Kazak Herders, Winter Feed and Transhumant Systems in Altai
Prefecture, Xinjiang, China
S. G. Reynolds
Grassland and Pasture Crops Group, AGPC, FAO Rome
Introduction
The rearing of livestock using transhumant production systems is the main land use
and livelihood in large areas of the arid and semi-arid temperate zones of Asia. As indicated
by Li-Menglin et al (1996) this is probably the only way of exploiting these seasonal pastures
economically.
One of the major constraints to improving livestock production and family incomes is
the lack of feed during winter and early spring which reduces the number of animals that can
be carried through the winter and also means that pregnant breeding stock may be at their
most vulnerable in the period of lowest feed availability.
Attempts have been made in a number of countries to settle nomadic people often
with less than desirable social consequences. This paper briefly describes an attempt to
provide settled bases where fodder for the winter period is produced and where education and
social facilities for the herders' households are provided but where for the major part of the
year the traditional transhumant system is followed.
The Area
Altai Prefecture is located in the northern part of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region
in China near the border with Kazakstan and Mongolia. Bounded on the north by high
mountains and cut off from southern Xinjiang by a large expanse of desert and semi-desert
this is an area with a markedly continental climate, hot summers, very cold winters, snow and
low rainfall. The mean minimum temperature for January is -26 degrees C and the mean
maximum for July is 30 degrees C. Precipitation, which mainly falls as snow ranges from less
than 100 mm per year on the plains to more than 600 mm per year on the high pastures where
the problem of high winds, snow and spells of extreme cold, with temperatures of less than 40 degrees C, means that many areas of high pasture are open for less than 3 months each
year.
Of the total area of 11.8 M ha more than 9.8 M ha are pastoral and over half of the
population is engaged in livestock farming (which is dominated by transhumant systems)
which contributes nearly 60% of the value of agricultural production in Altai.
Livestock Rearing in Altai
The main livestock are cattle, sheep, goats, horses and camels, with sheep and cattle
being the most important. Altai Fat Rump, a meat type animal famous for its fast lamb
production, is the main sheep breed. It can store 15 to 20 kg of fat in its rump and thus
withstand the harsh winters. Also kept are some Xinjiang fine wool sheep and the
multipurpose Kazak breed of cattle. Most Kazak herders follow a transhumant way of life
with
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good summer grazing for their stock on lands above 1, 300 m limited to only 2.5 to 3 months
per year, spring and autumn grazing on the heavily grazed transition routes and winter grazing
on the desert plains.
The Grazing Cycle
Li-Menglin et al. (1996) describe the grazing cycle as a classical montane cycle
depending on four main pastoral zones:
- a zone of alpine snow and rock above the summer pastures, little used for grazing (with the
snow line at about 3,500m);
- summer grazing lands above 1,300 m which provide rich grazing for 75 to 95 days per year;
these are the fattening pastures and are generally in good condition;
- spring and autumn pastures are the transition routes which are heavily grazed twice per year
and largely because of a lack of winter feed herds linger long on these pastures in the autumn
and go on to them too early in spring;
- winter pastures consist of desert plains, low meadows and marshland, which are totally
inadequate for the number of stock carried.
The transhumance route is 180 to 200 km long: from the desert plains to the high
summer pastures. The approximate grazing periods are: spring - about 90 days (early April to
the end of June); summer - about 83 days (end of June to late September); autumn - about 71
days (mid-September to end of November) and winter - some 121 days (from December to
the end of March).
Fodder Production for Winter Feed
One of the major constraints to improving livestock production and family incomes in
Altai is the lack of feed during winter and early spring.
The provision of conserved winter feed through irrigated hay production was
identified as the most effective way of improving the overall animal production system and of
reducing the pressure on the winter and transition (spring and autumn) pastures.
Although many of the soils in the area are poor, rather shallow, somewhat stony and
highly permeable, with a high pH and a tendency to salinity there is a plentiful supply of good
quality water from the snow-fed Ulungur and Irtysch Rivers. The best fodder production sites
are all within the drier southern fringe of the spring and autumn pastures zone mentioned
above.
The abundance of water and areas of relatively flat land provided the base for an
irrigation-based solution to the winter feed problem. Over the last ten years a development
programme has been implemented to produce and conserve fodder by cultivating over 20,000
ha of irrigated land for hay. The production of Lucerne (Medicago sativa) on the irrigated land
for hay production was assisted by WFP Project 2817 (Development of Feed Production in the
Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region) with additional assistance from FAO/UNDP project
CPR/88/042 (Technical Assistance to WFP Projects). Project 2817 (which lasted from January
1988 to 30 June 1994) was implemented with a total cost to WFP of US$21.8 M (and to
Government of about US$14 M).
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Starting in 1988 work was begun at Burjin, Fuhai and Altai to produce "through
irrigation by gravity at 34, 425 ha of land, large quantities of hay, expected to reach 130, 000
tonnes per year at full development, and to settle 8, 650 families through the allocation of
irrigated land". By 1997 some 6, 100 Kazak households had been settled, and 32, 000 ha had
been developed, providing 20, 000 ha of alfalfa (Medicago sativa) pasture. The average farm
size is 3.68 to 4.3 ha, producing annually about 18, 000 kg of hay from 3 ha (with the
remaining land utilized for wheat, maize, beet or sunflower) with a house for winter quarters
for the family and for those who remain on the plains for haymaking in summer while the
livestock are away on the summer pastures.
Early trials have demonstrated the need for phosphate fertilizer both at establishment
and for maintenance. Well managed lucerne fields have remained in good condition for about
four to six years and thereafter one cereal or cash crop is taken before resowing of lucerne,
generally under a nurse crop of wheat, sunflower or beet. All fodder is supposed to be mown
for hay (although some grazing is generally done after the final harvest) and two cuts of hay
are taken (in June and August) while the herds are in the mountains. In the past many of the
agricultural activities were carried out by hand or by horse drawn equipment, but with the
introduction of a loan system the Kazak farmers are increasingly investing in small tractors
and farm machines.
With 26,700 ha of existing alfalfa land and the newly established 20, 000 ha, the
present area in Altai Prefecture is some 46, 700 ha and there are plans to establish another 20,
000 ha under the Ninth Five Year Plan.
Impacts on the Kazak Herders and Their Families
Undoubtedly the project has had a dramatic impact on most of the herders, involved.
During informal interviews with the author (Reynolds, 1997) all farmers visited expressed
satisfaction with the new way of life which was much easier than their former way of life as
traditional transhumant herders with no winter farm base. On the small sample of six farms
visited, family size varied but area was usually around 60 - 70 Mu per family unit (original land
allocation was on the basis of 4 ha (or 60 Mu) for a 5-member family); most had settled in 1990
or 1991; most grew wheat, maize, lucerne, soybean and sunflower and some had good vegetable
gardens. Usually a proportion of the wheat, soybean and sometimes lucerne are sold. A number
of farmers were growing maize solely for making into silage (several silage pits were visited).
Most farmers have more than doubled the numbers of livestock owned since settling on their
farms; the number of sheep and goats owned per family unit ranges from 50 - 130 (mean of 85)
and the number of cattle and horses ranges from 5 - 30 (with a mean of 16). The increase in
numbers of livestock per farmer has come about largely because of the ability to overwinter and
by lambing in January instead of March/April, which permits liveweight gains by sale time in
October.
Livestock usually leave the farm area (except for a few kept back for household needs)
for summer pastures in early to mid April returning again from mid October to early November.
Usually livestock are taken to the summer pastures by family members (sons, brothers or
parents) but occasionally the farmer contracts with a non-family member to care for the stock
during the summer period.
For the settled families the change in their life style has made life easier, especially for
the women upon whom many of the hard tasks fall in the traditional transhumant way of life.
There is better access to medical facilities, the children can attend school, entertainment such as
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television is available and family incomes have increased. Of the families interviewed it was
significant that most of the sons preferred to become farmers rather than herders; in one family
the young son wanted to be a tractor driver/farmer and the daughter a teacher. Although there is
increased focus on crop growing, maize and lucerne are grown mainly to feed the animals and
the income from livestock remains for most families the major source of income.
Kazak Herders Following the Traditional Transhumant System
The author also visited a summer pasture area some 200-km from Altai City and met
with several herders and their families. The yurts were pitched on a pasture area near wooded
slopes at an altitude of around 2,300m and flocks of sheep, goats, cattle and horses were being
grazed. The township visited consisted of traditional transhumant herders with no winter
(settled) base such as those established under project 2817, and the herders moved all year
round although in winter they would be on the lower steppe areas some 100 km from Burjin
County.
A typical yurt visited had a family unit of 8 persons and 180 sheep and goats as well as
45 cattle and horses. The family had left their wintering area in mid-December and reached the
present area on 15 June. They would start back around mid September and reach the winter
pastures in mid-November. They make no hay and rely entirely on natural pasture. They moved
the yurt to a new pasture area approximately every 15 days (over a distance of some 15-20 km)
and followed a set route to the areas, which Government had allocated them. Their income
comes from selling the fat animals starting in early September and they sell about 40
sheep/goats and cattle each year (the number depending on how severe the previous winter has
been).
During discussions, one of the herders noted that the pasture was more plentiful in past
years because only six households grazed this area but now both pasture and wood supply was
less as twenty households utilized the same area now and the size of individual herds was larger.
The exact reasons for this were not clear but appeared to be linked to an increase in the number
of households and in the size of herd needed to maintain a certain family income level, and to
greater local government control over grazing areas and transhumant routes.
The head of one yurt indicated that, given the opportunity, they would also like to settle
down (i.e. have a farm with irrigation for pasture and crop production) and only follow the
transhumant way of life with some members of the family in the late spring, summer and early
autumn period.
Problems
While good crop yields are, in many cases, being obtained and rotational cropping
systems introduced there remain many problems and needs especially with some of the poorer
herder/farmers including:





poor soils and low use of fertilizers;
poor crop management;
low productivity of crops including lucerne;
diseases of lucerne such as anthracnose and common leaf spot;
lack of availability of good quality/certified lucerne seed;
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 the narrow lucerne variety base;
 the considerable problem of "noodles" or dodder in lucerne;
 the need for good management of the irrigation system to prevent vegetation growth in
drainage channels and to prevent salinization;
 the need for continued herder/farmer training.
Conclusions
Visitors to the area can quickly appreciate the degree of success of the project in
transforming former (Gobi) desert areas into productive irrigated farms and herders into
farmer/herders.
The project has had a very significant impact in Altai and is accepted as a model for
further Kazak herder resettlement schemes (Anon, 1992). The findings of the 1995 evaluation
mission were that "the project has attained its ambitious targets. An area of 30,218 ha is under
irrigation and settlement of 7,550 Kazak herdsmen is proceeding on schedule. Food security for
the region as well as household food security of the target population has been dramatically
increased without dismantling the traditional socio-economic system upon which livestock
transhumance is based. The project's beneficial impact on living conditions is evident and has
resulted in a steady increase in family incomes and access to education and health facilities.
However, the future of pastoral farming in the region is ecologically fragile because of the
constant threat of the "salting-up" phenomenon. Proper drainage maintenance and efficient
water management are crucial. Livestock pressure on transitional pastures will also need to be
monitored carefully. Therefore sustainability is heavily dependent on a continuous and
scrupulous management of the environmentally sensitive components of the project".
The Future
In dealing with herders with no previous experience of growing fodder or crops, the
project faced a very demanding undertaking to transform them into farmer/herders with
appropriate skills. Although much has been achieved much remains to be done and training
must continue to upgrade the basic level of skill and to introduce new packages of appropriate
technologies.
One of the most pressing requirements is the need to introduce new cold resistant
varieties of lucerne (presently the local North Xinjiang "Beijiang" variety is mainly used) as
well as other legume species. FAO is supporting a programme of work with Xinjiang Animal
Husbandry Bureau to produce quantities of seed of Lotus corniculatus, which is better suited to
the wetter areas near rivers where lucerne does not grow well, for a demonstration programme
and seed distribution to the Kazak farmer/herders.
In spite of the importation of a number of lucerne varieties from various parts of the
world none were found to overwinter successfully in Altai. FAO has sponsored a programme of
work by Professor Min Ji Chun of Xinjiang Agricultural University in breeding and selection of
lucerne varieties with high resistance to coldness. Following the initial selection of a few plants
of Spreador 2 from the introduced varieties, the selection 9501 is now in the second year of field
tests and is demonstrating high productivity and early maturity, is very tolerant of the severe
winter cold and has good disease resistance and salt tolerance. It is hoped that once the new
variety is registered rapid seed bulking will ensure its early release.
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There is also an urgent need to develop a local seed production base for the production
of certified lucerne seeds, otherwise there is a risk that the livelihood of the newly settled
Kazak herders will be at risk if yields deteriorate and insufficient hay is produced to carry the
herds through the winter period.
Because of the increasing problem of dodder infestation there is an urgent need to
increase awareness of proper control measures and appropriate good husbandry practices.
Whether the benefits so far enjoyed by the "settled" Kazak herders (who represent more
than 15 percent of the Kazaks who live in Altai Prefecture) can be enjoyed by those who still
follow the traditional transhumant way of life year round is likely to depend on funding from the
Government of China for an expansion of the irrigated areas.
Acknowledgements
This paper has drawn heavily on the work reported by Li-Menglin et al. (1996). The kindness
and hospitality of Dr. Li-Menglin, who was Deputy Director of Project 2817, during a visit to
Altai in 1997, and the earlier work of Mr. J. Suttie, former Senior Officer in the Grassland
and Pasture Crops Group, are gratefully acknowledged. Ms. C. Batello of the Grassland
Group provided comments on an earlier version of the paper.
References
Anon. (1992). Jingshan Bright Pearl. China, Xinjiang No. 2817 Project, 88 pp.
Li-Menglin, Yuan Bo-Hua and J.M. Suttie (1996). Winter feed for transhumant livestock in
China: the Altai experience. World Animal Review, Number 87 (1996/2), 38-44.
Reynolds, S. (1997). Travel Report Summary of Visit to China, 22 July to 14 August. AGPC,
FAO. 17 pp.
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