WOMEN IN ANCIENT HEBREW CULTURE
I.BRIEF OVERVIEW OF HEBREW HISTORY
1.FROM ABRAHAM TO DIASPORA
II.INTRODUCTION TO WOMEN IN ANCIENT HEBREW CULTURE
1.BACKGROUND
A.BECAUSE OF ITS RELIGIOUS & CULTURAL AUTHORITY
a.BIBLE ONE OF MOST NB MEANS
b.HOW WOMAN'S PLACE IN SOCIETY DEFINED
B.FOR CENTURIES BIBLE INVOKED TO JUSTIFY WOMEN'S
SUBORDINATION TO MEN
C.DURING WOMEN'S MOVEMENT OF LATE 19TH & EARLY 20TH
CENTURIES
D.IT OBSERVED
a.WE NEED WOMEN COMMENTATORS TO BRING OUT
WOMEN'S SIDE OF THE BOOK;
E.IN 1890'S ELIZABETH CADY STANTON
a.& SMALL GROUP OF COLLABORATORS PRODUCED
(1)THE WOMAN'S BIBLE
F.GROUP EXCERPTED & COMMENTED ON PORTIONS OF BIBLE IN
WHICH WOMEN APPEAR
a.OR WERE CONSPICUOUSLY ABSENT
G.AUTHORS ATTACKED BOTH MALE BIAS THAT DISTORTED
INTERPRETATION OF BIBLE
H.& MISOGYNY OF TEXT ITSELF
I.MANY OF ITS OBSERVATIONS WHICH SEEMED SO DARING
J.HAVE SINCE COME TO BE WIDELY ACCEPTED
2.MODERN BIBLICAL SCHOLARSHIP PERTAINING TO WOMEN
A.NOT UNTIL 1964 FEMALE PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE,
MARGARET BRACKENBURY CROOK, PUBLISHED STUDY ON
STATUS OF WOMEN IN JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY ENTITLED
a.WOMEN & RELIGION
B.WOMEN'S MOVEMENT OF 60'S & 70'S
C.& INCREASING NUMBER OF WOMEN ATTENDING SEMINARIES
D.SAW INCREASED WORK ON INTERPRETING BIBLE
E.FEMINIST STUDY OF BIBLE HAS BLOSSOMED TO BECOME ONE OF
MOST NB NEW AREAS TODAY BIBLICAL RESEARCH
3.NEW REVISED STANDARD VERSION
A.GONE THROUGH & CHANGED MALE GENDER NOUNS TO
a.HUMAN BEING, PERSON, BROTHERS & SISTERS
(1)WHERE GENDER OF PERSON IS UNSPECIFIED OR
WHERE WOMEN AS WELL AS MEN ARE CLEARLY
BEING ADDRESSED
B.BUT TRANSLATORS OF NRSV DID NOT ADDRESS PROBLEM OF
GENDER & LANGUAGE ABOUT GOD
4.PROBLEMS IN USING BIBLE AS SOURCE FOR RECONSTRUCTION OF
WOMEN'S LIVES
A.BIBLE IS ANDROCENTRIC OR MALE-CENTERED
a.IN ITS SUBJECT MATTER
b.ITS AUTHORSHIP
c.ITS PERSPECTIVES
2
B.1 EXAMPLE OF THIS ANDROCENTRICITY
C.HEBREW BIBLE MENTIONS 1426 NAMES
a.1315 MEN'S NAMES
b.ONLY 111 WOMEN'S NAMES
(1)9% OF TOTAL
D.ALL AUTHORS IDENTIFIED BY NAME (E.G. PROPHETS) MALE
E.PRESUMABLY ANONYMOUS ONES ARE ALSO
F.THOUGH SOME FEMALES CAN BE POSITED
a.IE. SONG OF SONGS
G.BIBLICAL PERSPECTIVE IS PREDOMINANTLY MALE
H.ISSUES PERTAINING TO WOMEN'S LIVES SCARCE
I.DIFFICULT TO USE SCRIPTURE ALONE TO SEE HOW WOMEN LIVED
IN BIBLICAL PAST
III.MAJOR PROTYPES OF WOMEN IN OLD TESTAMENT
1.EVE & CREATION STORIES OF MAN & WOMAN
A.MOST POWERFUL METAPHORS OF GENDER IN BIBLE
a.WOMAN, CREATED OF MAN'S RIB
b.& EVE, TEMPTRESS, CAUSING HUMANKIND'S FALL
B.FOR OVER 2000 YRS THESE CITED AS PROOF OF DIVINE SANCTION
FOR SUBORDINATION OF WOMEN
C.2 SEEMINGLY CONTRADICTORY VERSIONS OF CREATION STORY IN
GENESIS
D.VERSION IN GENESIS 2:18-25
a.WOMAN MADE FROM ADAM'S RIB
(1)CA. 850 B.C.
b.WRITTEN 450 YEARS BEFORE OTHER VERSION
E.APPEARING IN GENESIS 1:27-9
a.MALE AND FEMALE CREATED HE THEM
(1)CA. 400 B.C.
F.850 B.C.E
a.CREATION OF HUMAN BEINGS
b.EVE CREATED FROM ADAM'S RIB (AS HIS HELPER)
c.MADE FROM DIRT
d.NO DOMINION BUT ADAM NAMES OTHER CREATURES
e.GARDEN OF EDEN, TREE OF KNOWLEDGE, THE FALL
G.400 B.C.E CREATION STORY
a.CREATION OF UNIVERSE
b.SIMULTANEOUS CREATION OF ADAM & EVE
c.BOTH MADE IN GOD'S IMAGE
d.BOTH GIVEN DOMINION OVER ALL OTHER CREATES
e.NO EDEN, NO FALL
H.NEWER VERSION PARALLELS MESOPOTAMIAN ENUMA ELISH
CREATION STORY
a.IN ITS VARIOUS DETAILS & ORDER OF EVENTS
b.BIBLE'S GARDEN OF EDEN PARALLELS SUMERIAN GARDEN
OF CREATION
I.IN REGARD TO BLAMING EVE FOR CAUSING SIN IN WORLD
a.1 OF MOTHER GODDESS SYMBOLS - SERPENT
b.THEN EVE MUST BE SEVERED FROM SNAKE
c.IN ORDER FOR MONOTHEISM TO BE ESTABLISHED
d.THERE SHALL BE ONLY ONE GOD
3
J.& FERTILITY-GODDESS SHALL BE CAST OUT AS EVIL
a.& BECOME VERY SYMBOL OF SIN
K.WOMAN EXISTS NOT IN HER OWN RIGHT
a.BUT ONLY AS HELP MATE
L.SHE NOT EVEN CREATED IN DIVINE IMAGE
a.BUT ONLY IN MAN'S
M.WOMEN FURTHER REMOVED FROM GOD THAN MAN IS
N.AS CONSEQUENCE MORE PRONE TO FOLLY & VICE
O.MANY CENTURIES WOMEN'S APPEALS FOR RIGHTS
a.DENIED ON GROUND WOMEN CREATED ONLY AS HELPERS
b.NOT ENTITLED TO RIGHTS
c.WOMEN COULD BE RECOGNIZED ONLY THROUGH THEIR
MALE RELATIVES
2.JEZEBEL
A.PHOENICIAN QUEEN FROM SIDON
B.MARRIED TO AHAB, KING OF ISRAEL
C.DURING TIME CULT OF BAAL & ASHERAH SPREADING
D.SO SHE WOULD HAVE WORSHIPPED BAAL & ASTARTE
E.IT IS UNLIKELY HER POLYTHEISTIC RELIGION WOULD HAVE
MOTIVATED HER TO ELIMINATE PROPHETS OF YAHWEH
UNLESS THESE PRESENTED POLITICAL THREAT
a.OPPOSITE TRUE
F.FOLLOWERS OF YAHWEH WOULD HAVE ADOPTED CRUSADER
MENTALITY AGAINST WORSHIPERS OF OTHER DEITIES
G.& PROPHETS OF YAHWEH INDEED INVOLVED THEMSELVES IN
POLITICAL CONCERNS
a.ANOINTING KINGS & PROMOTING COUPS
H.JEZEBEL INITIALLY METAPHOR OF SCHEEMING WOMAN
a.CAME TO BE UNDERSTOOD WITH INCREASING LITERALNESS
I.JEZEBEL OFTEN INTERPRETED TODAY NOT AS WOMAN OF
POLITICAL POWER BUT AS SEDUCTRESS
3.DEBORAH
A.PERIOD OF WARFARE BETWEEN ISRAELITE TRIBES & CANAANITES
B.IS DESCRIBED IN ONE OF OLDEST SEGMENTS OF O.T.
a.SONG OF DEBORAH - JUDGES 4-5
C.ONE OF RARE INSTANCES
a.WHERE WOMAN SHOWN IN LEADERSHIP POSITION & HEROIC
ROLE
D.DEBORAH DESCRIBED AS PROPHETESS & JUDGE
a.WHO INSPIRES BARAK TO RALLY TROOPS IN RESISTANCE TO
CANAANITES
E.IN PASSAGE QUITE EXCEPTIONAL IN BIBLICAL LITERATURE SHE IS
SHOWN TO ASSUME ACTUAL LEADERSHIP OVER MEN
IV.WHAT LIFE LIKE FOR WOMEN
1.CHANGE FROM MATRILOCAL & MATRILINEAL TO PATRILOCL &
PATRILINEAL
A.STORIES OF PATRIARCHS IN GENESIS OFFER SOME INDICATIONS
OF TRANSITION FROM MATRILOCAL & MATRILINEAL
B.TO PATRILOCAL & PATRILINEAL FAMILY ORGANIZATION IN SOME
OF TRIBES
C.REFERENCE TO MAN LEAVING HIS FATHER & MOTHER &
4
CLEAVING TO HIS WIFE IN GEN. 2/24 COULD BE SO
INTERPRETED
D.JACOB'S 7 YRS OF SERVICE TO LABAN FOR EACH OF HIS
DAUGHTERS WOULD CONFORM TO PRACTICE OF
MATRILOCAL MARRIAGE
E.IN BIBLICAL NARRATIVE MATRILOCAL MARRIAGE IS CALLED
BEENA MARRIAGE
F.PATRILOCAL MARRIAGE KNOWN AS BAAL MARRIAGE
G.STORY OF JACOB'S COURTSHIP & HIS FLIGHT FROM LABAN'S
HOUSE HAS BEEN INTERPRETED AS IMPLYING TRANSITION
FROM MATRILOCALITY TO PATRILOCALITY
H.RACHEL'S THEFT OF TERAPHIM CAN ALSO BE VIEWED IN THIS
LIGHT
a.SOME INTERPRET TERAPHIM AS HOUSE-GODS
(1)& POSSESSION OF HOUSE GODS SIGNIFIED LEGAL
TITLE TO ESTATE
I.RACHEL, BELIEVING HER FATHER WOULD DENY HER HUSBAND
LEGAL SHARE IN HIS ESTATE, TOOK TERAPHIM
J.RACHEL'S ACTION SYMBOLIZED CHANGE FROM MATRILOCALITY
TO PATRILOCALITY TOO
2.WOMEN IN TIME OF PATRIARCHS
A.DID ACTIVITIES WITH MEN
a.TENDED FLOCKS TOGETHER
b.MET AT WATERING WELLS
c.WORSHIPPED TOGETHER IN TEMPLE
d.SHARED PUBLIC CELEBRATIONS
e.ATE TOGETHER
f.ATTENDED WEDDINGS & FUNERALS TOGETHER
B.SEGREGATION IN TEMPLE BEGAN ONLY LATER
C.JEWISH WOMAN COULD PRAY OR STUDY TORAH
a.BUT WOMEN NOT PART OF ADMINISTRATION
D.IT WAS CONSIDERED PRIMARY RELIGIOUS DUTY OF PARENTS TO
TEACH THEIR SONS TORAH
E.BUT NO SUCH OBLIGATION TO GIRLS
F.BUT AS LONG AS CHILDREN EDUCATED AT HOME
a.GIRLS TAUGHT AT DISCRETION OF THEIR PARENTS
G.HOWEVER, FORMAL EDUCATION, INSTITUTED EITHER IN 2ND OF
1ST C. B.C. PROBABLY LIMITED TO MALE STUDENTS
3.STRUCTURE OF FAMILY
A.PATRIARCHAL PREDOMINANT FAMILY STRUCTURE IN BIBLE
B.IN EARLIEST PERIOD PATRIARCH HAD UNDISPUTED AUTHORITY
OVER MEMBERS OF HIS FAMILY
C.WIFE CALLED HER HUSBAND BAAL OR MASTER
D.WIFE IS LISTED AMONG MAN'S POSSESSIONS ALONG WITH HIS
SERVANTS, HIS OX & ASS
E.IN THIS PERIOD FATHER COULD SELL HIS DAUGHTER INTO
SLAVERY OR PROSTITUTION
a.LATER FORBIDDEN TO HIM
F.WHILE HEBREWS STILL NOMADS & UNDER PATRIARCHS
a.1 LAWFUL WIFE
b.WITH AS MANY CONCUBINES AS COULD AFFORD
5
G.BUT SETTLED LIFE IN MONARCHY POLYGAMY MARRIAGES
LEGALIZED
H.BY TIME OF MONARCHY, FATHER'S POWER OF LIFE & DEATH OVER
HIS FAMILY MEMBERS NO LONGER UNLIMITED
a.IMPROVED POSITION OF DAUGHTERS
b.PROPERTY BELONGED TO CLAN
(1)INALIENABLE
(2)IT COULD NOT BE SOLD TO ANYONE
I.TRANSFERRED SOLELY BY INHERITANCE
a.THIS INHERITANCE USUALLY FELL TO ELDEST SON
b.IF NO SONS COULD FALL TO DAUGHTERS
J.BUT THEY HAD TO MARRY WITHIN THEIR TRIBE SO PORTION
WOULD NOT BE TRANSFERRED OUT
K.IF OWNER DIED CHILDLESS INHERITANCE WENT TO HIS MALE
KINS
L.ONE OF FOUNDATIONS FOR LAW OF LEVIRATE
4.REGULATION OF FEMALE SEXUALITY & CUSTOMS
A.AS IN MESOPOTAMIAN SOCIETIES
B.HEBREW MEN ENJOYED COMPLETE SEXUAL FREEDOM WITHIN &
OUTSIDE OF MARRIAGE
C.IF SLAVE WIVES HIS OWN & NOT GIVEN TO HIM BY HIS PRIMARY
WIFE
a.HE COULD GIVE THEM TO OTHER FAMILY MEMBERS
D.PUNISHMENT FOR ADULTERY DEATH OF BOTH PARTIES
E.BUT JEWISH WIFE HAD LESS PROTECTION AGAINST FALSE
ACCUSATIONS OF ADULTERY
a.THAN DID HER MESOPOTAMIAN COUNTERPART
F.IN NUMBERS 5:11-31 4TH BOOK OF TORAH
a.40 YEAR WANDERING IN DESERT AFTER EXILE FROM EGYPT
b.DESCRIBES RITUAL ORDEAL REQUIRED WIFE WHOSE
HUSBAND DOUBTS HER FIDELITY
G.DIVORCE OBTAINABLE BY HUSBAND BUT NEVER BY WIFE
a.JEWISH LAW MORE DETRIMENTAL TO WIFE THAN
HAMMURABIC LAW
H.SAME TRUE FOR LEGISLATION PERTAINING TO RAPE
a.MESOPOTAMIAN LAW AFFORDED MORE PROTECTION
b.JEWISH LAW FORCED RAPIST TO MARRY WOMAN
(1)& HE COULD NOT DIVORCE HER
I.BARRENNESS IN WIFE
a.INTERPRETED TO BEAR SONS
b.DISGRACE & CAUSE FOR DIVORCE
J.SARAH, LEAH & RACHEL OFFER THEIR SLAVE WOMEN TO THEIR
HUSBANDS SO SLAVE WOMAN'S CHILDREN COUNTED AS
THEIR OWN
5.CHANGES FOR WOMEN WHEN JEWISH TRIBES BECOME NATION
A.GRADUAL RESTRICTION OF WOMEN'S PUBLIC & ECONOMIC ROLE
B.MORE REGULATION OF HER SEXUALITY
a.AS JEWISH TRIBES MOVE FROM TO STATEHOOD
C.SOLOMON MADE MANY TREATIES & DYNASTIC MARRIAGES WITH
FORMERLY HOSTILE NEIGHBORS
a.ACQUIRING HIS VAST HAREM
6
D.PREOCCUPATION WITH FIGHTING CULT OF BAAL & ASHERAH
a.PERSISTED INTO MONARCHIC PERIOD & AFTER
E.APPARENTLY HAD ITS GREATEST & MOST PERSISTENT STRENGTH
AMONG WOMEN
F.& MAY EXPLAIN INCREASINGLY SHARP REGULATION OF WOMEN'S
BEHAVIOR
G.EXCESSIVE LANGUAGE OF CENSURE AGAINST WOMEN'S
"WHORING" IN PROPHETS
H.& FINALLY PERVASIVE USE OF WOMAN-THE-WHORE AS
METAPHOR FOR EVILS OF SINNING SOCIETY
I.JEZEBEL MARRIED TO KING AHAB OF ISRAEL
a.TRIED TO IMPORT HER NATIVE WORSHIP INTO ISRAEL
b.SHE SUPPORTED 450 PROPHETS OF BAAL &
(1)400 PROPHETS OF ASHERAH
c.YAHWEH WON IN CONTEST WITH BAAL
d.BUT ASHERAH NOT PART OF CONTEST
e.ISRAELITES DID NOT PURSUE OR CONDEMN CULT-OBJECT
ASHERAH OR GODDESS ASHERAH WITH SAME
VEHEMENCE AS IT FOUGHT WORSHIP OF BAAL
J.IDEAL WIFE
a.INDUSTRIOUS
b.GOOD MANAGER
c.WISE COUNSELOR
d.YET ALWAYS FEAR OF STRONG WOMAN
K.PROVERBS 31:12 "
a.SHE DOES HIM GOOD & NOT HARM ALL THE DAYS OF HIS
LIFE
b.SUGGESTS WOMEN THOUGHT CAPABLE OF INJURING MEN
6.BIBLICAL INJUNCTIONS ON CHILDBIRTH & MULTIPLYING
A.JEWISH TRIBES CONQUERING CANAAN HAD TO OVERCOME
NUMEROUS OBSTACLES
B.MUST HAVE EXPERIENCED REAL POPULATION PROBLEM
a.FIGHTING TO GET INTO CANAAN CAUSED DEATHS
b.PLAGUES OR PESTILENCE ELIMINATED MANY
C.MAY EXPLAIN BIBLICAL EMPHASIS ON FAMILY & ON WOMAN'S
PROCREATIVE ROLE
D.IN PRAYERS TO ISHTAR & OTHER FERTILITY-GODDESSES
E.ONE OF PRAISEWORTHY ATTRIBUTES OF GODDESS
a.SHE OPENED THE WOMBS OF WOMEN
F.IN GENESIS THAT LANGUAGE IS USED SOLELY IN REFERENCE TO
YAHWEH
a.GENESIS 29:31
(1)AND THE LORD SAW THAT LEAH WAS HATED AND HE
OPENED HER WOMB
b.GENESIS 30: 22-23
(1)AND GOD REMEMBER RACHEL..AND OPENED HER
WOMB.
G.BIBLICAL INJUNCTIONS TO BE FRUITFUL & MULTIPLY SERVED
INTERESTS OF VILLAGERS & SOCIETY AS WHOLE
H.CHILDBIRTH DANGEROUS TO CHILD & MOTHER
a.ANALYSIS OF SKELETAL REMAINS FOUND
7
b.AVERAGE LIFE SPAN FOR WOMEN 30
c.EN SPARED DANGERS OF REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS LIVED
AVERAGE 10 YRS LONGER
I.SINCE INFANT MORTALITY PROBABLY 50%
J.THEN WOMEN NEEDED TO HAVE DOUBLE NUMBER OF BIRTHS TO
SUSTAIN FAMILY
K.DAUGHTER NOT AS WELCOME AS SON
L.SACRIFIC OF ABRAHAM OF HIS SON ISAAC
a.LORD INTERVENED
M.CF WITH JEPTHAH'S DAUGHTER IN BOOK OF JUDGES 11:29-38
a.DAUGHTER IS SACRIFICED
7.WOMEN'S ROLE IN ECONOMY
A.ANCIENT ISRAEL'S ECONOMY BASED ON AGRICULTURE
B.SURVIVAL -MEANT HARD WORK & NECESSARYY SKILL
C.PROBABLY EXTENDED FAMILY
D.OCCUPATIONS & TASKS VERY GENDER SPECIFIC
E.MEN'S WORK
a.PLOWING, & OTHER PHYSICALLY DEMANDING TASKS SUCH
AS
(1)CUTTING TRESS, MOVING ROCKS, DIGGING CISTERNS,
F.WOMEN'S WORK IN AGRICULTURE
a.PLANTING, WEEDING & HARVESTING ACTIVITIES
b.LOCAL GARDENING WORK
c.CULTIVATING FRUIT TREES, VINES, VEGETABLES & HERBS
G.OTHER SPECIFIC WOMEN'S TASKS
a.WOMEN RESPONSIBLE FOR MOST OF FOOD PRESERVATION
b.PROCESSING TASKS ALSO TIME CONSUMING
(1)GRAINS MUST BE SOAKED, MILLED, GROUND,
(2)THEN FLOUR MUST BE MIXED,SET TO RISE & BAKED
c.ADD ROUTINE CARE OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS
(1)FEEDING, MILKING, ETC.
d.CLOTH & CLOTHING PRODUCTION
(1)SPINNING THREAD, WEAVING, SEWING
H.SO LARGE FAMILIES CLEARLY MADE FARMING ENTERPRISE MORE
VIABLE
I.AS MORE MOVED INTO URBAN ENVIRONOMENT
a.WHEN NEGATIVE REMAKRS ABOUT IDLE & GOSSIPING
WOMEN OCCURRED
J.WOMEN ALSO
a.MIDWIVES
b.PROFESSINAL MOURNERS
c.TEMPLE SINGERS
8.WOMEN'S RELIGIOUS ROLES
A.BIBLE LARGELY FOCUSES ON PUBLIC, COMMUNAL PRACTICES OF
RELIGION
B.YET CLEAR INDICATIONS IN BOTH SCRIPTURAL &
ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD OF DOMESTIC RELIGIOUS
PRACTICES
C.FAMILY CELEBRATIONS OF EITHER LOCAL OR NATIONAL
D.AS ORGANIZERS & PARTICIPANTS IN THESE FESTIVALS,
a.WOMEN TOOK PART IN VARIETY SPIRITUAL LIFE
8
E.PROBABLY FEW GENDER-BASED RESTRICTIONS
F.EXCEPT FOR POSSIBILITY OF SERVING AS PRIESTS
a.BUT THIS HEREDITARY OFFICE NOT AVAILABLE TO MOST
MEN EITHER
G.SOME WOMEN HAD SPECIAL EXPERTISE IN PUBLIC PERFORMANCE
FOR FUNERALS
a.WOMEN RECITERS & PROBABLY COMPOSERS OF
TRADITIONAL LAMENTS FOR DEAD
(1)JER. 9:17, 2 CHRON. 35:25)
H.WOMEN DANCERS, SINGERS & MUSICIANS
I.WOMEN PERFORMED AT MAJOR PUBLIC EVENTS (JUDGES 21:21
J.CULTURAL HIGH POINT OF SUCH PERFORMANCES
a.GREAT HYMNS SUNG BY WOMEN
b.SEE EX. 15:20-21, JUDGES 5; 1 SAM. 18:6-7
V.CONCLUSIONS
1.MONOTHEISM - GOOD OR DETRIMENTAL FOR WOMEN?
A.ORGANIZED RELIGION MAY HAVE BEEN ROOT CAUSE OF HISTORIC
DEFEAT OF WOMANKIND
B.SOME SEE RISE OF MONOTHEISM AS PLOT AGAINST WOMEN
C.SINCE AFTER EFFECT SO UNIFORMLY DISASTROUS FOR FEMALE
SEX
D.AS ONE SCHOLAR NOTED
a.EVE DID NOT FALL, SHE WAS PUSHED
E.MANYY ELEMENTS OF RELIGIOUS
a.JUDAISM, ISLAM, CHRISTIANITY, BUDDHISM, CONFUCIUSISM
b.HELD STRONG APPEAL FOR BOTH SEXES
(1)& OFTEN FOR WOMEN IN PARTICULAR
F.WHY WERE THEY SO ATTRACTIVE TO WOMEN?
a.EACH OFFERED CLARITY, CERTAINTY
b.THAT AFTER PLURALISTIC PANTHEON
c.PROFOUND CONVICTION ONE GOD WOULD TAKE CARE OF
THEM