective; however their work does not provide direct examples of how these
interventions are to be implemented within teacher education courses.
Rodriguez (1998) offers a practical example and theoretical construct within which this
form of preservice science education can take place. Rodriguez suggests if preservice teachers
are going to teach with “more culturally inclusive and socially relevant pedagogical strategies”
(p. 590) both their ideological and pedagogical resistances need to be overcome. He articulates
“a theoretical orientation to represent how multicultural education and social constructivism can
be blended to transform practice” (p. 598). Rodriguez addressed his preservice teachers’
ideological resistance to teaching culturally relevant science by explicitly making them aware of
the impact of privilege in determining who is best served by science and who determines what
science is taught in schools. As the preservice teachers became aware of and confronted the
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 7
ideological side of science, Rodriguez engaged them in activities to develop their pedagogical
repertoire of culturally relevant science. Therefore as one system of beliefs was disrupted,
another was being socially constructed. Rodriguez concluded that without addressing both areas
of resistance preservice teachers would not utilize culturally relevant teaching practices.
These models suggest that preparing preservice teachers to teach culturally relevant
science is a confrontational process, one which may leave preservice teachers dissatisfied and
unwilling to confront their beliefs and practices. They require teacher educators to take risks in
their classes by making their preservice teachers uncomfortable and moving outside of the
traditional academic comfort zone (Rodriguez, 2001). Such changes in teacher educator practices
need to continue to be researched in an effort to provide the most accurate details about what
science teacher educator practices are most effective for promoting culturally relevant science
teaching in K-12 communities. The limited research that is currently available points to the slow
pace, challenges, and few successes that are concomitant to transformative changes in preservice
teachers beliefs and practices (Bianchini, Johnston, Oram, & Cavazos, 2003; Tobin, Roth, &
Zimmerman, 2001; Yerrick & Hoving, 2003).
Purpose of the study
Teacher education programs need to provide preservice teachers with experiences that
allow them to (a) externalize and confront their beliefs, (b) develop cultural sensitivity, and (c)
create culturally relevant science experiences for students. As teacher educators in urban settings,
we were compelled to heed Bryan and Atwater’s (2002) call for a research agenda in science
education that investigates such practices in teacher education by focusing on the:

Beliefs of prospective science teachers that are likely to predict successful teaching of
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 8
culturally diverse students, and

Activities that are successful in engaging preservice science teachers in thought-intensive
experiences.
In an attempt to more systematically explore preservice science teachers’ conceptions of
urban youth, and in an attempt to provide teachers with concrete experiences with urban youth
and opportunities to reflect on culturally relevant science, we decided to make strategic changes
to the secondary science methods course. We utilized the research base and our experience to
make four intentional changes to the course that we believed would improve the preservice
teachers’ knowledge and ability to teach culturally relevant science in urban settings. The
changes, in line with Terrill and Mark’s (2000) and Rodriguez’s (2001) previously identified
interventions, consisted of moving the majority of the class sessions to a local urban high school;
teaching the course through science content that drew on the home lives of urban students;
providing opportunities for the preservice teachers and urban students to engage in inquiry-based
activities and conversations as equals; and structuring time and space for the preservice teachers
to explore and reflect on their experiences with the urban students. Our goal was to explore the
development of preservice teachers’ conceptions of culturally relevant science as a result of
participation in this unique methods course.
Methods
We relied on a qualitative case study research design (Creswell, 2003; Bogdan & Biklen,
1998; Stake, 1995; Stake 1994) to explore the preservice science teachers’ understanding of
culturally relevant science. A case study design was specifically used because it has a distinct
advantage in “how” and “why” studies (Cronbach 1975; Merriam, 1998; Yin, 1984), which
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 9
allowed us to examine preservice science teachers’ conceptions of culturally relevant science and
how they evolved in the unique situation of the methods course described below.
The researchers’ roles
All authors participated in data collection and analysis activities. For that reason, it is
important to identify personal values, assumptions and biases at the outset of the study. Our
stance is similar to Locke et al.’s (2000): We believe that the researcher’s contribution to the
research setting can be useful and positive rather than detrimental. Our personal, White, middleclass backgrounds have been enriched by readings, reflections, and experiences with ethnically
diverse populations (colleagues, students, and families) in national and international settings,
over many years. Our work with prospective and current teachers emphasizes inquiry into
science, reflection on the self, and knowledge of each learner. We had all engaged in teaching
science methods, whether at the secondary, middle, or elementary level. We started the study
with the assumption that preservice teachers at our institution were unaware of how urban
students used science outside of school and they were unable to develop activities that allowed
them learn about the students’ science knowledge. This assumption stemmed from our
experience and previous research (Author). We believed that that this view of students was
prevalent and difficult to counter. Preparing science teachers who embrace culturally relevant
science teaching is a high priority and continuous effort. Our motives were simple: promoting
science learning for all students, engaging in high quality science teaching, and meeting
accreditation standards.
Participants
The science methods class had twelve preservice teachers, of whom ten were women,
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 10
nine were students who had worked in other professions before returning to the university to
obtain their teaching licenses, and all of whom were White. All of the preservice teachers had
attended majority white suburban schools for their own schooling. This cohort of preservice
science teachers was not significantly different from the preceding or the following years’
cohorts and could be considered characteristic of the university’s secondary science program.
A group of 10 high school students from a local public high school participated in the
After School Science Hour (AFSH, see below) portion of the methods course. The high school
student participants chose to participate in the course based on their interest in participating in
the AFSH, their permission from home, and the ability to provide their own transportation at the
end of the day. The high school students were all Black, all but one was female, and all were
involved in other extracurricular activities at the school. This group of students was not intended
to be representative of any specific group of urban high school students. A consistent group of
ten students attended all seven sessions and took part in a different science activity each week
with the preservice teachers.
The science methods course
The secondary science methods course met for two and a half hours one evening a week
over an academic quarter (10 weeks). Seven of the course sessions took place at a local urban
high school. The high school, a grade 7-12 college preparatory school, was part of a large
Midwestern city’s high poverty, urban public school system. 91% of students at the high school
are Black, non-Hispanic and 62% come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
The first hour of the science methods course consisted of the AFSH (see below).
Following AFSH, a half hour was spent debriefing the science activities that took place during
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 11
AFSH, their pedagogical implications, and the high school students’ knowledge. The activities
served as starting points for the discussion of typical science methods topics such as, learning in
science, inquiry, nature of science, science technology and society, classroom management,
planning, and assessment. The science activities and debriefings were additionally the focus of
weekly online discussions designed to prompt the preservice teachers to explore and reflect on
their experiences with the urban students (see table 2 for a listing of discussion board prompts).
Preservice teachers were divided into online groups and, within these groups, they described
their experiences working with the high school students and responded to prompt questions.
Cultural relevance was not an explicit topic of instruction in the course during face-to-face or
online meetings.
After school science hour
During the AFSH, the high school students and preservice teachers worked on science
activities in small groups of two high school students and two preservice teachers while the
methods instructor was the “teacher” of all. The activities, which drew on science used in and
around the homes of urban students, served as a model for one way to promote culturally
relevant teaching in science. Examples of these activities (listed in table 1) included testing the
insulation qualities of mittens of different materials and acid-base tests on hair straightening
products. The topics were selected and the activities designed to provide opportunities for the
urban students to demonstrate their knowledge and use of science concepts. The instructional
strategy used throughout AFSH consisted of the Learning Cycle (Karplus, 1975), a guided
inquiry model of teaching. Typically, the methods instructor would present participants with a
question and a set of materials, invite participants to formulate a plan and execute it, and share
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 12
findings and conclusions. The high school students went home at the end of AFSH.
While working with the students on the activities, the preservice teachers were directed to
observe and listen to the high school students’ science ideas, knowledge, and skills. Our
assumption was that because they were not responsible for the students’ science learning,
classroom management, or lesson planning, it would be easier for preservice teachers to pay
attention to how the urban students conducted science and used their science knowledge.
Data Collection
Data for this study was collected for the duration of the methods course (one academic
term) and across all of its settings: activities with students, regular methods course activities, and
online forum discussions. Additional sources of data included a focus group interview (INT),
field notes with high school students (FNHS), field notes without high school students (FN),
group online discussion board forums (DB), and a general online discussion board forum (GDB).
Because the second author was the course instructor, the first and third authors alternated class
session observations (n=17) and the collection of field notes with and without high school
students. The third author conducted an open-ended focus group interview designed to probe
preservice teachers’ views about the teaching and learning of science to urban students, which
took place in the first two weeks of the course and was conducted with six of the preservice
teachers. The first author developed the on-line reflective dialogues with the preservice teachers.
These discussions (n=6) occurred over the period of one week. The second author also developed
a general discussion board forum online, in which preservice teachers collectively participated
for the duration of the course. These qualitative sources of data provided detailed records of the
conversations that took place between the preservice teachers and secondary students, and the
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 13
preservice teachers’ interpretations of the experiences.
Data Analysis
Interviews were audiotape recorded and transcribed. Field notes were typed. Group and
general discussion board entries were harvested. Prior to data analysis, we divided the data into
three sections chronologically: before, first encounter, and beyond. The “before” data consisted
of the focus group interview (INT), the first two sessions of field notes (FN), and the first two
sets of online discussion forum posts (DB). The “first encounter” data consisted of the first
session of field notes with the high school students (FNHS) and the third session of Field notes
without the high school students (FN). The “before” and “first encounter” data were used to
determine preservice teachers’ beginning views of culturally relevant science teaching. The
“beyond” data consisted of the remaining FN, FNHS, DB, and GDB data and was used to inform
preservice teachers’ emerging views of culturally relevant science teaching.
We conducted qualitative data analysis through the process of analytic induction (Patton,
2002). We independently coded all data sources using preservice teachers’ views of culturally
relevant science teaching as a lens. We generated several categories, which we collaboratively
examined through verification of common categories and examination of differing categories
against the data. We collapsed the initial set of categories as themes and subthemes emerged
(Creswell, 2003). Once themes and subthemes were established (Table 3), we searched the data
sources for discrepant information that might run counter to them (Sowell, 2001).
We relied on several strategies to ensure trustworthiness: (i) we examined evidence from
different data sources, (ii) we used rich, thick description to convey the setting and the findings,
(iii) we discussed our bias as researchers in the section on researchers’ role, and (iv) we relied on
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 14
peer-debriefing, inviting a colleague in teacher education to review and ask questions about the
study to enhance the accuracy of the account.
Findings
In this section we share a narrative of our findings that describes the evolution of the
preservice teachers views of culturally relevant science in the context of this unique methods
course. We present the findings chronologically in the form of beginning and emerging views.
We use participants’ words to illustrate preservice teachers’ view of urban students and
perceptions of their role as a teacher.
Preservice teachers’ views of urban students
Preservice teachers’ views of urban students evolved as they participated in activities
with the students. From the beginning of the course and through the first encounter with urban
high school students, preservice teachers believed that urban students lacked conceptual and
procedural knowledge and needed a structure for learning. Conversely, preservice teachers’
emerging conceptions of students focused on what urban students knew and were able to do, as
well as factors that impact students’ motivation for learning science.
Beginning views: There is nothing in there.
At the beginning of the course, preservice teachers believed that urban students lacked
appropriate knowledge and thinking skills necessary for learning. For example, Kaye stated, “I
don’t think they have a lot of background knowledge. They don’t take books home. I doubt they
read” (FN). Jane elaborated, “[Students] do what is easiest. I’ve seen this in the classes I am
observing. Based on this, I’d almost have to say that they don’t…think” (DB). Preservice
teachers’ immediate and initial comments on their experiences with urban students after the first
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 15
encounter all focused on what the students did not know. For example, Tammy stated, “Students
didn’t understand variables and what to measure. No clue about independent vs. dependent
variables” (FN).
Beginning views: They need structure.
Preservice teachers believed that urban students needed structure for learning to occur.
When asked about the value of including open-ended inquiry activities in their urban science
classrooms, preservice teachers did not think it would work because “students need to be told
what they are going to do and how they are going to do it” (Jenna, FN). Similarly, Don shared,
“Students need specific directions” (DB). Mark summarized preservice teachers’ views of urban
students when he stated, “I think the one thing we have to remember as science teachers is that
much of what we take for granted, our students have little, if any, knowledge of” (DB). The
preservice teachers believed that without structure, urban students would not focus. For example,
Don stated, “[Students] tend to display off-task behavior.” (DB). Similarly, speaking about her
field placement classroom, Tina stated, “Even though my class is run as activity-based, they
cannot work by themselves. It would not work. You leave them in groups and they talk about
basketball” (INT 1). Amanda commented, “Diversions were another thing” (DB).
Emerging views: Surprise! There is something in there.
All preservice teachers were surprised to realize that urban students possessed knowledge
and skills that are relevant to the science classroom. Amanda stated, “One student was on target
and knew a lot of science. I was surprised…I was impressed that they know what variables
were” (DB). Other preservice teachers made observations similar to Amanda’s. Rhonda, shared,
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 16
“I was struck by the imagination and brainstorming that the students did” (FN). Ramona agreed,
“They had a lot of ideas” (DB).
Preservice teachers began to realize that what the students may lack is the ability
to communicate what they know. Vocabulary alone may not be the most appropriate
indicator of students’ prior knowledge and skills. For example, Don stated:
The most striking thing that I realized about students and science during the
activity is that sometimes, I think that student vocabulary is not up to speed with
their understanding of concepts such as heat. My students seemed to grasp heat
and insulators, as concepts, but they had a harder time expressing their ideas in
words, which is equally as important at times. (DB)
Similarly, Ramona recognized the difference between understanding a concept and
communicating that understanding:
Temperature, friction, energy, and warmth are all terms that my students used to
describe, or define heat. Neither of their definitions defined heat exactly, but they
both had the general concept down, I think…. It’s one thing to know something,
and it’s another to be able to communicate with someone else about what know.
(DB)
Emerging views: Open-endedness may work.
While the preservice teachers previously believed that structure was needed for urban
student learning, they began to recognize that, even without structure, urban students were able
to ask questions, control variables, and conduct investigations. For example, Terri shared:
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 17
The students’ initial reaction to the exercise was fairly reserved, particularly with
respect to reading of the directions, and brainstorming of examples/uses of
pendulums…However, when it came to devise ways to use the various provided
materials in tests, the student became more involved and in fact took over the
exercise. (DB)
The preservice teachers believed that students possessed skills that allowed them to take control
of their own learning. Kayla stated, “I saw how students were able to set up experiments and
which methods they have learned in the past (i.e. the students set up data tables).” Terri shared,
“My students also set up data tables. They did this on their own. I had to emphasize to them to
use correct units but overall I was impressed. I feel I can give too much credit in some areas and
not enough in others” (DB).
Preservice teachers realized that the open-ended nature of the activities allowed students
to demonstrate their knowledge and skills because they were motivated. For example Amanda
stated, “Both [students] were very inquisitive and wanted to test everything” (DB). Similarly,
Rhonda shared, “[Students] enjoy science because they can think and have fun” (FN). Ramona
agreed, “The students in our group seemed excited about the pendulum activity. They had a lot
of ideas and were eager to test them out” (DB). Amber confirmed, “I am glad your group seemed
so engaged in the activity. I think that is what all teachers should wish for” (DB). Interestingly,
Mandy was able to provide her peers with the students’ point of view:
I was talking with the students who were in my group last Tuesday, [two urban
students’ names], regarding what they did in the class. They were both very
positive and I was struck by how they described the class as “fun.” They were
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 18
very surprised and happy they were allowed to design and decide what they
wanted to learn! They said they were used to being guided by the teacher and a
lab experiment handout “telling” them what to look for – in the class they
attended on Tuesday, they had the power to think and use their imagination and
decide for themselves what they wanted to learn about pendulums. What really
struck me was how giving the student almost complete autonomy stimulated them
to question and hypothesize freely. It happened quite naturally, instead of the
teacher saying, “OK, now what is your question here? What kind of hypothesis
can you make?” As soon as the teacher makes that kind of statement/question, the
student is trying to figure out what the “right” question and hypothesis is
supposed to be – there is not a real inquiring mind, so to speak – instead it is the
student trying to mind read the teacher – hoping to get the “right answer” and a
good grade. (GDB)
Emerging views: Something else may be going on.
The preservice teachers’ began to consider reasons for urban students’ apparent lack of
interest or motivation in the science classroom. They identified concern with image and the
nature of the teacher-student relationship as possibilities. To maintain their image, preservice
teachers believed that urban students would be hesitant to admit to a lack of understanding. For
example, Kaye shared, “To a teacher, the student would just appear to be lazy or not interested
when in reality they are not encouraged or feel embarrassed to ask for instruction on reading the
thermometer.” Similarly, Jane indicated, “The idea of what variables are and controlling them
was tough for the students. Once they caught on, they were good at setting [the experiment] up”
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 19
(FN). Preservice teachers further believed that students would refuse to participate if not placed
in a group of their choice. For example, Tracy shared:
I had a difficult time working with the students and the pendulum activity. First
off, one of the girls was upset about not being in the group she wanted, so she did
not talk and I had to directly ask her questions to get anything out of her…The
other girl participated more actively. I think it took her a bit to get warmed up…
but she would tell her ideas and thoughts. So I think the students were hesitant to
do the activity for various reasons. (DB)
In addition to image, preservice teachers identified the nature of the teacher-student
relationship as a reason for students’ lack of engagement in science. They realized that ethnicity,
gender, and class might be a barrier to overcome as they strive to develop rapport with the
students. For example, Mark stated:
While we are two twenty-five year old white males from upper middle class
environments, the two students we worked with were young African American
girls in eighth grade. That is an interesting dynamic to examine. At the beginning,
the girls were understandably uncomfortable and somewhat hesitant. As we
developed some sort of rapport with them, they started opening up and
expounding on some of the suggestions we threw out. By the end of the activity,
the two students were not only directing activities, but also determining what
variables to test.
Caring enough to find out what was going on in students’ lives outside of school emerged as a
factor that presented insecurities on the part of the teachers. For example, Ramona stated:
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 20
There is a girl where I observe who just sits in the back, never talks or
participates. It is hard to tell if she is even writing anything down and I just
wonder what is going on in her head, or her life in general. Is she okay? This is
something I think I will struggle with, I don’t know that I will pursue a career in
an inner-city school because of it.
Preservice teachers’ perceptions of their role as a teacher
Preservice teachers’ views of their role as a teacher of urban students evolved as they
participated in activities with the students. From the beginning of the course and through the first
encounter, preservice teachers expressed roles consistent with an imparter of knowledge and a
controller of investigations. The preservice teachers developed emerging conceptions of their
roles as teachers of urban students consistent with facilitation and investigating and engaging
students’ prior knowledge and experiences.
Beginning views: I have to make sure they know.
Preservice teachers expressed the goal of imparter of knowledge with their emphasis on
mastering the correct science vocabulary. In Don’s words, “having correct vocabulary is the
ultimate goal” (FN). Similarly, in an early interview, Andrea stated, “So, I think it is important
for, just like in an English class, if they are going to use it in their writing, they have to know the
vocabulary.” Terri’s comments further exemplify the issue of ‘learning science’ being related to
learning vocabulary when she stated, “I think I could tell [they were learning] for the most part
because they were asking questions … and would be using the terminology” (INT 1). Preservice
teachers were diligent about providing the appropriate terminology and examples that they were
familiar with to students. A “grandfather clock,” “bungee jumping,” the “yoyo,” and the “huge
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 21
pendulum that keeps time at the Museum of National History” at a neighboring Midwestern city
(FNHS) were examples that preservice teachers shared with students about the pendulum. Their
emphasis on vocabulary and a structured, “step-by-step” scientific method was evident as they
provided examples of how they would conduct inquiry-based activities with students. For
example, Amanda highlighted the need for both process skills and vocabulary when she
explained, “at the completion of each step of the inquiry, the correct step of the scientific method
could be used to label it” (FN). Similarly, Martha stated, “We should teach the students how to
write hypotheses as if-then statements because that is what the schools would expect” (FN).
Beginning views: I am in control.
Not surprisingly, upon first contact with the urban students during the pendulum activity,
and despite instructions to listen to students’ ideas and uses of the science concepts, all
preservice teachers took on an instructor’s role and took control of the investigation. For
example, after materials and handouts were distributed, Amanda picked up the strings and asked
the students in her group, “What are we trying to find out, what is our question?” (FNHS). At a
different table, Jane was discussing the importance of controlling variables and changing one
thing, “and only one thing” at a time. Half way through the session, the course instructor stated,
“You are participating as teachers rather than as students. I notice you are directing students with
questions” (FNHS).
The preservice teachers repeatedly were concerned with how to make students realize
that science is relevant and help them remember what they learned. For example, Tina stated, “It
is important to make the science relevant to get the students interested, because if they were
interested, it made classroom management easier” (INT 1). Amanda explained, “ I want to
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 22
achieve a level of how I can make this relevant to the students so that they will want to at least
remember some of it and be able to apply it to other situations…I think this is a key factor in
how to get students motivated” (INT 1). Similarly, Terri suggested that you could tell that
science was relevant to the students if they are “walking through lunch and remember something
that I said in class about chemical reaction, or something and realize in their food that’s
something.”
Emerging views: I should find out what they know.
As mentioned earlier, Preservice teachers recognized that urban students possess prior
knowledge in science, but may not know how to communicate that knowledge. As a result,
preservice teachers believed that it is important to activate students’ prior knowledge for learning
to occur. For example, Tina reflected online:
The students had no idea what insulator was and when I would describe it to them
the best concept that they could grasp was the examples of the drink coozies, etc.
After this they could understand it a little because they had something in their
schema to relate it to. This truly helped when we were trying to figure out the
experiment.
However, the preservice teachers realized that eliciting students’ prior knowledge is not an easy
task. For example, Tina shared:
They were very hesitant about sharing their definitions. We kept a very positive
attitude, helping to expand their working knowledge of the terms by building on
what they already knew. We made no comments like, “Surely you have learned
more than this in your life! (DB)
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 23
Similarly, Tracy commented, “Because my group did not really participate, I had little clue as to
what they were thinking” (FN). Don concluded:
I was able to see first hand the diversity in student experience and background
knowledge. One of the students didn’t really know what a pendulum was, or
could not really name any examples, while the other student was able to identify
multiple examples. This clearly demonstrates what multiple textbooks
continuously point out: students come to school with a multitude of experiences
and exposures, and it is from this base that educators must work from. This is a
great challenge, and one that will exist in any school setting, especially in schools
with a diverse socioeconomic profile.
Emerging views: I should be more of a guide.
Preservice teachers questioned their role as controller of the investigation and started
exploring the role of facilitator of learning. Allowing students to make decisions about their own
learning was a first step. Jane stated:
We had to guess at how frequently to measure and for how long. If the student is
responsible for these types of decisions, they may be more likely to actually think
about the lesson and its purpose (intended, perceived, or whichever). What do
they know, what do they think will happen, were they right? (DB)
The preservice teachers struggled as they attempted to act as guides and facilitators of student
learning through questioning. For example, Tracy stated, “I didn’t want to act like a teacher so I
tried not to ask too many questions… It was hard to try to be just another student in the group
and not act like a teacher when I think the girls were looking for me to lead them.” Mark agreed,
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 24
“I learned a great deal about how to prompt the students and direct them without making the
decisions for them. I became more comfortable in asking open-ended or hypothetical questions
to sort of direct the manner in which they proceeded. Don also shared:
It is difficult not to ‘teach’ as a member of a group of ‘peers.’ It is human nature
for someone with the answers to help those that are searching for the answers. For
me, it was almost like acting, or role playing, but I think that it will be effective at
times in classroom settings, especially during these inquiry activities. It is one
thing to tell students the answers, and another to have them arrive at the answer
themselves. For that I thought the activity is a great demonstration of the role that
we as teachers will play at times.
In addition to questioning, the preservice teachers believed facilitation entailed
encouragement and feedback. For example, Mark stated, “Once we had the discussion
about examples of the terminology, they needed a bit of coaxing on where to proceed. It
appeared that they really were looking for a step-by-step guide (either the paper) or a
person to guide them through or else they were just motivated to move in any direction.
They also needed encouragement along the way.” Similarly, Amber reflected, “[The
student] initiated reading the lab out loud and had interest in looking at the hair samples,
however, not especially confident in her observations.” Ramona when speaking about her
high school student partner stated, “My partner was extremely vocal during the hair
classification exercise, she could describe the hair out loud but when it came to filling in
the data sheet she would wait to see what I wrote then copy it down.” Amber concluded:
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 25
The one thing I learned is that students constantly present a need to feel validated.
One of the students in our group was intent on being correct and would not stop
announcing that her prediction was correct and that she “won.” Positive
reinforcement is extremely necessary for this child. I think, as educators, we need
to be aware of a child’s need for affirmation just as much as we are aware of their
need for discipline.
Emerging views: Some things work better than others.
The preservice teachers recognized that urban students seemed more engaged in some
activities than in others. Students were more engaged when the activities they were involved in
were integral to the students’ lives. For example, Mandy shared, “Although she remained very
soft-spoken and not very animated, she was actively participating and touching her hair. She
was very interested in looking at her own hair. She was also filling in her lab worksheet.”
Similarly, Jenna stated, “The kids seem more interested in this lesson than the others. Maybe
because it was something that they could easily relate to. They all have seen hair on dolls.
Nothing too weird or abstract.” In another situation, Tina related her experience with the students
during the activity on heat and insulation, commenting on the importance of relevance for
student connection to a class activity:
We did not even talk about heat… They suggested the connection of this activity
to a real life experience of a snowball fight. They responded to this analogy
quickly with a reasonable hypothesis. They were very astute when it came to
predicting which of the materials would be a better insulator.
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 26
Joan concluded, “The idea of engagement – getting the students’ attention – is essential. So
whatever the hook is, it has to engage students on a variety of levels based on their own real life
experience and their understanding of what it is you are demonstrating.”
Discussion
This study explored a model for working with preservice teachers to develop their ideas
about culturally relevant science teaching in urban settings. The model consisted of a science
methods course that allowed preservice teachers to engage in culturally relevant guided inquiry
activities with students in an urban high school. Following each session with the urban students,
the preservice teachers reflected on their experiences. This reflection was designed to the
preservice teachers with an opportunity to examine and rethink their beliefs about urban students
and their roles as teachers.
Our findings indicate that preservice teachers began the course with beliefs consistent
with deficient views of urban youth and how they learn (Lee, Spencer, & Harpalani, 2003;
Wiener, 2000). They believed that urban students need a very structured learning environment
because they are easily distracted. The literature is replete with similar reports concerning beliefs
about urban students as described in an earlier section of this manuscript. This finding is also
consistent with preliminary research (Author) and experience indicating that the preservice
teachers in our program were unaware of how urban students used science outside of school,
believed that the students had no useful prior knowledge other than what might be remembered
from previous schooling, and were unable to develop activities that allowed them learn about the
students’ science knowledge.
As the course progressed, preservice teachers’ conceptions of students and their roles as
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 27
teachers seemed to change. Their emerging conceptions of students focused on what urban
students knew and were able to do, as well as factors that impact students’ motivation for
learning science. The preservice teachers no longer believed that structure was needed for urban
student learning. Instead they recognized that urban students were motivated and possessed the
necessary knowledge and skills for taking control of their own learning and engaging in inquiry
learning. The preservice teachers’ emerging views of students in this study present a significant
departure from beliefs cited in the literature. We believe that preservice teachers’ experiences in
the methods course were at the root of this change in beliefs. Specifically, the sustained nature of
participating in inquiry-based activities with urban high school students as equals, week after
week, allowed the preservice teachers to have first hand experience and observations of urban
students’ abilities to do inquiry. Our preservice teachers had the opportunity to experience
inquiry as an orientation to learning science that is fundamental to assuring access to science
educational opportunities (Barnes & Barnes, 2005; Kuykendall, 1992; Tate, 2001).
Acknowledging the change in their beliefs, the preservice teachers emphasized the
importance of teachers’ understanding and assessment of students’ prior knowledge, encouraging
students, and providing them with feedback that advances their understanding of science. This
finding is interesting because the literature indicates that teachers generally tend to be unaware of
urban learner characteristics including prior knowledge, opting to believe that students who fail
are lazy and/or unprepared (Barnes & Barnes, 2005). As they participated in inquiry-based
activities with urban high school students, the preservice teachers were directed to observe for
and listen to the high school students’ science ideas, knowledge, and skills. This assignment,
coupled with the focused reflections, afforded the preservice teachers the opportunity to observe
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 28
urban students’ knowledge in action. The preservice teachers were able to cite examples of what
the students knew as a result of their prior school science experiences and out of school
experiences.
Instead of continuing to believe that urban learners who fail are lazy and/or unprepared
(Barnes & Barnes, 2005) the preservice teachers underscored the impact of learner
characteristics such as self-concept, image and caring on urban students’ engagement in science
learning. Reports in the literature indicate that preservice teachers may be concerned for their
lower achieving students’ performance but may be unaware of its causes or successful strategies
for addressing their students’ needs (Yerrick, 2005). In addition to becoming aware of learner
characteristics, preservice teachers in this study offered possible reasons for student behaviors,
seeming to turn away from the popular child deficit model to address student disinterest that is
often symptomatic of issues other than content (LeCompte & Dworkin, 1991). They developed a
more pragmatic understanding, rooted in cultural identity and relevance, of the need for building
rapport with students. We believe that the focused nature of the weekly reflections that the
preservice teachers participated in led them to recognize that urban black students are not
culturally deficient. Rather they are “equal” learners (Tran et al., 1994), who, while successful in
other setting in their lives, may have low academic self-concept (Barnes & Barnes, 2005;
Kuykendall, 1992).
The preservice teachers recognized that their background and experiences were different
from the background and experiences of the urban students. They acknowledged that activities
and content that were meaningful to them might not be equally meaningful to the urban high
school students. Activities and content that were central to the students’ lives were necessary for
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 29
meaningful science learning to take place. We believe that the topical focus of the inquiry
activities resulted in this change in belief. Preservice teachers were again able to observe first
hand how the level of students’ cognitive and affective engagement increased when the activities
were more directly drew on science used in the lives of students, their families, and friends.
Unfortunately, this was where the preservice teachers journey towards culturally relevant science
ended. While they routinely planned to check on students’ prior knowledge throughout a lesson,
none developed activities that drew on science used in and around the homes of urban students.
We did not explicitly make the preservice teachers aware of the impact of privilege in
determining who is best served by science and who determines what science is taught in schools
(Rodriguez, 1998). We did not make them confront the ideological side of science. During the
methods course, the instructor was constantly making choices about how much time to devote to
discussing culturally relevant beliefs and practices, as they emerged, versus issues and
methodologies fundamental to the teaching of science. Because of this struggle, we acknowledge
that there were several missed opportunities.
Conclusion and recommendations
We designed and investigated a unique science methods course that had four distinct
features: the majority of class sessions took place at a local urban high school; science content
emphasized drew on the home lives of urban students; opportunities were provided for
preservice teachers and urban students to engage in inquiry-based activities and conversations as
equals; and time and space were structured in such a way as to allow preservice teachers to
explore and reflect on their experiences with the urban students. The features of this unique
methods course were successful as primers for the development of cultural sensitivity and a
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 30
framework for culturally relevant science in preservice science teachers. However, making
preservice teachers aware of and confronting the ideological side of science are necessary
conditions for the translation of beliefs about culturally relevant science into practice (Rodriguez,
1998). While one course may help develop cultural sensitivity and understanding of culturally
relevant science, multiple experiences, in all courses, are needed for those conceptions to come
to transformative fruition.
We believe that the features of the methods course that made it successful in developing
preservice teachers’ conceptions of culturally relevant science teaching should shape early field
experiences. We advocate that field experiences be structured to gradually provide preservice
teachers with opportunities to reflect on:

Observations of urban students engaging in inquiry-based activities

Observations of urban students engaging in culturally relevant inquiry-based activities

Participation in culturally relevant inquiry based activities with urban students as equals

The impact of privilege in determining who is best served by science and who determines
what science is taught in schools (Rodriguez)

Their ability to develop a pedagogical repertoire of culturally relevant science
(Rodriguez)

Their ability to practice culturally relevant science teaching
Restructured field experiences (Ladson-Billings, 2000) that include the features described above
may be instrumental for confronting preservice teachers’ stereotypes and racist attitudes, as well
as lead to the development of a deeper understanding of teaching (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993;
Hollingsworth, 1989; Yerrick, 2005). They will engender classrooms that provide opportunities
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 31
for situated pedagogies that make the school and home experiences of diverse learners more
congruent (Ladson-Billings, 2000). Field experiences do more to challenge White teachers’
misconceptions about students of color than simply taking a course (Banks, 2001; CochranSmith, 1995; Ladson-Billings, 2000; Leonard & Dantley, 2005).
In our recommendation for a different type of field experience, we do not mean to imply
that methods courses should be divorced from conversations and confrontations about culturally
relevant science teaching. We propose several alternate strategies that may achieve a similar
purpose and more naturally fit with the intent and scope of a methods course. Examples of such
strategies include reflection on videotapes of teacher practice with urban students (such as was
done by Yerrick, 2005) or discussion of cases (Calabrese Barton, 2003). Whatever the strategy,
we believe that experiences with students should be the starting point for reflection and
examination of preservice teachers’ own identity. Reflection, after personal inquiry experiences
with diverse students is critical to the development of culturally relevant and transformative
science teaching practices.
We believe that future research should investigate the opportunities and challenges that
restructured field experiences provide for the development of preservice science teachers’
culturally relevant beliefs and practices. We also call for longitudinal studies that follow
graduates of restructured field experiences into their first years of teaching.
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 32
Table 1
Inquiry Activities
Sessions
3. Pendulum
Activity
Students design an investigation,
control variables, and organize and
interpret data to answer a question
they generate about pendulums.
Focus on Student Knowledge
Explicit focus on urban science
students’ knowledge and
experiences with pendulums, as
well as their interest as starting
points for conducting scientific
inquiries.
4. Heat and Insulators
Students conduct an experiment to
test the efficiency of different types
of insulating materials.
Students are familiar with
chosen materials, namely wool
and acrylic yarn used to make
cold weather clothing.
Students explain their ideas
about heat, cold, insulators, and
temperature.
Students represent their
understanding of heat energy
with drawings.
5. Heat and Melting
Points
Using calculators and temperature
probes, students investigate and
graph the melting point of plain milk
and brand name chocolate bars.
Students are engaged in
predicting the shape of the
graph for the melting of the
different chocolate bars and
explaining why they predict
they would be similar or
different.
6. Hair Samples and
Dichotomous Keys
Using various tools, students classify
a selection of 10 hair samples based
on morphology and create a
dichotomous key.
Samples of natural or synthetic
hair are collected from human
hair wigs, animal hair wigs, and
synthetic wigs.
7. Acids and Bases in
Hair Care products
Students conduct tests to compare the Students use White and Black
chemical properties of acids and
hair samples in their tests.
bases in hair care products.
Hair care products chosen are
used for relaxing or perming
hair.
8. Reebops
Create this mythical animal based on
a genotype generated through
simulated meiosis (Soderberg, 1992)
Students use marshmallows,
toothpicks, and a variety of
craft items to create the animal.
Discussion of why Reebops
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 33
exhibit phenotypic variety even
though they are offspring of the
same two parents.
9. Where does your
Reebop live?
Construct the Reebop’s habitat based
on morphological characteristics
using construction paper and craft
items.
Discussion of how an animal is
adapted to survive in its
environment and the
consequences of changes to the
environment.
Table 2
Sample Online Prompts
Session
Prompt
2
Consider the Footprints activity (Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2000) we did in
class and the readings you had for last week on the Nature of Science. Would you
include similar activities or open-ended inquiry activities in your urban secondary
science classroom? Why or Why not?
3
What was the reaction of the students you worked with to the pendulum activity?
What do you think they learned from it? What did you learn from the experience?
How has it influenced your understanding of student learning in science? Your
understanding of science?
4
What were some of the conceptions of heat that your students expressed? How did
you learn about these conceptions? How has it influenced your understanding of
student learning in science? Your understanding of science teaching?
6
How much input did the students contribute to this week’s activity? Illustrate your
answer with instances and describe why you think it is so. Is this typically what you
see in the classrooms that you are observing? What types of assessment are being
used in the classrooms you are in? What purpose do you believe they are serving?
What would you do the same or different and why?
9
Consider the following:
1. Questioning
2. Pretest
3. Activities
Based on your experiences, what is the most useful and least useful strategy to illicit
students' prior knowledge? Why? Are there other strategies that you would rather
use? Why?
10
Consider the following:
1. Activities at middle school
2. Reflections on Blackboard
3. Assigned readings
Rank order the above in terms of most useful to least useful stating your rationales
for each ranking.
What suggestions do you have to enrich the above activities and make them more
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 34
useful for you and for future preservice teachers in this methods course?
Table 3
Emerging Themes and Subthemes
Themes
Beginning
Views of Students
There is nothing there.
They need structure.
Role as Teacher
I have to make sure they know.
I am in control.
Emerging
Surprise! There is something in
there.
Open-endedness may work.
Something else may be going
on.
I should find out what they
know.
I should be more of a guide.
Some things work better than
others.
Towards Culturally Relevant Science Teaching 35
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