Rome: 264 – 133 BC
Option K Rome: 264 – 133 BC
Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for
Rome: 264 – 133 BC, students learn about significant developments, forces and relevant
historiographical issues that shaped the historical period.
Students learn about:
1 Development in Rome
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role of the Senate and political alliances; the urban population and the rise of the
equestrians
establishment of the extortion court and changes to the magistracies
economic and social conditions and problems; the ‘latifundia’, growth of slavery and
decline of the free peasantry
role and contribution of Roman leaders: Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus, Flamininus,
Scipio Aemilianus, Cato the Elder
2 Roman expansion
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causes, course and consequences of the First Punic War
impact of wars of expansion on Roman politics, economy and society
the spread, influence and impact of Hellenism
causes, course and consequences of the Second Punic War: Trebia, Ticinus, Lake
Trasimenae, Cannae and Zama
role of Carthaginian leaders: Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal, Hannibal
consequences of Punic Wars; destruction of Carthage 146 BC
important changes in Roman naval and land warfare, military recruitment
political conditions and problems in Rome, Italy and the empire
provincial administration, taxation and tribute
1. Developments in Rome
Role of the Senate and political alliances; the urban population and the rise of the
equestrians.
Role of the senate and political alliances
Government in 264 AD
• Roman government in 264 BC was a mixture of:
• Democratic,
• Aristocratic,
• And oligarchic elements.
• This had come about because the people (plebeians) had demanded greater
political participation after their assistance in Rome’s wars of expansion.
The struggle for orders
• The struggle for orders in Rome was the struggle by the plebeians (people) to
have political and social equality with the patricians (landowners).
• This created the mix of democracy (people) and oligarchy (landowners) in the
Senate.
Divisions of powers
• The magistrates were ordered as follows:
• 2 Consuls: They commanded the army.
• 8 Praetors: Judges which decided law suits.
• 4 Aediles: Administrators of Roman city-state.
• 12 Quaestors: Financial administrators.
• These were 1 year (12 month) appointments.
Magistrate careers
• Cursus honorum – these positions made up the ladder of promotion which Roman
leaders followed.
• Collegiate Principle – these offices also used the collegiate principle, whereby
there where at least two people working in each role at once.
Dictator
• This was a single person role.
• Dictators were only elected during an emergency, such as when Hannibal invaded
Italy.
• Dictators were given the task of co-ordinating the state in that time of crisis.
Censors
• Two appointed at a time.
• Their role was to assign citizens to social positions.
• These positions were based on property qualifications – how much land you
owned.
People’s assemblies
• These originated in 287 BC, when the plebeians withdrew their support from the
army because of inequalities.
• The dictator Hortensius allowed them greater participation in politics.
• These were then known as the Hortensian Laws.
• Two in existence:
• 1. Comitia centuriata
• Dominated by wealthy class,
• Power to make war and agree on terms for peace,
• Elected some magistrates.
Tribunes of the people
• Office of Tribune was created as result of struggle for orders – the plebeians
wanting more equality.
• 10 appointed at a time.
• Roles:
• Defend lives and property of the plebeians;
• Veto laws and actions of magistrates if needed;
• Restrictions:
• All 10 Tribunes had to agree when making decisions (unanimous decisions).
• 2. Comitia tributa
• Democratic membership from the people,
• Made laws sometimes without senate approval.
• Elected plebeian tribunes.
The Constitution
• Established in 264 BC.
• A set of practices rather than a written document.
• Allowed the plebeians to have the rights of equality theta they desired in the
struggle of the orders.
• This was needed because the plebeians often had to leave their farms and fight for
Rome as it expanded.
• They made the sacrifices in war that made their demands real.
• The plebeians threatened to revolt against their commanding officers if they did
not get more rights.
The plebs
• The plebeians were able, after getting greater rights, to:
• Elect their own tribunes.
• Intermarry with patricians.
• Hold some religious offices.
• Make laws in the comitia tributa.
Rise of the urban population
 After the First Punic War Rome became a major centre.
 It had a large slave population.
 It was also a major trading center and marketplace.
 Many rural peasants also moved to Rome in search of work and wealth.
 Hence Rome’s population swelled.
 A wealthy business class rose up in Rome after these developments.
 Publicans developed, who were private contractors for building and development.
 Money-lending and banking also developed as a business.
 Shipping of goods also became a profitable business.
 Most manufacture was for local consumption
Rise of the equestrians
• This was a social group composed of wealthy businessmen who were known for
their horse ownership.
• They were ranked between the oligarchs of the senate, and the working
population.
• During wars they were assigned to the cavalry by the censors.
• They invested heavily in land.
• They were usually apolitical (which means they stayed out of politics) unless their
business interests were under threat.
• Although they were wealthy they had little influence in Rome’s politics because
they did not have family prestige.
Summary
• Division of powers in Rome at 264 BC:
• Senate
• Magistrates
• Dictator (if needed)
• Censors
• People’s assemblies
• Tribunes of the people
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Establishment of the extortion court and changes to the magistracies
Establishment of the extortion court
• As Rome expanded it included many more provinces.
• These provinces had to be controlled and administered.
• Tax, troops and trade all had to be sourced from provinces.
• Provinces also had to reflect the legal and social culture of Rome.
• Therefore, the Senate appointed governor's to oversee these provinces.
• Governor’s were open to corruption and accusations of hardship from their citizens.
• To address this the Senate established the Extortion court.
• When a governor returned to Rome, the Court would examine his accounts; his claims for
military exploits; his trade arrangements.
• The Court was established in 149 BC.
• If the citizens of a province felt they were being exploited by their governor they would
approach the Senate and the Court.
• Citizens could use the Court to appeal for damages.
Structure of the Court:
• Fifty jurors elected from the Senate
• Headed by a Praetor
• No appeal above the Court
• Led to the creation of new provinces because the Senate believed that they would run
more smoothly with the Court in place
Problems with the Court:
• Costs of long trials,
• Difficult to secure testimony as many witnesses were reluctant to come forward,
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Penalties difficult to enforce, as they were mostly demands to repay provinces and this
could not be done,
Court officials were penalising their own, which meant that impartiality was lacking.
The practical failure of the Court meant that for many years Roman provinces suffered
from exploitation by:
Governors AND
Tax collectors.
Changes to the magistracies
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Magistrates and elections:
Magistrates could reject the candidate of an election if he did not approve with him or his
policies.
Magistrates were used by Senators, as senators could not own ships or engage in public
contracts. Magistrates could help them to influence the public through other means.
Magistrates in the provinces:
 At first provinces such as Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia were ruled by regular magistrates.
 This proved ineffective, and so special magistrates were assigned to these areas.
 Two extra Praetors were elected each year for this reason.
 Changes needed in the Magistrates because they were designed to handle city
administration;
 But they were not well appointed to dealing with imperial administration over a large
empire.
economic and social conditions and problems; the ‘latifundia’, growth of slavery and
decline of the free peasantry
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As the Roman Empire expanded there were changes in economic and agricultural life.
Great Estates arose which were operated by slave labour.
This also resulted from a decline in free peasantry in Rome, who were more expensive to
pay; and who moved to cities such as Rome for work.
– The great estates were large farms.
They arose because of the following:
– The owners of small farms had increased military commitments.
– Owners of small farms moved to the cities to seek wealth.
– Cheaper slave labour became more available.
– Hannibal’s armies devastated the countryside and pushed small landowners out.
– Rome gave public land to private citizens as it expanded.
– Occupants would farm this land and pay rent to Rome.
Effects of Hannibal’s invasion on land:
– He had destroyed around 400 communities;
– The land they had lived on was left un-owned and depopulated.
– Also, the Romans confiscated the land of his allies.
– The Senatorial class invested in land because contracting and banking were not seen as
worthy occupations.
– More land became available to them as the conquests were successful.
– The governing class also bought up small farms to add to their large landholdings.
Changes in agriculture and farming:
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Grain was farmed less and less because it could be bought from overseas colonies, and
because it damaged the soil.
– Vineyards; olive groves and market gardens and grazing land became referred farming.
– Farming became more businesslike and was designed for a market rather than private
consumption.
Growth of Slavery
– Wealthy land proprietors owned many farms across Italy.
– Slaves made labour very cheap.
– Slaves could not be called up for military service.
– Slaves could not claim legal rights when treated poorly.
– Slaves…
– Rome’s victories flooded the Mediterranean with slaves.
– Between 200 and 150 BC: 250,000 slaves were brought (prisoners of wars) to Italy.
– Slaves often worked in chains and lived in prison barracks at night.
The decline of free peasantry
– As the Latifundia (great estates) grew the peasantry declined.
– Rich landowners bought, bullied and coerced small farmers out of their land.
– Foreign wars were also a burden on the peasantry, as they were conscripted into the
army.
– Roman armies were mainly recruited from the rural population.
– Once in the army soldiers would be away from their for a long time, perhaps several
years at a time.
– This meant he was unable to look after his finances and land.
– Many returning soldiers sold their land to rich landowners to pay debts, or because the
farm was not profitable.
– Many returning soldiers also migrated to Rome or other cities were work was plentiful.
– Other returning soldiers migrated to newly conquered lands where they had won land as
part of their payment for fighting.
– The Tribunes attempted at various times to save the peasants from the army draft, but
were not successful in the long run.
– As Rome expanded it needed more troops to remain in conquered lands;
– Also, the army became a career in itself.
– The effects of the great estates (latifundia) on Roman society did not go unnoticed by the
Senate.
– They brought in laws to limit land ownership to small portions (310 acre according to
Livy).
– These laws were often difficult to enforce,
– Wealthy landowners often did not obey them.
– Once occupied, land became a hereditary possession (handed down to children).
Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus, Flamininus, Scipio Aemilianus, Cato the Elder:
Fabius maximus
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His cautious delaying tactics (hence the nickname “delayer,”) during the early stages of
the Second Punic War (218–201).
This gave Rome time to recover its strength and take the offensive against the invading
Carthaginian army of Hannibal.
A critic of Scipio.
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Accused Scipio of allowing his troops to mutiny (a small number of Scipio’s men had
mutinied when Scipio feel ill).
Was elected to five consulships, in 233, 228, 215, 214, and 209.
Scipio africanus
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Saved his father’s life in battle at Ticinus.
Fought at Cannae and survived battle.
When he became general he lead a force of ships and troops and attacked Carthage in
Spain.
He attacked the city of New Carthage in Spain.
Scipio studied Hannibal’s tactics and copied them.
Once he defeated Carthage on Spanish soil he returned to Rome victorious and reminded
the Senate of his achievements.
He was awarded the province of Sicily.
He was elected Consul and took his troops to invade North Africa and threatened the city
of Carthage itself.
He defeated Hannibal at Zama.
Flaminius
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Lived in Greece for many years, signing treaties and alliances to secure Rome’s
dominance.
Considered a philhelene; someone influenced and appreciative of Greek culture.
He was highly popular among Greeks.
In 223 Flaminius was elected consul for the first time, and with Publius Furius
Philus he forced the Gauls to submit to Rome, creating the province of Cisalpine
Gaul.
In the aftermath of the First Punic War, Flaminius, a novus homo, was the leader
of a reform movement which sought to reorganize state land in Italy. As tribune
of the plebs in 232 BC, he passed aplebiscite which divided the land south
of Ariminum, which had been conquered from the Gauls decades before, and
gave it to poor families whose farms had fallen into ruin during the war. The
Senate was opposed to this and he did not consult them, contrary to the
constitution and tradition.
In 217, during the Second Punic War and the invasion of Italy by Hannibal, he
was re-elected consul with Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, in what was considered a
rebuke of the Senate's prosecution of the war. Flaminius failed to take the
appropriate rituals to become consul and was under threat of recall by the
Senate. Flaminius raised four new legions and marched north to meet Hannibal,
but was ambushed at Lake Trasimene. The army was destroyed and Flaminius
was killed in 27 April 217 B.C. His supporters in the Senate began to lose power
to the more aristocratic factions, and the Romans feared Hannibal would besiege
their city. The Senate appointed as dictator Fabius Maximus.
Enjoyed the trust of the Roman nobility, who gave him a military role in Greece
over Scipio.
H. Scullard on Flamininus’s promotion:
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“The Roman nobility as a whole probably feared to entrust him with a first-class
military command which would give him the chance of placing the Roman people
deeply in his debt.”
What is going on here between Flamininus and the Roman nobility?
Scipio aemilinaus
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In 151 BC, voluntarily offered his services in province of Spain and developed influence
over the native tribes similar to that which Scipio Africanus,
in 147 BC he was elected consul, while yet under the minimal age required by law to
hold this office, and assigned the province of Africa (the theater of the siege) without
drawing lots, so that he might take charge of the military operations there. After a year of
desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the defenders he takes the city of
Carthage with about 50,000 survivors (about one-tenth of the city's population) as
prisoners, and, complying with the mandate of the Senate orders the city razed to the
ground and plowed over, after being evacuated and set fire to, ending the Third Punic
War
On his return to Rome he received a Triumph, having also established a personal claim to
his adoptive agnomen of Africanus.
As consul he commanded at the final siege and destruction of Carthage in 146 BC.
In 142 BC becomes censor, endeavoured to check the growing luxury and immorality of
the period.
In 134 BC he was again consul, with the province of Spain, where a demoralized Roman
army was vainly attempting the conquest of Numantia on the Durius (Duero) and the
closing of the Numantine War. After devoting several months to restoring the discipline
of his troops, he reduced the city by blockade. The fall of Numantia in 133 established
the Roman dominion in the province of Hither Spain
He was a leader of the senators opposed to the Gracchi in 133 BC.
The Gracchi brothers:
Tiberius and Gaius.
Two tribunes in 2nd century BC who attempted to pass land reform legislation in Ancient
Rome.
These reforms would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians.
Cato the elder
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Opposed to Greek cultural influence on Roman life.
Cato had a reputation for honesty and his hostility to non-Roman influences.
Cato had been Scipio’s quaestor in Sicily.
Cato had an unfavourable attitude towards Scipio.
Cato perceived Scipio as too lenient to his troops, and too heavily influenced by
Greek culture.
Cato led a campaign in the Senate to downplay the achievements of Roman
generals and support the authority of the Senate and Roman politics.
He denied the triumphs of some of the Roman generals.
Cato became known for his hatred of Scipio.
He poisoned Scipio’s later life through trials and accusations.
2. Roman expansion
causes, course and consequences of the First Punic War
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Once Rome dominated Italy it became a world power.
This brought it into competition with Carthage, the existing power in the Mediterranean.
In the First Punic War Rome and Carthage fought over control of Sicily.
During this conflict Rome developed a naval power and controlled the seas in the
Mediterranean.
Sicily became Rome’s first province.
This war laid the foundations for resentments that spilled over in the Second Punic war.
impact of wars of expansion on Roman politics, economy and society
the wars in the Greek east: first Macedonian war
• The political situation in Greece remained unstable.
• There were no permanent troops, and piracy thrived.
• In 149 BC Andriscus claimed to be the son of Perseus.
• He reunited the four republics into 1 Macedonia.
• Metellus of Rome defeated him and forced him from the region.
• After this Greeks revolted against Rome and Metellus marched to repress them.
• After this the Hellenistic world became part of the Roman empire, after 80 years of
campaigning.
the wars in the Greek east: second Macedonian war
• The major battle took place at Cynoscephalae in 197 BC.
• Here the Roman army and its tactics fought the Greek phalanx of Alex. The Great and
won.
• The phalanx was too rigid and the Romans were able to maneuver around it.
• A treaty was formed which forced Philip to give up his Greek territories, but he remained
in power.
the wars in the Greek east: third Macedonian war
• Perseus was the son of Philip V and took throne in 179 BC.
• In 172 BC Emenes king of Pergamum, a Roman ally, accused Perseus of entering his
territory.
• This led to war and Marcius Philippus sent legions to Macedonia.
• In 168 BC a new Roman general, Paullus, attacked Perseus and defeated him, and
captured him at Pydna.
• Macedonia was then broken up into 4 smaller republics.
the wars in the Greek east: fourth Macedonian war
• The political situation in Greece remained unstable.
• There were no permanent troops, and piracy thrived.
• In 149 BC Andriscus claimed to be the son of Perseus.
• He reunited the four republics into 1 Macedonia.
• Metellus of Rome defeated him and forced him from the region.
• After this Greeks revolted against Rome and Metellus marched to repress them.
• After this the Hellenistic world became part of the Roman empire, after 80 years of
campaigning.
Spanish wars
• 153 - 133 B.C. -- no longer the early Republican period.
• During the Second Punic War (218 to 201 B.C.), the Carthaginians tried to make stations
in Hispania from which they could launch attacks on Rome.
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An effect of fighting against the Carthaginians, was that the Romans gained territory on
the Iberian peninsula.
• They named Hispania one of their provinces after defeating Carthage.
• The area they gained was along the coast. They needed more land inland to protect their
bases.
• 134 BC - Scipio Aemilianus was brought in as consul, with Marius and the Numidian
prince Jugurtha under him.
• 133 BC - Scipio besieged Numantia. When they succumbed to famine and cannibalism,
they surrendered becoming part of Scipio's triumph or sold as slaves. Numantinus was
razed.
Seleucid war
• Under the consuls Flamininus and then Manius Acilius Glabrio Rome fought the Seleucid
War against Antiochus, king of Syria from 192-188 B.C.
• During the Macedonian Wars, Antiochus and Philip V of Macedon had been allies,
taking chunks of Greece and the Greek cities in Asia Minor until the Romans stepped in
to grant Greece its freedom.
• Philip seems to have ignored the alliance when Rome seemed the more likely victor.
• He seems to have granted Rome access to Macedonia's territory because the Romans
arrived in Gonni, which they couldn't have done without Philip's help.
• This made the odds decidedly worse for Antiochus.
• Antiochus retreated and faced the Romans at Thermopylae near the famous pass where
the Spartans and their allies had once met the Persians.
• Unlike the routed Spartans, Antiochus survived. The treaty he signed with Rome gave the
territory he had taken in Greece back to the Greeks. Antiochus was confined to Syria.
Changes linked to expansion (a summary):
 Growth of the Great Estates,
 Increase in number of slaves,
 More wealth for the already rich,
 Wealthy women became more independent,
 Shift towards city living and rise of an urban class,
 Rise of a new Equestrian class,
 Larger armies sourced from a greater range of subjects/citizens.
 Revise Pamela Bradley Handout 2, pages 196-207.
the spread, influence and impact of Hellenism
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When Scipio defeated Antiochus in the Greek East he freed the Greek cities of Asia
Minor.
This led to Greek culture spreading into Rome.
A “Scipionic circle” developed of cultured men interested in Greek ways of life.
Hellenism = Greek culture.
Elements of Greek culture began to feature in Roman life.
This included: literature, music, art, food, religion, education, Oratory & Rhetoric,
philosophy.
A fashion for things Greek swept Rome.
causes, course and consequences of the Second Punic War: Trebia, Ticinus, Lake
Trasimenae, Cannae and Zama
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After the First Punic War Hannibal swore revenge on Rome.
The Ebro Treaty was established which kept Rome out of Spain, and Carthage could not
cross the river.
However, the town of Saguntum was loyal to Rome but in Carthaginian territory.
Hannibal felt it was being used to undermine Carthage and attacked it.
This began the Second Punic War.
Hannibal invaded Italy and Rome fought a defensive war for over 10 years.
Major battles included: Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannae.
Fabius Maximus elected dictator after these defeats.
Maximus used the strategy of delay.
Scipio became general and reversed this policy to one of attack, and invaded Africa.
This forced Hannibal back to Africa and he was defeated at Zama.
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role of Carthaginian leaders: Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal, Hannibal
Hamilcar Barca
• Hamilcar Barca died in 229 or 228 BC, Carthaginian general.
• Assigned the command in Sicily in 247 in the First Punic War.
• From mountain bases near Palermo he made repeated raids on the Romans and relieved
the Punic garrison in Lilybaeum.
• However, the Carthaginians were defeated.
• Hamilcar negotiated the terms of the peace that led to Carthage's withdrawal from Sicily.
Hasdrubal
• Hasdrubal died: 221 BC, Carthaginian general.
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He fought under his father-in-law, Hamilcar Barca in Africa and in Spain, where he
succeeded (in 229 or 228 BC) Hamilcar as general.
• He increased the empire in Spain, where he founded Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena,
or New Carthage in the ancient world).
• By treaty with Rome (226 BC), he fixed the northern boundary of Carthaginian Spain at
the Ebro River.
Hannibal
 From his father, Hamilcar Barca, the defender of Sicily in the First Punic War, he learned
to hate Rome.
 He succeeded as general in Spain on the death of his brother-in-law, Hasdrubal, in 221
BC.
 After consolidating his position for two years, he besieged Rome's ally Saguntum, which
fell eight months later.
 Carthage supported him, and Rome declared war (the Second Punic War, 218-201 BC).
consequences of Punic Wars; destruction of Carthage 146 BC
The Carthaginians were forced to:
• Pay reparations for damage to Rome;
• Return all prisoners of war;
• Surrender all elephants and war ships;
• Were forbidden to declare war on other states;
• Provide Rome with grain for the army.
• Pay 10,000 talents of silver over 50 years.
• Hand over one hundred hostages.
Destruction of carthage
• Carthage declared war on a king named Masinissa.
• This leads to accusations by the Romans that they were on the war path again.
• In 149 BC Scipio Aemilianus besieges Carthage from the land and blockades it from the
sea.
• Carthage is sacked and destroyed in 146 BC.
• This was the result of fear and hatred towards Carthage from the Punic Wars.
• Read and summarise “The Destruction of Carthage” in your Rome handout.
Important changes in Roman naval and land warfare, military recruitment
Military recruitment
• The Roman army began like the part-time Greek army, with farmers returning to their
fields after a quick summer campaign.
• Then it changed into a professional organization with long terms of service far from
home.
• Scipio's revolution changed the way of the legions.
• Rome was now to use proper tactics on the battlefield, rather than merely relying on the
fighting superiority of the legionaries.
• The Roman soldiers would be led by clever men seeking to outmanoeuvre their foe rather
than merely being lined up and marching at the enemy
• If Rome had the best soldiers it now should also acquire the best generals.
• The poorest classes in Rome were given the opportunity of a military career, veterans
given land, and the composition of the legions changed.
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During the First Punic War Rome became a naval power.
The corvus allowed Rome to use her legionnaires at sea (the first ‘Marines’).
During the Punic wars Rome allowed a wider range of men into the military: slaves;
prisoners; younger men; older men.
The Roman army was organised into divisions:
Hastati: front line in the attack; young men well armed.
Principes: more experienced soldiers in the second line of attack.
Triarii: veterans, were used as reserves and as the last resort. Had great experience.
Political conditions and problems in Rome, Italy and the empire
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After Cannae, for example, the loss of so many Roman leaders meant that offices were
held for longer periods of time.
Customs in regards to offices were ignored as the Punic wars dragged on.
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Roman generals began to use their success to influence the Roman people.
This meant that the Senate and nobility were out-maneuvered.
The Roman nobility, and senators such as Cato, began to distrust powerful generals.
Because the plebians had achieved a greater participation, the voice of the people became
very important in Roman politics.
However, the vote of the people could be precarious and change often.
provincial administration, taxation and tribute
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Provinces were Roman territories outside of Italy.
They paid tax to Rome.
They were ruled by appointed Roman governors.
Provinces had no control over foreign policy.
Governors were under the control of the Senate in Rome.
The law under which the provinces were administered was called:
Lex Provinciae = Rights & Responsibilities.
Tax from the provinces meant that Roman citizens themselves paid no tax.
Roman tax collectors in the provinces were the Publicani.
Governors often obtained their positions through bribes and corruption.
Corruption led to:
Over taxation of provincial populations.
High interest rates.
Bribes in courts.
Overall Rome brought to provinces the following:
Improved law and order.
Roads and public works.
Increased economic wealth and trade.
Better rulers, despite some who were corrupt.