Master Thesis
MSc in Marketing
Author:
Svetoslava Stefanova
Academic Supervisor:
Jessica Aschemann-Witzel
Qualitative study of women’s dietary habits and
nutritional preferences in the pre- and
postpregnancy period
Aarhus School of Business – Aarhus University
June 2011
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Table of contents
I. Abstract _________________________________________________________________ 3
II. Introduction _____________________________________________________________ 4
III. Literature Review _______________________________________________________ 6
1. Intrapersonal factors affecting dietary choice __________________________________ 6
1.1. Knowledge of nutrition requirements of pregnancy ___________________________ 6
1.2. Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy _________________________________________ 8
1.3. Attitudes towards weight gain in pregnancy _________________________________ 9
2. Interpersonal factors _____________________________________________________ 12
2.1. Income _______________________________________________________________ 12
IV. Methodology ___________________________________________________________ 16
V. Results ________________________________________________________________ 27
1. Pre-pregnancy period ____________________________________________________ 27
VI. Conclusion ____________________________________________________________ 48
VII. Implications for research and practice_____________________________________ 51
VIII. References: __________________________________________________________ 53
IX. Appendix______________________________________________________________ 63
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I. Abstract
Aim: The research aims to investigate what is parents’ behavior and what eating
strategies do they adopt in the period of transition to parenthood. It’s seeking to provide
understanding over how young women change their eating habits in the different stages
they go through between pregnancy and kindergarten and what factors are basic
determinants for their dietary choice (children, income, marketing campaigns, family and
friends etc.). It is also looking to show if the parents are consuming healthy or unhealthy
foods and what is the effect over the body weight.
Method: A qualitative method is chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep
insight into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to
parenthood. Interviews were conducted through e-mail with 15 mothers from Eastern
Europe.
Findings: The study showed that both pregnancy and giving birth bring changes in
women’s eating habits. The period of pregnancy is distinguished with transition to a
healthier diet, while the postpregnancy period is related with a turn towards unhealthy
and irregular eating.
Practical Implications: The results of the study can be used from weight and marketing
management in developing products and campaigns, which stimulate consumer behavior
towards healthy eating and proper weight gain and loss. An adequate diet of the mother
during the pregnancy will assure a healthy growing of the fetus and less risk of diseases
afterwards.
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II. Introduction
“Transitions are periods of change where there are shifts in lifestyles from one stage to
another” (Price et al. 2000). Pregnancy and the transition to parenthood mark a major
developmental period with important implications for parents, for the infant–parent
relationship and the infant’s development. Many researches has shown that the birth of a
child is often accompanied with more stress than any other developmental stage and is
considered as the most fundamental change of the family life-cycle (Cowan et al. 1985,
Priel & Besser 2002). The concept of transitions works in collaboration with that of
trajectories in the life course perspective (Devine C.M., 2005). A life course perspective
observes peoples’ behavior – what choices do they make about food and eating and what
are the most important factors, affecting those choices (Rozin P., 1990). People often
report that when some normal life transitions occur, they are making small adjustments in
their food choice trajectories to adapt to new food choice settings (eg passing on a
healthier diet when getting pregnant, eating more fruits and vegetables when becoming
parents, eating more fast foods when busy with the activities of school-aged children)
(Devine C. and Olson C., 1991).
“Some major turning points in food choice trajectories are related to major life-changing
events” (Devine C.M., 2005). Becoming a parent may well be related as a major lifechanging event. The transition to parenthood is one of the most significant events in
people’s life that can be experienced (Cowan C.P. and Cowan P.A., 1999; Polomeno V.
2006). Becoming a parent doesn’t affect only the eating habits of the person; the change
affects all levels of family life, including the relationship in the couple and the
responsibility the partners share in the family, daily activities and routine, expression of
intimacy between them, and professional involvement (Cowan C.P. and Cowan P.A.,
1999; Polomeno 2006). Parents might also change their eating habits in congruence with
child’s needs and become more responsible about nutrition and healthiness of the
consumed food. It’s been proved in many studies that marriage and parenthood can affect
the quality of the diet (Schafer R.B. and Schafer E., 1989; Roos G. et all 2001; Devine C.
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and Olson C., 1992), can bring more concerns for nutrition and health, motivate for food
choices (Fagerh R.A. & Wandel M., 1999), bring concerns for body weight and provoke
body dissatisfaction (Saltonstall R., 1993; Rozin P. et all, 2001). Parents might transit to
both healthy and unhealthy diet, depending on the influence of different factors. The
following research will study some of the factors, which mainly affect mothers’ eating
habits and the change in nutrition that they trigger.
A growing body of literature studies the healthiness of the food that children consume
and the increasing role they play in the family during the buying decisions process
(Christensen P., 2004; Nørgaard M. et al., 2007). Establishing healthy eating habits is
from a great importance and lots of emphasis is put on that recently, as an increasing
prevalence of childhood and adult obesity is observed (Hooker N., 2010). Parents shape
children’s perceptions and strongly determine their early choices with food and eating,
providing both genes and environments for children (Savage J. et all 2007). “Parents
select the foods of the family diet, serve as models of eating that children learn to
emulate, and use feeding practices to encourage the development of culturally appropriate
eating patterns and behaviors in children” (Savage J. et all 2007). Thus, as providing
healthy food for their children is being of a great importance for parents (Alderson T. and
Ogden J., 1999; Søndergaard H. and Edelenbos M., 2007), “they might be a large healthinterested target group among consumers” (Aschemann-Witzel J., 2010). They also might
provide nutrition to their babies through the food they consume during pregnancy.
Studying parents’ eating habits and how they change in time might be of great
importance for children’s health management
The current research aims to investigate what is parents’ behavior and what eating
strategies do they adopt in the period of transition to parenthood. It’s seeking to provide
understanding over how young women change their eating habits in the different stages
they go through between pregnancy and kindergarten and what factors are basic
determinants for their dietary choice (children, income, marketing campaigns, family and
friends etc.). It is also looking to show if the parents are consuming healthy or unhealthy
foods and what is the effect over the body weight.
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III. Literature Review
When women initially become pregnant, they often think that they need to consume a
significantly larger number of calories, to assure the growing of the fetus. “An adequate
diet during pregnancy maintains the nutritional status of the mother at a level that
conserves her own body tissues and contributes to the normal development and birth of a
healthy, full-term baby” (Nti C. et al. 2002). As many researches show, during the
pregnancy women often become aware of nutrition, seek health advice and change their
diets (Anderson A.S., 2001). The healthy development of the baby and maintaining a
good body weight may be an incentive and motivator for positive dietary change at this
time. It may also be a good time to target women with healthy food choices and give
them advises for a healthy eating.
Many factors might affect the dietary choice of the pregnant woman. Intrapersonal
factors are such individual’s characteristics that influence the specific food choices a
person makes, whereas interpersonal are such as income, relationships with family
members, child and friends etc (Fowles E., 2008). “They have a collective impact and
may interact with individual characteristics to influence healthy eating by pregnant
women” (Fowles E., 2008).
1. Intrapersonal factors affecting dietary choice
1.1. Knowledge of nutrition requirements of pregnancy
Pregnancy is a time of social, psychological, behavioral, and biological change in
women's lives. It is a time of life when women become more aware about health and
nutrition and their impact over the body, especially when those are related to the
outcomes of pregnancy (Olson C., 2005). Still many parents might lack the knowledge
what actually a healthy diet is. The aim of many health and nutrition organizations and
different authorities is to give advice and help mothers to achieve the birth of a healthy
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infant. Therefore they have developed specific recommendations for pregnant women
related to nutrient intake of food, the use of vitamin and mineral supplements, proper
weight gain during the period, and physical activity (Allen L.H., 2001; Inst Med, 1990).
Healthy eating during pregnancy is defined as the ability to maintain healthful eating
habits, which are related to purchasing, preparing and consuming healthy meals, as well
as making food choices, conformable to the nutrition requirements of pregnancy (Fowles
E., 2008). Food choices are considered healthy, when the mother is consuming
appropriate amounts of fruits and vegetables according to the recommended levels for
pregnancy, or unhealthy, when she is eating less than the recommended amounts of milk
or vegetable servings and consuming foods high in fat and calories but low nutrient
content (George G. et all, 2005).
While most pregnant women are aware that they must “eat healthy foods” to help the
fetus grow, few actually have a knowledge for the specific nutritional demands of the
baby, and therefore may not eat according to the requirements of the pregnancy and thus
maintain unhealthy diet (Fowles E., 2002). “Women may consume foods high in fat but
low in protein, vitamins, and minerals; the result may be adequate maternal weight gain
but inadequate nutritional intake” (Aaronson L. and Macnee C., 1989). Educating
mothers and giving them a good nutrition advice may help to clear up some of the
confusions they might have about the food. Many social and governmental campaigns are
working in that direction. However, a study conducted by Goody and his colleagues
(1994) found that health education can be misinterpreted or misunderstood by mothers
and that they often make their dietary choice in the context of their social, cultural, and
economic situation. The report concluded that despite mothers were highly aware of
healthy eating campaigns, many of them did not undertake any changes in diet in
conformity with government recommendations (Blincoe A., 2005). Mothers might feel
the period of pregnancy as liberating and start consuming foods according to their
cravings, which in many occasions might mean establishing an unhealthy diet. “They
might need stimuli or explanations other than those which simply rest on the idea of a
rational response to information” (Goody et all, 1994).
Becoming a parent is an important step in peoples’ lives and the change of their eating
habits might be a significant and stressful event. Therefore mothers should be educated
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about the effects of an unhealthy diet and awareness about healthy choices should be
build. Women’s perceptions of what constitutes eating healthy and what is the effect over
the baby may influence their consumer behavior. Some women change their eating habits
in pregnancy as they start to consume foods they consider “better to eat,” such as fruits
and vegetables, and limit salty snacks (Fowles & Gabrielson, 2005; Fowles et all, 2005;
Rifas-Shiman S. et all, 2006). Women who are eating better during pregnancy are aware
that they have healthy diets. They believe that in order to maintain these healthy habits
during the period, they have to consume protein and eat well-balanced meals (Fowles et
al., 2005). Factors that facilitate their healthy eating habits are family support, knowledge
of healthy foods, willingness to prepare separate meals for themselves, healthy food
choices on the market and eating meals at home. However, cravings, demands on time,
and nausea are barriers to healthy eating (Fowles et al., 2005). Identifying barriers and
facilitators to healthy eating is an important step in designing effective nutrition products
and marketing campaigns to improve dietary quality in pregnant women.
1.2. Nausea and vomiting in pregnancy
Nausea and vomiting are among the most common symptoms experienced by women in
pregnancy. These problems can have a profound effect over the mother’s daily life and
her family. They cause discomfort and affect her ability to eat and the individual food
choices she makes. Researches show that seventy to 85% of pregnant women experience
the symptoms of nausea and 50% report having vomiting, and 13% of pregnant women
report nausea and vomiting beyond 20 weeks of gestation (Jewel D. and Young G., 2003;
Lacroix R. et all, 2000;). It is popularly known as ‘morning sickness’, but many women
find these physiological symptoms persist throughout the day and even into the night
(Lacroix R. et al, 2000). This problem may affect the eating habits of the mother and she
might need to consider some changes in the food she consumes in order to prevent the
symptoms. The diet might become unhealthy, unvaried, irregular, which might also affect
the nutrition of the baby during the period. Common problems that also occur are
depression and relationship problems and many mothers might be fearful of another
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pregnancy (Volinski J. 2008). Nausea and vomiting are unpleasant symptoms, which
have effect on a woman's family, her work and relationships, but mostly on her eating
habits (Gadsby R. et al, 1993; Jewell D. and Young G., 2003). Studying the foods that
women can bear to eat during the period might help for some companies to create
products, mothers will be willing to buy.
Researches show that women mostly suffer from light symptoms of nausea and vomiting.
The most common advice given to mothers by specialists is to eat ‘little and often’ in
order to prevent hypoglycemia, which may exacerbate the problem (Tiran D. 2006). “In
cases of mild to moderate nausea and vomiting, women usually experiment with dietary
adaptations, eating only foods that appeal and do not exacerbate symptoms” (Tiran D.
2006). Anyway the problem may require a change in the lifestyle of the mother and her
diet in order to provide a healthy growing of the baby during the period.
1.3. Attitudes towards weight gain in pregnancy
All over the world the body is an important aspect of women’s personal self and a way to
communicate with others in society. “Inherent is the cultural notion of beauty and the
optimal size and shape of the body” (Helman C., 2000). Society reveres the slim ideal
and the pressure for women to maintain perfect body shape is extremely high (Garner
D.M. et al., 1980; Striegel-Moore R.H. et al., 1986). Throughout the life cycle women of
all ages experience weight concerns and body dissatisfaction (Stevens C. and Tiggemann
M., 1998). Being overweight might bring stress to women, as the body has become an
expression for success and achievement.
Life events might be related to weight change and mainly motherhood transition has a
great impact over the body. The body may change dramatically and that might affect the
women’s self perception, their relationships with the partner, society and the baby. After
giving birth women might not like the changes that occurred in their bodies and might
find that distressing (Walker L., 1998). Returning to their old body shape and weight may
be difficult and not always achievable (Jenkin W. & Tiggemann M., 1997). The issue
becomes more salient when society doesn’t place such a high value on mothering or baby
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care-taking as it places on thinness (Stern G. & Kruckman L., 1983). Many mothers may
therefore undervalue motherhood and pregnancy and de-value their “larger, maternal
body” because it is socially less accepted from esthetical point of view (Davis-Floyd
R.E., 1994). If women strongly value their body shape in the pre-pregnancy period, it
might be extremely difficult for them to accept the new role and the eating habits they
have to acquire during motherhood.
A few studies indicate that the weight and body shape changes during pregnancy are
liberating for some women and bothersome to others, and the difference may lie in the
pre-pregnancy dieting histories and weight characteristics of women (Genevie L. and
Margolies E., 1987). What was typical for women dieting for weight loss was episodes of
overeating during pregnancy, feelings of dissatisfaction about the changes which
occurred with shape in pregnancy, and plans to start a diet, following childbirth (Fairburn
C.G. and Welch S.L., 1990). Researches also show that body size from the period before
women get pregnant has been negatively associated with attitudes towards weight gain in
pregnancy and attitudes towards body shape in postpregnancy (Copper R.L. et al., 1995).
But mostly the risk of becoming overweight after the pregnancy in the long run increases
two to three times because of overeating and uncontrolled diet (Gunderson E.P. et al
2000). A study conducted by Thorsdottir and Birgisdottir (1998) showed that mothers
who gained more than recommended during pregnancy retained more weight in the
postpregnancy period than those who were in the norms. Reasons, mentioned as basic for
the weight retention are disappointment with body shape, surprise, symptoms of eating
disorders, reduced self-esteem, and depressive symptoms at 1 year postpartum (Jenkin
and Triggemann, 1997; Walker L.O., 1997; Stein A. and Fairburn C.G., 1996).
Becoming a parent has also been described as a ‘crisis’ (Leifer M., 1977; Pines D., 1978;
Osofsky H.J. et al., 1985) requiring struggle and adjustment to the new role for parents
who make the transition to maturity and growth. According to Nicholson (1999) the
postpartum period is heavy for women: they are happy to give birth and have a child and
in the meantime unhappy with the losses that this event brings to their lives. Pregnancy
indicates the beginning of a life stage in which women start considering the needs of their
child so important as their personal nutritional needs and weight goals (Devine C. and
Olson C., 1992; Gordon J.B. and Tobias A., 1984). “Transitions in family roles related to
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marital status and parenthood are perceived by women to be linked to changes in dietary
behaviors” (Devine C. and Olson C., 1991). It might be difficult for mothers to establish
regular eating habits as pregnancy brings disruption to routine, sleep and mealtimes
(Patel P. et al, 2005). In many studies women report to face problems with establishing
and maintaining a healthy diet (Stein A. & Fairburn C.G., 1996). Because of the demands
of the infant they may not have the same time as before, energy or freedom to utilize
previous strategies for weight control (Patel P. et al, 2005). During the postpartum period
vulnerable mothers might not be able to fight preoccupations with body shape and
weight, which intensify and may precipitate eating disorders (Welch S.L. et al., 1997).
Recent studies have shown that mothers, habitually dieting for weight loss before
pregnancy, gained more weight during that period. They also consider themselves more
irresponsible regarding weight during pregnancy (Abrams B. et all, 2001; Conway R. et
all, 1999). Such eating disorders are relatively common amongst women of childbearing
age with a prevalence of 1–2% (Fairburn C.G. & Beglin S., 1990). They are characterized
by extreme concerns about body shape and weight, which can greatly affect eating habits
of women and change their behavior during pregnancy (Patel P. et al, 2005).
Conway et all (1999) found that, despite similarities in nutrient intakes, those mothers
who were usually restraining themselves from eating in the pre-pregnancy period had a
higher proportion of weight gain, which was above the recommended amount. The
comparison was made with unrestrained eaters (Mela J., Rogers P.J., 1998). “ The data
suggests that repeated cycles of dieting and overeating may distort one’s ability to
perceive internal hunger and satiety clues” (US DH, 1996). In order to prevent mothers
from such a disruptive attitude, weight management should provide more information and
nutritional choices for women in the pre and postpregnancy period in order for them to
build and maintain a healthy lifestyle and good body shape.
The following research aims to study the eating behavior of women during the different
phases of pregnancy and examine their weight concerns. To understand what are
women’s eating habits and the strategies they use to cope with the new experiences
during pregnancy and postpregnancy period, their diets and exercise behaviors will be
observed. The results might help the weight management to create products, according to
women’s preferences for healthy and dietary food choice.
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2. Interpersonal factors
Interpersonal factors have strong influence over pregnant women’s ability to eat healthy
foods. Interpersonal determinants of healthy eating include income, interactions with
family members, friends and support from others.
2.1. Income
Low income is a social factor, which is commonly associated with unhealthy eating
(Finch B., 2003). The limited financial resources of women may prevent them from
providing healthy nutritional diet for the period of pregnancy (Berkowitz G. & Papiernik
E., 1993). Studies show that low-income pregnant women often consume less fruits and
vegetables and have a lower intake of lean sources of protein and whole grains—all
comparatively high-cost foods (Rogers I. et all, 1998; Wynn S. et all, 1994). This eating
behavior can lead to lower intakes of macronutrients, vitamins, and minerals (Rogers I. et
al., 1998), and can lead to low infant birth weight (Wynn S. et al., 1994). A study of 513
British pregnant women shows that in distinction from those groups with higher income,
low-income women are younger, have an increased probability of stillbirth or low birth
weight babies, and their dietary intake of nutritional food is poor, which means less
whole grain and dairy products, fruits and vegetables. One explanation for this is the high
cost of these foods (Wynn S. et all, 1994). Thus, woman’s ability to implement a
nutritionally adequate diet may be negatively affected by the income as it increases their
inability to provide healthy food (Berkowitz G. & Papiernik E., 1993).
Young mothers need to use their food budget carefully and buy food that can provide
more calories and can be easily stored; therefore many of their choices include
inexpensive, high on fat and carbohydrates foods (Stevens C., 2010). Depending on
whether these young women receive assistance from the government or not, they have
different personal experience with providing food for their families (Stevens C., 2010).
In several studies, young mothers reported that they were perceptive of public health
messages and understood the need to maintain nutritional diet, such as to increase the
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consumption of fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grain products (Collins M.E. et al,
2000; Stevens C., 2004; Stevens C.A., 2006). The reasons given for poor nutrition and
obesity in their lives included the high cost of fresh foods, cravings for unhealthy
products during some periods, lack of available supermarkets in the area they live, and
the need to rely on nonperishable high-density foods during times of food insecurity each
month (Center on Hunger and Poverty, 2002).
Furthermore, several studies also have shown that low income can lead to perceived
stress and depression among mothers, which are allied with riskier health and nutrition
behaviors in pregnant women and new mothers (Walker L.O., 1989; Walker L.O. et al.,
1999). Conversely, social support and family care is associated with more positive health
behaviors (Walker L.O. et al., 1999).
Low income might be a big problem for mothers living in countries from Eastern
Europe. They might face food insecurity or other difficulties to provide healthy and
nutritional diet for the baby and themselves. Still despite economic limitations and the
negative influence of stress, women might find different strategies to provide adequate
dietary intake for them and their children. Influenced by different factors they might find
resources to eat the required healthy foods and enact different health behaviors.
2.2. Marital status and social support
Marital status might greatly impact mothers’ eating behavior. Studies conducted in
Europe proved that after marriage women increase the consumption of snacks and
dessert, decrease alcohol (Deshmukh-Taskar P., et all, 2007) and also include more fruits
and vegetables in their diets (Billson H., Pryer J., & Nichols R., 1999) than unmarried
individuals. Some other studies found that it was easier for pregnant women with family
support to engage in healthy eating. Furthermore, single women or those who spend lots
of time alone, tend to eat frequently at fast food restaurants with friends. In part to fulfill
socialization needs, they often consume unhealthy high fat foods (Fowles E. et al., 2005).
A positive relationship has been found between “social support and positive health
13
practices in pregnancy, which include healthy eating patterns, exercise, and drug and
alcohol avoidance” (Cannella B., 2006). Yet, a general conclusion cannot be made.
Marriage and friendships might affect mothers’ diets in a positive or negative way. The
following study will observe the effect of those factors over the mothers’ eating habits
and the changes that they overtook under their influence.
2.3. Parents-children relationship
A life course perspective incorporates multiple concepts with importance for
understanding food choices. “These concepts include trajectories, transitions, turning
points, lives in place and time, and timing of events in lives” (Devine C.M., 2005).
Becoming a parent is an event that might affect both parents and children dietary
behavior. A healthy dietary intake of pregnant women is important not just for the mother
but it also has an influence on maternal and baby health, and thus may exert an influence
over the health of younger and older generations (van Teijlingen E. et al, 1998).
Adults make food choices for the whole family. “Parental attitudes must certainly affect
their children indirectly through the foods purchased for and served in the household,
thereby also influencing the children’s exposure and, hence, perhaps their habits and
preferences” (Wardle J., 1995). Hence there is an opportunity for healthy eating habits to
be established in early age. That is why it is vital parents to be well informed about
appropriate diets and targeted with healthy choices of food both for them and their
children.
“The conditions in which foods are chosen, the lives of the parents making the choices,
and the foods available to be chosen are constantly changing” (Devine C.M., 2005).
Significant social and economic trends, which affect the food choices include changes in
the conditions related with maternal employment and parental hours of employment
(Presser H.B., 1999; Bureau of Labor Statistics., 2005) and time spent preparing and
eating meals at home (Blisard N. et all 2002; Devine C.M. et all 2003; Jacobs J.A. et all
2001). Because of the busy daily routine, mothers might adopt unhealthy eating habits,
which they unconsciously might transfer over the child. According to Nielsen (2002), an
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increasing proportion of food that parents and children eat is prepared and consumed
away from home. The eating culture is drastically changing and this is related to changes
in food consumption, changes in nutrient intake, such as increases in calorie consumption
(Chanmugam P. et all 2003); “and a disproportionately high level of dietary fat, saturated
fat, cholesterol, sodium, and calories and a low level of fruits and vegetables, dietary
fiber, calcium, and iron, associated with meals eaten away from home” (Guthrie J.F et all,
2002).
Recently studies prove that marketing campaigns significantly influence parents’
choices for food. Pregnant mothers might be especially vulnerable as they might tend to
eat according to cravings and personal taste. As the baby absorbs some components from
the food that the mother consumes, unhealthy eating might have a negative effect over
the child’s nutrition and growth.
Parents are a major mediator of children’s access to food and determine their eating
habits after the birth (Gier S. et al, 2007). Parents influence children’s dietary behavior by
the types of foods they buy or allow their children to buy (Gier S. et al, 2007). Sometimes
parents might adopt unhealthy eating habits and influence negatively to their children by
increasing the consumption of fat and sugar during the day. Fast food is a type of food
that is marketed directly both to adults and their children and often preferred when the
family is out. Studies show that the consumption of such food is steadily increasing
despite the fact that adults’ frequency of dining in fast-food restaurants is associated with
increased body weight and obesity (French A., Harnack L., and Jeffery R., 2000; Pereira
A. et al. 2003). Factors influencing the decision of heaving such unhealthy meals might
be cravings and preferences. The busy daily routine of the parents might also be a factor
for the increasing consumption of that kind of food. Mothers, who have been at work the
whole day, might not have the time to prepare hot and healthy dish afterwards. This
might predetermine bad eating habits and unhealthy diet for the whole family.
As parents interact with children daily, they have the opportunity to improve their food
choices (Birch L.L. & Fisher J.A., 1998). “Family members can influence the food
preferences of their children by providing healthy food choices, offering multiple
opportunities to prepare and eat new foods, and serving as positive role models through
their own food choices” (Kalich K. et all, 2009). Children might also affect parents eating
15
behavior through the foods they request. By requesting food products they determine the
choice for the whole family as, food products, which are most often requested by
children, are most often bought on request (Ward S. and Wackman D., 1972). Research
suggests that fast-food marketing influences children’s food preferences and what they
repeatedly ask their parents to buy for them (Hastings G. et al. 2003; Institute of
Medicine 2006b). If parents buy fast food for their children and constantly go to such
restaurants, they might not be able to resist the temptation and increase their consumption
of this type of food. The same can be said for any product requested by the child. Thus,
children might also affect parents’ dietary choices and predetermine both healthy and
unhealthy eating.
The following research will study the relationship parents-children and how their eating
behavior is affected from each other. It will look also on the factors, which influence their
choice and preferences for food, including the consumption of fast-food and advertising.
IV. Methodology
Qualitative research is very appropriate when the aim of the research is to give a more
profound understanding of an issue, including the routines and interactions of the
respondents in everyday life (Carson D. et al., 2001; Flick U., 2009).
The central ideas guiding the method are mostly what distinguish the qualitative research
from quantitative research. According to Flick (2009) the main characteristics of the
qualitative study are “the correct choice of appropriate methods and theories; the
researcher’s reflection on their research as part of the process of knowledge production;
and the variety of approaches and methods” (Flick U., 2009).
“Appropriateness of methods and theories”
Quantitative methods like experiments or surveys cannot be used in every area of
research. A problem that might arise with this type of research is the inability to identify
16
and isolate variables to be used in the experiment. Or it might be really hard to assure big
enough representative samples for the research, as the phenomena can be studied only in
a few cases. All these situations require the use of qualitative methods. (Flick U., 2009)
According to Flick (2009), for the study of complex issues is good to be used qualitative
methods. The crucial factor for choosing the exact method is the object under study.
There is no formulation of variables, but the objects are represented in their everyday
context. Therefore the fields of study of the qualitative methods are to show how the
respondents interact in their everyday life. A typical feature of the methods is openness
towards their objects. The aim is to discover and develop something new, not to test what
is already known as with quantitative research. “Also, while in quantitative research the
validity exclusively follows abstract academic criteria of science, in the qualitative
research it is assessed with reference to the object under study. The central criteria here
depend on whether the findings are empirically tested or whether the appropriate methods
are selected and applied. It depends also on the relevance of the findings and the
reflexivity of proceedings”. (Flick U., 2009)
Qualitative research studies the knowledge and routines of the participants. “It
demonstrates the variety of perspectives on the object and starts from the subjective and
social meanings related to it” (Flick U., 2009). It takes into account that because of the
different perspectives and social status of the participants, they have different viewpoints
and experience which affects the results of the study (Flick U., 2009).
“Reflexivity of the researcher and the research”
As Flick states, unlike quantitative research, qualitative methods take the information
gathered from the interviews with the respondents as clearly formulated part of
knowledge instead of considering it an interviewing variable. A minus of the qualitative
research is that it carries the subjectivity of the researcher and the interviewees, which
can affect the results of the study. The field process includes the following steps: the
researcher reflects on the objects’ actions, observes their impressions, irritations, feelings
17
and so on, forms interpretations and document them in research diaries or context
protocols (Flick U., 2009).
“Variety of approaches and methods”
Various theoretical approaches form the qualitative research and “their methods
characterize the discussions and the research practice” (Flick U., 2009). The first starting
point is subjective viewpoints. “A second string of research studies the making and
course of interactions, while a third seeks to reconstruct the structures of the social field
and the latent meaning of practices” (Flick U., 2009). The history of the qualitative
research and its development in time presupposes this variety of approaches, which
evolved partly in parallel and partly in sequence. There is no single method, but many
different approaches may be used according to the research questions and the research
tradition (Flick U., 2009).
The appropriateness of methods is a central feature of the qualitative research. For almost
every procedure it is possible to define for which particular research object it was
developed. The leading point is that for the purpose of the study there is no other suitable
method. Unlike the quantitative research, where everything that cannot be investigated by
particular method is excluded from the research, with the qualitative research the object
and questions under study represent the point of reference for the selection and evaluation
of methods. The research is also strongly directed to everyday life; it aims to investigate
participants’ everyday knowledge and experiences. The interviews are situated in their
everyday context; the conversations are advisory and stimulate the communication (Flick
U., 2009).
“Accordingly, qualitative data collection, analytical and interpretative procedures are
bound, to a considerable extent, to the notion of conceptuality: data are collected in their
natural context, and statements are analyzed in the context of an extended answer or a
narrative, or the total course of an interview, or even in the biography of the interview
partner” (Flick U., 2009).
According to Flick (2009), during the research process the greatest attention is paid to the
variety of information reported by the interviewees. Another important thing is the
18
capability of the researcher to reflect the answers of the objects under study in the best
manner. His actions and observations during the investigation are considered an essential
part of the research and every source of personal opinion and influence should be
eliminated. Moreover the researcher should master the techniques of the qualitative
research, which include the understanding of complex relationships, rather than just
explaining the situation by isolating single relationship, such as “cause-and-effect”.
“Understanding is oriented, in the sense of methodically controlled understanding of
otherness, towards comprehension of the perspective of the other party” (Flick U., 2009).
In order for this perspective to be fulfilled and to allow the respondents as much freedom
as possible, the collection of the data in qualitative research should reflect the principle of
openness (Hoffmann-Riem, 1980): the questions are formulated in an opened manner and
the procedure of observations is not strict but is conducted also in an open fashion (Flick
U., 2009).
Qualitative research is mainly text-based discipline despite the growing importance of
visual data as a source such as photos or films (Flick, 2009). “It produces data in the form
of texts- for example transcribed interviews or ethnographic fieldwork notes – and
concentrates, in the majority of its interpretative procedures, on the textual medium as a
basis for its work” (Flick, 2009).
Qualitative and quantitative research can be combined as they are compatible with each
other Wilson (1982). However, qualitative research needs the use of different approaches
when manipulating with the data. It can use a narrative interview or a questionnaire, for
example (Flick, 2009). Qualitative research covers a specific area of the relation between
issue and method (Becker H.S., 1996). “Furthermore, only in a very restricted way is it
compatible with the logic of research familiar from experimental or quantitative
research” (Flick, 2009). Quantitative research is a very strict process and can be neatly
arranged. It is remarkable with a linear sequence of the conceptual, methodological and
empirical steps. The steps are going consecutively and can be treated separately. A
mutual interdependence of every single stage of the process can be observed in
qualitative research and this should be taken into account much more (Glaser and Strauss,
1967).
19
According to Flick (2009) the traditional version of quantitative research has the
following steps: first we construct a model of the assumed conditions and relations of the
phenomena. Then, we derive hypotheses, which are operationalized and tested against
empirical conditions. “The concrete or empirical “objects” of research, like a certain
field or real persons, have the status of exemplary against which assumed general
relations are tested” (Flick, 2009). The aim is to assure representativeness of the study. A
further aim is to discriminate separate variables from the complex relations and to test
them. The object of research is following the theories and methods (Flick, 2009).
While the research process of the quantitative method is more linear and theory oriented,
the qualitative research observes more the data and the field under study, running away
from theoretical assumptions. Main difference is that the theories should not be assigned
to the subject under study. The researcher “discovers” (Flick, 2009) and creates them
while he is working with the information in the field. The choice of the respondents is
made according to their appropriateness to the studied topic. They shouldn’t form “a
representative sample of a general population” (Flick, 2009). The aim is not to isolate
separate variables from the complex relations but rather to increase complexity and to put
more meaning into them. Methods also have to be applicable to the issue under study and
their choice have to be made very carefully (Flick, 2009).
Thus, qualitative method is chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep insight
into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to parenthood. The
method is a combination of e-mail interviews and new media (Facebook). Interviews
were conducted with 15 mothers from Eastern Europe.
There are so many practical benefits of incorporating computer-mediated-communication
(CMC) into qualitative research designs (Mann C., 2000). Some of the most important
gains are the following:
20
“Extending access to participants”
According to Mann (2000), computer-mediated-communication is a medium that allows
the researcher to pass the boundaries of time and space, which might limit face-to-face
research. The following options become possible:
Computer-mediated-communication gives opportunity for wide geographical access. It
also makes easier the communication between colleagues who may be on different sites
or in different continents (Cohen J., 1996). The Internet allows cross-cultural collations
of subjects because, as a global system, has the access to local newsgroups in many
countries and in many languages (Coomber R., 1997). CMC also enables researchers to
get in touch with respondents, difficult to contact with by regular face-to-face means of
communication, like mothers at home with small children (Mann C., 2000).
Other positive feature of the CMC is its appropriateness for some sensitive personal
subjects, which participants might be hesitating to discuss face-to-face with a researcher
(Mann C., 2000). “Not only does computer-mediated-communication have the potential
to defuse the embarrassment that might be present one-to-one, but it also allows groups to
speak about sensitive issues in an open and candid way without the fear of judgement or
shyness that characterize face-to-face groups” (Sweet C., 1999). It also allows some
researches to be conducted in politically sensitive or dangerous areas (Lee R., 1993) and
gives access to people in places which have closed or restricted access such as hospitals,
prisons, military (Mann C., 2000). Another good practical usage is that researchers may
join a group which comes together with a special interest in mind, such as chat rooms,
mailing lists and conferences (Comley P., 1996).
As Mann states, one of the most powerful advantages of Internet use for qualitative
research is that the costs are reduced to minimum. With traditional face-to-face
interviewing, both researchers and participants have to cover time and travel costs. The
participation of the respondents often depends on the travel and time costs – the less they
are, the bigger the participation. A traditional research budgets usually cannot cover the
expenses for trans-cultural participation and cross-cultural comparisons. Conducting
online survey eliminates the costs for travel.
21
Significant advantage of the web-page-based and email surveys is their increased reach as
they cross borders of time and space (Bachmann et all, 1996; Mehta R. and Sivadas E.,
1995). Another major advantage in the use of email is its increased speed and this was
showed in Comley’s (1996) study directly comparing email, postal mail and Web survey
options. Schaefer and Dillman’s (1998) study also affirmed that the returning of email
questionnaires is faster than their paper analogous. Furthermore, email offers
considerable savings, as it excludes paper and it is cheap to send (Mann C. and Stewart
F., 2000).
According to Mann (2000) a problem that can occur is with finding e-mail addresses of
respondents. The easiest way to cope with that is to ask people directly for contact, since
there is not yet a “fully developed global directory of e-mail addresses” (Mann C., 2000).
A further problem, which might arise, is with the correctness of the electronic address. It
can be misspelled or incomplete, which prevents from delivery of the message. And even
if the contact list and the technology are available and accurate, individuals might not
respond to the e-mail survey. Such problems occur as lack of enthusiasm from the
subjects under study; they might be busy and lack the time to respond or just people
might not check their e-mails regularly. This might substantially affect the response rates
and slow down the research process (Mann C., 2000).
The design of the qualitative study is another challenge in front of the researcher. He
should be able to find the balance between interview methods, carefully considering the
purpose of the study. In structured interviews the researcher is trying more to control the
interview. He uses standardized questions and the technique of contrasting the responses
(Mann C., 2000). “It is in non-standardized interviews that the focus moves from the preformulated ideas of the researcher to the meanings and interpretations that individuals
attribute to events and relationships” (May T., 1993). Both methods differ by level of
qualitative depth that they offer. Depending on, which interview form is chosen by the
researcher, participants have more or less freedom when answering the questions (May
T., 1993). “Working online, less structured interviews with individuals are usually
conducted by e-mail, or by “chatting” one-to-one using real-time software” (Mann,
2000).
22
1. Design of the study
As the purpose of the following study is to gather information about the daily routine and
eating habits of women and how motherhood affects their diet and lifestyle, less
structured e-mail interviews were chosen as a method. This qualitative approach enabled
fast and detailed data gathering from respondents, situated in Eastern Europe. The whole
process took approximately 20 days, which can be considered as relatively short time,
considering the study group – mothers with small children. All participants were asked in
advance to participate in the study and the e-mail questionnaire was sent only if their
agreement was received.
The contact list includes mothers and pregnant women, gathered through personal
connections, as well as by using the participants’ own friendships with other mothers.
The age of the respondents is between 20 and 35. They are all married and live with their
husbands. Two of the mothers are still pregnant, six of them have small babies under one
year old, one is with twins at the age of one year and a half and the other six mothers
have children older than two years. Excluding the woman with the twins, three others
indicated the presence of a second child in the family. Four of the participating parents
are working and the other eleven are on a maternity leave at the moment. Most of them
take care of the child by themselves and don’t use child care services. All of the
respondents are educated – college or university and are currently employed except one.
The information is summarized in Table 1.
During the process of gathering the e-mails the respondents reported to feel more
comfortable with their mother language. Therefore the questionnaire was made in two
forms – English and Bulgarian versions, as the respondents were mostly with Bulgarian
nationality. They were asked to choose and fill in one, according to their preferences. At
first the questionnaires were send for pretesting to five women. They answered in few
days and no significant problems with the questions were determined. Therefore the
original forms were kept and the questionnaires were sent to the others subjects under
study from the contact list. Those five women were included in the research. All the data
was gathered for approximately twenty days. Two mothers were contacted again with
23
additional questions about their diet during the pregnancy period. Only one from all 15
mothers answered the English version and the data was more incomplete and
unsystematic. The data gathered from the other questionnaires was full, representative
and systematic. The overall information helped for the elaboration of a complete
descriptive analysis.
Since the change of the eating habits with the transition to motherhood were of interest,
we asked questions in the areas: 1) way of eating before, during, after pregnancy and in
the current moment; 2) lifestyle behavior; 3) weight gain during pregnancy, recovery
after giving birth, body image and satisfaction with their own diet and weight; 4) fastfood consumption, healthy eating and the effect of the advertisements over the mothers’
diets. All the gathered data was analyzed through comparison. The analytic procedures
included: 1) reading each participant’s e-mail interview and summarizing the data; 2)
reviewing each participant’s data to identify change in eating habits over time and finding
key points in the areas of interest of us; 3) comparing summarized cases- describe
variations in the data and note relationships among the cases; 4) identifying emerging
themes; 5) describing the cases (Devine C. et all, 2000). Drawbacks of the method are the
cultural specificity of the respondents and the subjective assessment of healthiness of
their dietary behavior.
Table 1: Participants
Age in years:
23
27
26
26
30
32
31
24
34
Age of each child in
years:
2
Twins
1,5
6
2
9
months
Not born yet
1,5
months
3,5
+secon
d child
Assessment of
distribution of household
tasks between yourself
and partner (if) in
percentage:
50:50
55:45
98:2
50:50
70:30
80:20
50:50
70:30
Hours or work per week,
you:
0
0
40
0
0
0
0
168
Hours or work per week,
partner:
40
55
120
40
40
50
40-50
168
Hours of child-care per
child (all regular
arrangements, such as
institutional child-care,
babysitter and
grandparents):
0
12 per
day
40
0
0
0
Educational level, you:
bachelor
Master
College
Bachelor
Bachel
or
Bachelor
International
Economic
Relations
2 masters
Bachel
or
Educational level,
partner:
College
College
College
College
Bachel
or
Bachelor’s Engineer
Bachelor
Bachel
or
Occupation (or last
position), you:
waitress
accounta
nt
life
insurance
agent
Reporter
unempl
oyed
Investor
Relation
Director
Expert
marketin
g
manager
Operat
or in a
firm
Occupation (or last
position), partner:
Military
man
procurato
r
driver
driver
engine
er
Guard
Quality
control
Expert
Labor
inspect
or
Age in years:
23
29
34
30
23
8 hours
per day
30
25
25
Age of each child in years:
2
5
months+
second
child
Unborn
5
months
2,5 years
5 months
50:50
10
months+
second
child 6
years
70:30
Assessment of distribution of
household tasks between
yourself and partner (if) in
percentage:
70:30
60:40
60:40
50:50
60:40
Hours or work per week, you:
0
0
20
0
0
30
0
Hours or work per week,
partner:
40
40
40
0
60
50
40-50
Hours of child-care per child
(all regular arrangements, such
as institutional child-care,
babysitter and grandparents):
0
0
40
0
0
40
0
Educational level, you:
college
bachelor
bachelor
Bachelor
Colleg
e
Bachelor
bachelor
Educational level, partner:
College
College
bachelor
Bachelor
Colleg
e
Bachelor
College
Occupation (or last position),
you:
waitress
Bank
Manager
Business
Consulta
nt
Operator
in Call
Center
Shop
assista
nt
School
Teacher
Products
demonstrator
Occupation (or last position),
partner:
Military
man
Driver
Private
Business
Lawyer
Distrib
utor
Constructor
Distributor
26
V. Results
The qualitative analysis of the mothers’ responses led to the conclusion that the life event
of becoming a parent brings a change into women’s eating habits and their body image.
All of them distinguish different phases through which they have passed and make a
comparison between their dieting during the periods. In the following analysis the phases
are named and thoroughly described, as well as all the factors that influenced the
respondents and their satisfaction with body shape and eating.
1. Pre-pregnancy period
Many mothers from the study group describe the way they were eating before they got
pregnant or got married. They had concerns about their body weight and used to watch
closely the type of the food they ate:
Before the pregnancy I used to eat low caloric foods, lots of salads, yoghurt and muesli,
less fruits, meat and eggs in order to keep my body in shape.
One says:
I ate healthy before the pregnancy… I looked so good at that time.
Other women took the advantage of some coping strategies in order to look and feel
good:
I used to sport a lot… I had a time for that in contrast to now.
I didn’t eat breakfast before, as I didn’t feel the need of eating so much food….just a
fruit and a coffee in the morning was enough. Later in the day, some light meals…not
that much food
A few respondents stress on the fact that the busy life of a working woman before and the
daily routine didn’t actually let them think so much about food. They don’t define their
27
diet before pregnancy as healthy, but as satisfying according to their body image and selfconfidence:
Before the pregnancy I used to skip so many feedings, my eating was irregular; I was
smoking a lot and all that because of the work. Of course, I knew it was unhealthy, but
I’ve never been bothered about excess weight. I was satisfied with my diet. Now I look in
the mirror and I see all that weight that I gained….but still there is a good reason…
During the pre-pregnancy period women’s attitude shows concern about body shape and
weight and each of the interviewees found her own strategy to cope with the problem,
according to her own case. The eating habits of most of the mothers cannot be defined as
healthy during the period.
2. Pregnancy period
The pregnancy period is connected with positive change in eating habits by most of the
women. Becoming a parent might be triggering some feelings of concern and
responsibility for the child and its growth and mothers adopt new eating behaviors. They
start eating more fruits and vegetables, stop the coffee and dizzy drinks, no alcohol and
cigarettes during the period, though some of them report to be extensive smokers and
quitting was really hard. They started drinking more fresh juice and water and reduced
the consumption of sweets:
Before the pregnancy I didn’t eat oatmeal, I used to have my dinner late and practically
all kinds of food, but knowing that I’m expecting a baby changed everything- bit by bit I
was getting interested in the healthiness of the foods, like preservatives and stabilizers; I
started eating more fruits and vegetables, mostly organic, and increased the consumption
of water, tea and juice.
28
Many of the respondents indicate a positive change in their regimen of diet. The
expectancy of a baby provokes a regular eating in most of the mothers under study. All of
them, who didn’t have breakfast before, start including it in their daily menu. They don’t
skip any of the obligatory feedings, though it was a practice before the pregnancy. Their
perceptions about nutrition are totally influenced with the occurrence of the life changing
event- the baby.
My eating was so irregular in the period before pregnancy – my first consumption of
some food during the day was around 2-3 pm in the afternoon and it was some unhealthy
staff. The baby changed my perception for nutrition and lifestyle.
I don’t remember to have ever had any breakfast; I was smoking a lot and drank lots of
coffee. Not anymore…
Other mothers reported that their daily diet didn’t change significantly. They kept eating
the same way as before the pregnancy and increased only the amount of the consumed
fruits during the day. The reasons might be that they considered their way of eating as
healthy and didn’t see the need to undertake any change:
I have always been eating three times per day; my food includes plenty of meat, rise,
vegetables, and pasta. I have also been avoiding all kinds of dizzy drinks; I just started
eating more fruits between the main feedings.
Another reason might be that they didn’t want to give up their daily routine and have
been afraid of gaining weight during the pregnancy. The stress of losing their body shape
might have affected the mothers and their way of eating during the pregnancy:
I didn’t change a lot…no breakfast, lots of coffee during the whole day. I only included
lots of fruits and vegetables because it’s healthy for the baby. Still I consider my diet
better than before the pregnancy.
Some of the women reviewed that the pregnancy has turned to be a liberating period for
them according to eating and diets. They significantly increased the amount of the
consumed food and the numbers of feedings during the day. One reason might be that
29
they didn’t actually eat regularly and enough before the pregnancy and the transition to
parenthood made them more responsible about their regime and nutrition:
I’ve never been eating a lot; just enough to satisfy my needs….but when I understood
that I’m expecting the little precious, I started to eat regularly and as healthier as I
could.
Still other reason might be that the mothers just felt liberated from all restrictions about
weight and body image and saw the period of pregnancy as a moment to let themselves to
their cravings and needs of food. The thought that it’s good for the baby and that’s
enough a reason to eat whatever they want has been the leading for those mothers. They
didn’t have to worry or feel the pressure of maintaining their weight anymore:
At the beginning I was trying to maintain my regular diet and to eat healthy but the
more the months were passing, the more food I was eating. I couldn’t resist – I was
consuming everything my body was craving…fast food, sweets, chips. I gained 30 kilos
and I still cannot get back in shape.
It was awful; I simply couldn’t stop eating….
Still, except these cases of uncontrolled eating by some of the respondents, most of the
interviewees see the phase of the pregnancy as a period when they passed to a healthier
eating. Even those mothers who didn’t make any radical changes in their diet, say it
became more nutritious in a way, because they were watching closely what was good for
the baby and excluded the inappropriate food. As a whole the transition to parenthood
had a positive effect over the women during this particular phase, maybe because they
felt responsibility not only for themselves but also for a second life.
The symptoms of nausea and vomiting affected significantly the eating habits of most of
the women in the study group. Though some of them didn’t really change their diet with
the occurrence of the life changing event, the months through which they felt the nausea
provoked the appetite for foods, not normal for the mothers’ daily routine:
30
I had nausea the fist months of the pregnancy and I could hardly stand strong smells of
food. I had a craving for very sweet and sour things like cakes and pickles. I perceived
the principle: Eat whenever and whatever I can, as much as possible.
I’ve never been eating fast food before, but during the period it was obligatory for me to
include in my daily diet pizza, duner kebab, cake, lemons. And these are foods I couldn’t
eat before.
Mothers just left themselves on their cravings and consumed everything they liked.
Others were just looking for some kinds of food that their body was accepting and they
could eat during this period. That in a way made their diet unhealthy both for them and
the baby:
I couldn’t stand any cooked dishes, only fast food and bread…that was all I was eating
for the first three-four months.
One mother shares: I couldn’t eat normally at all…only sandwiches with cheese. The
vomiting was so strong that I’ve lost 3 kilos during the first months. Later on, during the
sixth month of the pregnancy I got heart-burns, which again disturbed my regular diet…I
was eating mostly mandarins and yoghurt. All these restrictions didn’t let me gain a lot
or eat healthy during the pregnancy.
Thus the symptoms of nausea and vomiting led to a change in the eating habits of the
mothers who were affected and practically made their nutrition unhealthier. Those
women who didn’t suffer the symptoms report having a healthy and wonderful
pregnancy. They felt fit and consumed all the recommended foods, which were good for
the baby, thus trying to assure it properly growing. They report to have increased the
amount of the daily meals, which might have been more than the child actually needed,
but this led to a calm and easy pregnancy.
I was eating good and that led to healthy and slowly gaining of 18 kilos during the
pregnancy. I was feeling wonderful.
31
I didn’t have any symptoms of nausea… I had a big appetite for different kinds of
food…I’m still pregnant and I really feel good with my diet.
3. First months after giving birth- breastfeeding
Most of the interviewees changed slightly their diet during the period of breastfeeding
compared to the time of pregnancy. They report to have excluded foods of their daily
menu like spices, cabbage, chocolate, coffee and dizzy drinks because all these were
provoking colic for the baby. They were looking for solutions so the baby wouldn’t feel
any discomfort. But these cannot be defined as significant changes for them. They kept
the healthy diet acquired during the pregnancy period.
My doctor advised me to keep the same rules of eating as during the pregnancy and I
was doing it …...I just limited the consumption of eggs and cheese…but nothing so
special.
Those who didn’t have a healthy or regular diet during the pregnancy share to have tried
to eat that way during the breastfeeding, thus to assure everything needed for the baby.
They acquired completely new nutrition habits. Some noted their own diet was directly
related to the nutrition demands of their baby through breastfeeding and they preferred to
postpone their own body needs for their child.
I was eating more often on small portions….drinking more water and juice. I tried to
maintain good nutritional levels and eat healthily.
I’ve missed the coffee so much during the period, but I was trying to eat nourishing
food….everything was worthy for my little precious baby.
Some mothers report a significant change in their lifestyle and diet only during the period
of breastfeeding. They didn’t eat differently during the pregnancy comparing with the
time before that, but the first months after the baby was born affected their routine:
32
I actually increased the amount of the consumed food only during the ten months of the
breastfeeding. That’s the only period when I was eating fast food, sweets like croissants
and waffles; I was drinking lots of water and juice. After that I got back to my normal
regimen; I didn’t feel the need for so much food any more.
With the end of the breastfeeding the mothers share to have returned back to their bad
habits about eating. While the period of feeding the baby with milk stimulated them to eat
healthy and to take care of the consumed foods, its end gave them the liberty to start
eating whatever they wanted again. They might have been feeling restricted in their
choices during the period, which to have caused the opposite effect afterwards.
After I stopped the breastfeeding I was eating everything I can…
I had a healthy diet during the breastfeeding, but after that…..
As a whole it can be concluded that the biggest part of the mothers had a healthy diet
during the breastfeeding period. They report that they knew the baby was absorbing
everything they were consuming and therefore were extremely cautious about the food
they were eating. Their instinct of mothers might have developed even more, as women
who didn’t undertake any changes during pregnancy started a healthier diet now.
3. After breastfeeding-back to routine
Women report that after the breastfeeding period a complete turn-down in their diet
occurred. They completely gave up the healthy and regular eating of the previous period.
They started skipping some meals and led themselves to the cravings for all kinds of
food. This is the period when mothers report to be the least satisfied with their diet. Some
of them started working again, which led to the consumption of more fast food, more
stress while eating and less time for body shape care. Women share that with the return
back to the routine, their diet became unhealthier.
33
4. Weight management
Concerns about weight have taken a major part in the interviewees’ answers. With the
appearance of the life changing event – the pregnancy, most of the mothers report a
transition to a healthier and regular diet. They include more vegetables and fruits, milk
and meat. They start consuming more food, in a bigger variety, watch out for the nutrition
of the products, all in the name of the baby. Still other women leave themselves to their
cravings and appetite for unhealthy nutrition. The maximum “Eating for two” has been
perceived by not so small part of them. Some say that they were just hungry too often,
others share:
I don’t like this maximum, but practically that was my way of eating during the
pregnancy.
My doctor was scolding me because of that way of diet…I gained too much weight, but
I liked to eat.
One mother says that she doesn’t want to admit it, but it’s true that her eating habits
became according to that maxim. That led to dissatisfaction with their nutrition and body
weight. While during the pregnancy mothers didn’t feel almost any worries, because they
ate in the name of the baby, after the birth, the feelings changed:
…now I feel so worried because of this excessive weight, I still cannot get back in
shape.
I didn’t feel worried by the fact that I was gaining weight. It was such a pleasure to see
how my tummy was growing. The depression and unhappiness came when the child
turned one year and a half.
The comparison between their body shape before and after the pregnancy brings the
biggest dissatisfaction. Women cannot accept the change that occurred with the transition
to parenthood:
34
I’m still trying to loose 3-4 kilos but it’s so hard. I’m not so satisfied with my body now.
No, because I have always been skinny and good looking and now this is too much – all
this weight.
Apart from those women who feel dissatisfied with their weight during and after the
pregnancy, half of the mothers report to feel very happy with their body.
I knew that I was gaining within the normal limits and I didn’t feel any stress about
that. And now I’m happy with my appearance too.
I didn’t feel happy about the 12 kilos more, but neither had I felt worried. Now I’m even
skinnier than before.
The though about the baby’s health and nutrition preoccupies the women’s concerns
about their body. They accepted the new role of mother, which is much more important
than the body shape.
I have excessive weight, but I cannot think about that now…the baby is more
important…I’ll think about my body later…..maybe some sport.
As a result the study showed that the transition to parenthood brought weight concerns
and dissatisfaction to half of the women during the phase of the pregnancy. They couldn’t
accept the change in their body. The other part of them was either satisfied, or just
accepted the situation as normal for the period. The thought about the baby and its health
and nutrition justified everything. Maybe some women realized the effect of the life
changing event over their bodies on a later stage of the pregnancy and started looking for
different ways to fight the problem.
35
5. Coping strategies
Women always find some strategies to fight with excessive weight, no matter how busy
they are. But with the occurrence of the baby they may not have the same time, energy or
freedom to utilize previous strategies for weight control because of the demands of the
infant. The following study showed that some mothers didn’t have the need to do
anything to cope with the gained weight during the pregnancy. It was a matter of good
metabolism or body structure that they returned their previous shape very fast:
My baby is 10 months old and I’ve already lost 15 kilos without any restrictions or
dieting. My structure and metabolism help a lot for that result.
I don’t have problems with my weight. It helps me a lot that I’m always running after
the children. They take all my energy.
Maybe I need to do some sports but not to lose weight.
Many mothers regret of not having the time to do some sports. They see the need for
themselves to take more care for their appearance, but the motherhood is a lot of time
consuming and puts some limits in front of them. The mothers share:
Motherhood is a holdback for me…I don’t have even a second free time for
myself…before I was going to fitness, taking care of myself, but now I cannot find time
for anything.
I find time for fitness only once a week, because the children make me really busy. But
what is bad for my diet is that I always eat the kids’ leftovers.
I’m still breastfeeding and I cannot find time for sports or keep any diets.
When the baby comes into parents’ lives it becomes the first priority for them and
mothers are unable to spend the same amount of time for themselves as before. Their
daily routine totally changes and the care for the body shape and appearance steps aside.
Some women might not be happy with the new circumstances and they look for other
ways to cope with the problem. They rely on restrictions in food like no sweets and fast
36
food, more fruits and vegetables to return their previous weight. Still others cannot fight
with their cravings and appetite for food. They report being dissatisfied with their weight
but the weakness to resist to all the temptations that unhealthy diet can offer is stronger.
They share:
Motherhood is not a hold-back; I just miss a strong will.
Staying at home is really bad for me, because I’m always going around the fridge. My
laziness and weak will prevent me from achieving good results.
In order to retain their weight in normal borders, some interviewees report that their
eating during the pregnancy wasn’t much- just enough to satisfy their and the baby’s need
of food.
I wasn’t on a diet but I was watching closely what I’m eating- It was just enough to
satisfy my hunger.
Thus mothers were trying to find different coping strategies during different periods of
the motherhood to fight their dissatisfaction with weight or were just accepting the
weight gain as something normal. Some were planning to start exercising or dieting on a
later stage of their life, but it seems that they have accepted their new role of mothers,
way of eating and appearance as they were. From the interviews can be concluded that
the women adjust themselves to the new daily routine that the motherhood brought and
are happy with it.
6. Influence factors
Women mentioned many factors that influenced their diet during the different phases,
which were both internal and external. Such a prominent factor is the partner. For some
mothers he plays a significant role in the change of their eating habits with the transition
to parenthood. The husband directs the wife to a healthier diet in the name of the baby.
37
He has always been eating healthy in contradiction to me…and after I got pregnant he
led me to this better kind of eating. He is so interested in the quality of the products that I
consume gives me advises and cooks for me. We spend lots of time together during the
day and maybe that affects also…I’m positively surprised.
The husband exerts a positive influence on the mothers’ eating habits, according to what
choices of food she should make, what is nutritional and not, but also predisposes her to
eat bigger meals.
He works a lot and when he comes back at home he insists to have plenty of nutritional
food on the table – always something with meat….kind of heavy dinner.
While there are husbands who affect their wives’ daily eating habits, most of the men are
staying inactive and don’t exert any influence over the family food choices. Women
report of being alone most of the time and that presupposes the preparation and eating of
food depending on own preferences:
My husband is not at home most of the time and doesn’t affect my diet in any way.
He is working a lot and that actually contributes for our high standard of living and the
plenty of food that we consume. But therefore he doesn’t spend so much time at home and
affect my eating. I cook whatever I like.
One mother reports that her husbands’ eating habits has changed according to hers after
the birth of the baby.
We are so busy around the small precious. I’ve always been eating something light
whenever I had time and that regimen is not new for me.…except during the
pregnancy…...now I conform my meals according to the baby but I didn’t expect my
husband to do that…and he is helping me a lot. He is eating when the baby lets us and
because I don’t like cooked food, he eats whatever I do…some salad or a soup.
38
A final conclusion can be maid that the biggest part of the husbands doesn’t affect the
eating behavior of their wives. The reasons might be that the couples do not spend so
much time together or just because the women are the more active part in the family.
With the birth of the baby, it becomes another factor that often influences the mothers
eating behavior. As this woman reported both her and hers husband diets became
irregular and unhealthy with the transition to parenthood. The care for child is so time
consuming for them, that they almost forget their own needs. And if she is familiar to that
regimen and way of eating, for her husband that’s a complete change of the lifestyle.
Another mother reports that her regular eating depends on the mood of her child.
If he is calm and let me I can sit down and eat a regular meal as I’m used to, but if he’s
not….I just skip it.
Still another shares that what affects her diet is the habit to finish the leftovers of her
children after they are done with the meal. Or when mothers buy some fast food for the
children, the temptation to eat becomes stronger and they just cannot resist.
Another interviewer reports to conform the cooking for the family to the taste of her
child.
I don’t watch on the healthiness of the food if she likes it.
More than a half of the women being under study are on a maternity leave and still take
advantage of the free child’s kitchen that the Government assures. The food is prepared
according to the standards for the children’s healthy eating. Thus in most of the cases the
mothers cook only for themselves and the husbands and they report to conform that
mostly to their own taste.
The other relatives or members of the family do not exert almost any influence over the
couples’ eating habits. Most of the interviewers report to be living alone and they have
only some irregular visits, which doesn’t significantly affect their diets. One woman
shares:
39
When my mother comes at home she stays for couples of days and then we definitely have
to eat healthy and regularly. But after she leaves….
Women also mention that meeting with friends affects their healthy diet. An afternoon
coffee is always accompanied with a cake, an ice-cream or cookies and being with
somebody else increases the temptation for such kind of food. Also mothers report that
they often buy themselves fast food when they are with a friend. This does not happen if
they go out alone or with their husbands. Thus friends influence negatively the healthy
eating of the mothers and presuppose the consumption of more fast food and sweets,
which leads to weight gain and dissatisfaction with women’s own diet.
Still social connections have also a positive impact over mothers. They gain lots of
knowledge and exchange information about what is healthy and unhealthy for the baby
and themselves through the participation in some online and personal social groups. They
educate each other, exchange advices when having problems during the pregnancy or
with the baby and find coping strategies for the different phases.
By sharing our own experiences to each other, we find solutions of many problems. I
didn’t have anybody to ask at the beginning and the other mothers were giving me so
many advices about the baby.
When I don’t know something I ask my pregnant friends…how they cope with the
problem, what effect does some product have over their body and weight…it is really
helpful.
Social connections, no matter personal or in a group, influence to a high degree mothers’
decisions about choice of food or products. They help them to make discrimination
between healthy and unhealthy either for the baby, or for themselves. The women share
to have their eating habits affected by the contacts with the others in the group, because
they often exchange recipes and cooking advises too. Still face-to-face meetings are
characterized by eating more cakes and cookies, some fast-food which they usually try to
avoid.
40
Women report to acquire unhealthy habits of eating also on their working place. The
stress of the working environment and the busy daily grind presuppose irregular feeding,
snacking and the consumption of more sweets and fast-food, either alone or in the
company of colleagues.
I always have fast food for lunch, because I’m busy and in a hurry….we just go and
grab with the colleagues. I’m never calm, often interrupted by something…I don’t like it;
I know I’m eating unhealthy.
I’m always in the run while having my lunch, I don’t have time to sit down and
relax….it’s some sandwiches, easy to carry.
This work is just so much; it’s good if I have five minutes for some fruit or chocolate
bar. I drink coffee all day long; I wouldn’t stand it without it.
Some of the workplaces offer a lunch that is already prepared with a wide variety of
meals, where women can have a salad or a soup. Still some of the interviewees connect
the canteen with fatty food and too big portions that they cannot handle.
I prefer to bring food prepared at home, it’s not that fatty and it’s healthier.
The working environment is a great indicator for women’s lifestyle and affects their
eating habits. The busier the mothers are at the office, with the child and with the
housework, the less healthy they eat and cook. They start relying on frozen food,
something, which can be prepared fast and easy, neglecting the content and nourishment
of the meal. Such diets and eating habits can easily lead to diseases and obesity, either for
the parents or for the children.
7. Satisfaction with diet
The current diet of most of the interviewees include lots of meat, rise, potatoes, pasta,
fruits and vegetables, dark bread, muesli, cheese, yoghurt, milk. They try to prepare their
41
meals on their own and to bring as much variety as possible. The culture of the
respondents imposes some beliefs about healthiness. One mother says:
We always start with a soup, then a salad, the main course, which is a meat with
potatoes or rise and vegetables and at the end a dessert. I consider this an appropriate
and healthy meal for the grown ups, as well as for the children.
Most of the women like that they consume lots of fruits and vegetables during the day
and dislike the excessive consumption of sweets and chocolate. They report they have the
wish to change that fact in the future, as eating so much cake and sugar is seen unhealthy.
I love sweets and the children eat lots of candies because we always have at home. We
should change that.
What is also liked by the women under study is the fact that they don’t restrict themselves
about food. None of them admits to be on a real diet for loosing weight and they all say to
be satisfied by that fact. Only one mother shares that once per month she doesn’t eat
anything for 24 hours and relies on that way of dieting to maintain her body shape.
I don’t like it… all the restrictions…no food during the whole day is kind of heavy.
As a whole the mothers are satisfied with the way they are eating at the moment, no
matter if they are still pregnant or they gave birth. Those who already have children admit
that the period of pregnancy was the one when they ate the healthiest diet and attained
bad eating habits after that.
My regimen now became irregular and unhealthy; it wasn’t like that during the
pregnancy.
42
Still this fact doesn’t affect the feeling of satisfaction with the own diet. Maybe that is
due to the fact most women consume the products they like, eat according to their taste
and cravings and do not report of having obsessions for weight loss and restrictions.
8. Fast food consumption
Another topic that was under interest of the following study was the consumption of fast
food from the mothers and the influence that advertisements or some other factors have
over them. To introduce the women into the topic, questions about their behavior and
choice of products were asked. Most of the women reported to have no affection to any
particular product and that advertisements do not influence their consumer behavior.
I never pay attention on an ad showing food products.
I don’t really crave any food or try new products, even if I see them on the TV.
Still there were some interviewees who reported their consumer choice was affected by
advertisements.
I often choose what to buy according to what was seen on the TV, but I’m also usually
disappointed.
I think ads always affect our consumer behavior, even if we sometimes don’t realize
that.
Then the mothers were directly asked about their fast food craving and if it increased
with the occurrence of the life changing event. Almost half of the women reported that
with the transition to parenthood they had bigger appetite for fast food and chocolate,
especially during the phase of pregnancy. They also report to have tried to avoid this type
of food, being aware of its unhealthiness and bad effect over the body.
Yes a lot… I always liked these but I used to avoid them.
I used to avoid the big shopping centers, where it’s really easy get pizza or hamburger.
43
Yes, the craving definitely increased, especially during the first months of the
pregnancy.
I started to eat lots of chocolate and cakes during the pregnancy, some sandwiches…
Interviewees shared that the appetite for fast food appeared especially when they were on
the street among other people, which were consuming such type of food. Sometimes even
the smell can trigger the craving and make mothers buy for themselves.
When I’m out for a walk and see somebody eating pizza, I really cannot resist, I should
have one piece.
When I’m out, I usually eat them on my own.
Friends and work are also a strong influential factor according to women. Being in the
company of someone else or just the busy daily routine presupposes eating of fast food
and unhealthy dieting.
Whenever I go out with friends, we visit such type of restaurant and it happens kind of
often.
Whenever I’m in a hurry or at lunch time with a colleague…that’s the best food we can
grab.
A situation when mothers were unable to resist the temptation was when they were out
with their children. Women share that kids often want fast food or some cake and usually
the requests are being satisfied. But being around, the mothers appetite for the same kind
of food increases and they buy for themselves too. Thus sometimes the influence of the
children might affect parents’ healthy eating. The inability of the mothers to refuse kids’
requests leads to bad in nutrition diets for the whole family.
Other factors that the women pointed as being influential over their consumption of fast
food were the period of pregnancy and their cravings.
This type of food is tasty for me; there are no any particular factors.
….the need to eat something really unhealthy
44
Right now pregnancy does mostly.
Some mothers report that the marketing campaigns have a strong effect over their buying
behavior of fast food. One of them reported on an earlier question that ads are affecting
also her choice of any type of food. That is not the case with the other interviewees.
Though they might buy some type of fast food as a result of a good marketing campaign,
that doesn’t mean this is a typical consumer behavior for them about all kinds of
products.
A general conclusion can be maid that almost all women consume fast food influenced by
different factors and in different situations. Family, children, friends and work are from
the most common given reasons that the interviewees report to affect their craving for
this type of food. Marketing campaigns and advertising cannot be considered as a
significant influential factor over mothers’ consumer behavior. They report to rely mostly
on their taste and cravings.
9. Discussion
From the results can be concluded that eating habits change to great extend with the
transition to parenthood. Women passed through different phases which were
distinguished from them as the pre-pregnancy period, pregnancy, breastfeeding and the
period after breastfeeding. Motherhood triggered both healthy and unhealthy changes.
The period of pregnancy was distinguished as the one, when women were eating the
healthiest. A possible reason might have been that mothers felt responsible not only for
themselves, but also for the life of the baby. A common tendency was an increase of the
consumed food, more fruits and vegetables between the main feedings and regulation of
the regimen of eating of mothers. No matter if and what changes the women undertook,
they almost all see the period of pregnancy as a transition to a healthier diet. Exclusion
makes the period when mothers had the symptoms of nausea and vomiting, as this is the
time when most of them report eating lots of fast food, chocolate, unvaried and unhealthy
meals.
45
In comparison with the pregnancy period the pre-pregnancy period is characterized with
taking more care about the weight and personal appearance. Women use different coping
strategies to keep their body shape as it is. Some describe their eating behavior as
irregular, consuming less food; others rely on a healthy diet and sport. As a whole the
period cannot be characterized with a healthy eating behavior by the women.
The biggest part of the mothers had a healthy diet during the breastfeeding period. They
report that they knew the baby was absorbing everything they were consuming and
therefore were extremely cautious about the food they were eating. With some exceptions
where women gave themselves to their cravings for innutritious eating, the period can be
described as healthy in food habits. Still mothers see the pregnancy period as the one
when they maintained the best diet.
The period after breastfeeding is characterized as the unhealthiest according to eating
habits period. Women return back to their normal life and eating or report to stop the
healthy diet from the previous period, which has a negative influence over their body.
Some of the mothers return to their daily routine, start working again, which brings
irregular feedings, lots of fast food and sweets. That’s the period during which
interviewees are the least satisfied with their diet.
The transition to parenthood brought lots of weight concerns to mothers. Half of them
had serious worries about their body and the kilos they gained during the phase of
pregnancy. Therefore they took advantage of different coping strategies in order to
prevail themselves from weight gain above the standard or took steps to loose it
afterwards. The other half were either happy or just accepted the change that occurred.
They looked more on the reason than on the effect that it caused. Maybe some body
concerns actually occurred among these mothers on some later stages, but during the nine
months of pregnancy the satisfaction with weight prevailed.
Women’s eating behavior was affected by some influence factors. As such were
mentioned the husband and the child, friends, family and the work atmosphere. With
some exceptions, most of the mothers reported that their husbands didn’t affect their
eating behavior and they were the one who took the decisions about food choices in the
family. The child was a significant influential factor for the mothers. The transition to
motherhood brought the feeling of responsibility for the second life and aim for healthier
46
eating. With its birth it kind of ruined the regimen of eating of some mothers, as they
were having their meals according to the mood and regimen of the child. Still more than
half of the mothers kept preparing the food for the family according to their own taste and
needs.
Interviewees didn’t think the family affects in any way their eating habits. Friend exerted
more influence over them by visiting different restaurants and coffee shops and thus
increasing the consumption of unhealthy food. The other way friends influenced the
mothers was through social groups, by giving advises and directing each other to
healthier eating.
The working environment exercise negative influence over the eating habits of the
women. The stress of the working environment and the busy daily grind presuppose
irregular feeding, snacking and the consumption of more sweets and fast-food, either
alone or in the company of colleagues. Women also report that the role of working
mothers puts the cooking on a back position and they start relying more on fast and
frozen food also at home. Thus children are affected as well and acquire the unhealthy
diet of the parents.
Mothers don’t consider the income as a significant factor, affecting their eating behavior.
During the pregnancy most of the women report having a healthy and nutritional diet,
despite the fact that some of them are unemployed and others are on a maternity leave,
which considering the situation in the country is relatively low. The issue requires
additional, deeper research, which wasn’t the aim of the following study.
The research of the fast food consumption among the mothers showed that the biggest
part of them are eating this type of food and thus affect the diet of the children too. Kids
also affect their parents’ eating habits by requesting pizza or hamburgers and women
report being unable to repress their appetite and buy for themselves. Factors as friends
and work are also with a major significance. Marketing campaigns and advertising have a
minor influence over the mothers. Only a few of them reported to have ever been affected
by such kind of factor. They report to rely mostly on their taste and cravings.
47
VI. Conclusion
A qualitative method was chosen in conducting the following study to gain deep insight
into parents’ eating habits and their change of lifestyle with transition to parenthood. The
method was a combination of e-mail interviews and new media (Facebook). Limitations
might have been that the interviews were conducted only with 15 mothers from Eastern
Europe. Thus the small number of the respondents does not allow generalizing the
conclusions, especially on some topics. In addition women were from the same
geographical area, which restricted the conclusions to one cultural group. However,
extensive information was gathered about mothers’ attitudes with the occurrence of the
life changing event.
“Transitions are periods of change where there are shifts in lifestyles from one stage to
another” (Price et al. 2000). The concept of transitions cannot be discussed separately
without that of trajectories in the life course perspective (Devine C.M., 2005). A life
course perspective can be used to observe people’s food and eating choices, how they
construct and change them and what factors in the food and eating environment affect
those choices (Rozin P., 1990). People often report that when some normal life transitions
occur, they are making small adjustments in their food choice trajectories to adapt to new
food choice settings (Devine C. and Olson C., 1991). In congruence with the theories, the
following study showed that parenthood has a major effect over the lifestyle of mothers.
Pregnancy affected women’s daily and eating habits, diet quality; concerns for nutrition
and motivation for food choices, as well as body weight concerns and satisfaction. As
proved in other studies mothers pass to a healthier diet during the phase of pregnancy.
They change their eating habits during the period as they start to consume foods they
consider “better to eat,” such as fruits and vegetables, and limit salty snacks (Fowles &
Gabrielson, 2005; Fowles et all, 2005; Rifas-Shiman S. et all, 2006). Factors, which
facilitate their healthy eating habits, are family support, knowledge of healthy foods,
willingness to prepare separate meals for themselves, and eating meals at home. (Fowles
et al., 2005). The biggest influence over them exerts the awareness that the baby absorbs
everything the mothers take with the food. Pregnancy marks the beginning of a life stage
in which women think not only for their personal nutritional needs and weight goals, but
48
also for the needs of their child (Devine and Olson, 1992; Gordon and Tobias, 1984).
However, cravings, demands on time, and nausea are barriers to healthy eating (Fowles et
al., 2005).
The weight management has a great implication for the mothers. The study proved the
results of other researches that pregnancy brings concerns for weight gain and half of the
women experience body dissatisfaction. After giving birth women might not like the
changes that occurred in their bodies and might find that distressing (Walker, 1998). “
Returning to their old body shape and weight is difficult and not always achievable”
(Jenkin & Tiggemann, 1997). Many of the mothers used to take extensive care for their
appearance in the pre-pregnancy period and the thought that they’ll never look as before
is very stressful. The postpartum period is hard for women: they are happy to give birth
and have a child and meanwhile unhappy with the losses that this event brings to their
lives. (Nicholson, 1999). Mothers rely on different coping strategies to fight the excessive
weight. Some of them do sports, others use dieting, and still others learn to accept their
new body look and feel satisfied with their eating habits.
The postpregnancy period is connected with a down turn in dietary behaviors. Mothers
transit from nutritious and regular eating to totally unhealthy diet. The main factors are
work, friends, but mostly the child. As Patel (2005) also concludes from his research, it
might be difficult for mothers to establish regular eating habits as pregnancy brings
disruption to routine, sleep and mealtimes. Because of the demands of the infant they
may not have the same time as before, energy or freedom to utilize previous strategies for
weight control (Patel P. 2005). This leads to irregular eating and unhealthy diet for most
of the mothers under study.
Low income is a social factor, which is commonly associated with unhealthy eating
(Finch, 2003). The limited financial resources of women may prevent them from
providing healthy nutritional diet for the period of pregnancy (Berkowitz & Papiernik,
1993). Studies conducted by Rogers (1998) and Wynn (1994) show that low-income
pregnant women often consume less fruits and vegetables and have a lower intake of lean
sources of protein and whole grains—all comparatively high-cost foods. In our study,
women report to have consumed lots of fresh fruits and vegetables, meat and rise during
49
the pregnancy. Most of them are on a maternity leave and take advantage of the offered
from the Government Child Kitchen. From the data can be seen that some of the families
are with low income, but they don’t report it as factor, which affects their eating. No
significant relationship was found between the income of the respondents and their
unhealthy diet at certain phases of the pregnancy.
“The conditions in which foods are chosen, the lives of the parents making the choices,
and the foods available to be chosen are constantly changing” (Devine C. 2005).
Significant social and economic trends, which affect the food choices include changes in
the conditions related with maternal employment and parental hours of employment
(Presser H.B., 1999; Bureau of Labor Statistics., 2005) and time spent preparing and
eating meals at home (Blisard N. et all 2002; Devine C.M. et all 2003; Jacobs J.A. et all
2001). The following study showed that after giving birth mothers are enormously busy
with children, work and household that they increase the consumption of unhealthy food
and meals, easy to prepare. Their diet becomes irregular. They also adopt habits to buy
take away and fast food for themselves, as well as for their children. Thus, the busier the
daily routine of the parents, the unhealthier is the diet of the whole family. Children were
also affecting the eating behavior of the mothers through the foods they were requesting.
Buying unhealthy products for their kids increased the cravings of the women for that
kind of food. In congruence with many researches, which show that marketing influences
parents’ eating habits, the following study couldn’t find a significant relationship between
it and the consumption of any kind of food.
The changes that occurred into mothers’ lives and were reported into the study can be
synthesized into the following:
-
Women differentiate separate phases during the pregnancy as each one is
characterized by different eating habits and diet quality.
-
Before pregnancy the biggest part of the women are highly cautious about the food
they are consuming and care a lot about their body shape and weight. Still their
eating habits cannot be defined as healthy and nutritious.
50
-
The nine months of pregnancy are connected with transition to healthy eating. The
phase is considered the healthiest in diet and nutrition from the biggest part of the
mothers.
-
The symptoms of nausea and vomiting provoke drastic change in women’s diet.
Those who experience them pass to unhealthy and unvaried eating.
-
During the breastfeeding period most of the mothers maintain a healthy diet
considering the fact that the baby is absorbing everything they are consuming.
-
The examination of the daily routine of the mothers after the breastfeeding phase
shows that a total turn down occurs into their eating habits. It’s reported a transition
to unhealthy diet from most of the women. Factors, influencing these choices of
food are the child and the family, friends and work environment.
-
The pregnancy brought both satisfaction and dissatisfaction with gained weight.
Half of the women under study, who didn’t accept the change in their body took
advantage of some coping strategies to fight the problem.
-
Fast food is consumed by almost all of the women. Different factors affect their
choice for such kind of food. Among the most common are friends, children,
family, going out. Advertising is not considered an important factor, which can
influence women’s consumer behavior.
VII. Implications for research and practice
Additional research that draws on a life course perspective should be conducted. It should
examine the eating behavior and changes in diets in the long run. The transition to
motherhood is an important event and the outcomes of the change in the eating habits
should be seen. Chronic diseases, obesity, and other problems which arise with the
mother or the child in the long run should be studied (Olson C., 2005). A factor, which
was only mentioned, but has a significant impact over women’s eating habits and should
be a subject of another research, is low income.
51
Weight management is of a great importance for women. Therefore the topic should be
studied in depth. Eating disorders, obsessions for weight control and habitual overeating
during pregnancy might be of interest as such attitudes endanger the health of the baby.
The results of the following study have also implications for the practice. Transition to
motherhood is a sensitive event, which demands lots of knowledge about health and
nutrition. Pregnancy is a time, when mothers are closely connected with different
institutions and organizations, working in the particular sphere (Olson C., 2005). Thus, it
might be easier to advise women about healthy eating and proper weight gain during the
period. Mothers might need advises how to maintain regular and healthy diet in the
postpregnancy period or on the work place, as these were reported as factors extremely
affecting their healthy eating and body shape.
The results have also implications about weight management. Women are preoccupied
with child, work, household, which might lessen the time spend for body shape care and
sports. They might need more advises how to gain weight according to the
recommendations during pregnancy and how to lose properly in the postpregnancy
period. Food marketing can also contribute for that by offering healthy and low caloric
products, which are tasty for the mothers.
52
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4. Allen L.H., (2001), Pregnancy and lactation in: Bowman B.A., Russell R.M., eds.
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5. Anderson A.S., (2001), Pregnancy as a time for dietary change Proc Nutr Soc p. 497–
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6. Aschemann-Witzel J., (2010), Parent’s eating habits during transition to parenthood.
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8. Becker H.S., (1996), “The epistemology of qualitative research” in R. Jessor, A.
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IX. Appendix
1. Questionnaire
Questionnaire for healthy parents
Thank you for taking the time to fill in the questionnaire. The aim of the study is to
look at how parents change their eating habits in regard to eating healthier or less
healthy than before in the different stages they go through during pregnancy and
kindergarten. It’s also looking to show what products and services do parents
choose and what kinds of marketing communications affect their buying behaviour.
The results might be used in the food marketing or help giving advice to future
parents. Please answer the questions as honest as you feel comfortable to. Your
answers will be treated with complete confidentially. The survey will take
approximately one hour. Please return the filled in questionnaire on the same e-mail
address.
Part 1 – today’s daily routine and food
1. Would you please shortly describe your daily routine- what you do at which time
throughout the day on an average weekday?
(If there is no “average day”, describe the most common day at the moment? Or explain
why that is not possible. Answer only the questions that are applicable to you.)
When do you get up?
What do you do throughout the morning?
When do you leave the house?
Where do you go, and how? (Child-care? Work? Breaks? Shopping? Appointments?
Sport? Eat-out? …)
What else do you do throughout the day?
When do you come back home?
What do you do throughout the evening? (Children? Work? Leisure time? …)
When do you go to bed?
2. Would you please describe the food that you eat on a typical weekday at the
moment. What kind of meals/snacks and drinks do you eat throughout the day.
Please try to narrate it and give me a full picture of the situation – when you eat,
where you eat, with whom you eat, how and why you do that, and how you feel like
in that situation.
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(Give circular picture of day with hours as an aid)
Where, when, what, with whom and how you eat and drink for … and why in that way?
- Breakfast - first and second?
throughout the morning: Break and Snack,
- Lunch,
throughout the afternoon: Break and Snack, maybe cake, fast food
- Dinner – (first with children, second after bringing children to bed)?
- Maybe snacking, maybe drinks in the evening
- How do you feel like, in this eating/drinking situations that you have described?
- Does the company of your family affect your eating habits? ( in a way that makes you
eat more, try different kind of foods, eat less healthy foods?
Part 2 – past’s diet and eating behavior
3. Would you please try to recall your diet and eating habits of the last years?
Please think of what you usually ate and drank throughout the day, in the time
before (your first) pregnancy and in the different stages of becoming a parent. If
you try to compare that – what do you think has changed, and why?
(Give time-line picture of becoming parent with phases and events as an aid)
Answer only those questions which are applicable to you.
What were your diet and eating habits like, when:
You did not have children (before pregnancy)?
You were pregnant?
- at the first three months of pregnancy/ during the symptoms of nausea and vomiting
- later in pregnancy
Your (first) child was still a baby, drinking (breast-) milk?
Your (first) child ate food but had its own food (puree, baby-food from glasses)?
Your (first) child ate the same food as you?
You had your second child?
4. What else do you think has also led to changes in your own diet and eating habits
in the last years?
(Give picture of a parents´ surrounding as an aid, use subquestions to explain)
Which influence has for example brought a change?
How healthy and fit you are?
Your partner (e.g. his work and contribution to family life, his eating habits)
The support or influence of the extended family and friends/ family visits
Your work (as e.g. working hours and working environment)?
64
The child-care (as e.g. hours of child-care, the facilities, the time-frame and how it is organized)
Your home and the area where you live (space and equipment in home, recreational facilities,
shopping facilities and centers near home)?
Part 3 – healthiness of changes and today’s diet and eating habits
5. If you look at the different stages from when before you had a child and
throughout all the stages of becoming a parent: when do you think that you have
eaten in the healthiest, and when in the least healthy way?
Part 4 – Satisfaction with today´s diet and eating habits
6. Please think about the diet and eating habits that you have at the moment. Are
there things that you are unhappy and dissatisfied with, and are there other things
that you are happy and satisfied with?
Is there something that you dislike about the diet that you eat at the moment, or the way
you eat food at the moment?
Are there things you would like to change?
Is there something that you like about the diet that you eat at the moment, or the way that
you eat food at the moment?
Are there things that you are pleased with?
What coping strategies do you use to deal with some of the influences that becoming a
parent had on your diet and eating habits?
7. Would you please describe how your weight/ body shape has changed during and
after the pregnancy?
Do you feel satisfied with your body now?
If not,
what strategies do you apply to change that?
Does the child prevent you from
taking care for your own diet?
What kinds of food do you tend to avoid now in order to keep your body shape? What did
you avoid during the pregnancy?
What kinds of food do you prefer now and during the pregnancy?
What do you think about the maxima – “eating for two”? Did you eat that way during
your pregnancy?
65
Part 5 – fast food marketing
8. Would you please describe what your attitude towards fast food is and do you
regularly consume such kinds of food (sandwiches, hamburgers, pizza, chips,
chocolate etc.)?
Does your craving for such foods increased during the
pregnancy?
When, where, in what situations, with whom do you consume such kind of food?
9. Would you describe what kinds of factors affect your food choices?
Does advertising affect your preferences or do children and family requests such
kind of food.
Please shortly describe some advertising or situations not connected with the daily
routine that made you break your diet.
11. Personal questions
Age in years:
Age of each child in years:
Household-members, apart from yourself
and child(ren):
Assessment of distribution of household
tasks between yourself and partner (if) in
percentage:
Hours or work per week, you:
Hours or work per week, partner:
Hours of child-care per child (all regular
arrangements, such as institutional childcare, babysitter and grandparents):
Educational level, you:
66
Educational level, partner:
Occupation (or last position), you:
Occupation (or last position), partner:
Thank you very much for taking the time to complete the questionnaire.
Please send it back to the following e-mail: svetoslava_ss@yahoo.com
If you have any other comments, please add them below:
2. Contact list
Evgenia Kovacheva – bebo_sn@abv.bg
Cvetelina Uzunova – ceckauzunova@mail.bg
Emilia Yonkova – eyonkova@yahoo.com
Emilia Boneva – emi_ganeva@abv.bg
Stanislava Radeva – choki_@abv.bg
Velina Georgieva – velina_1984@abv.bg
Marina Yordanova - mjstojanova435@gmail.com
Yovka Dimitrova - ilonessa@abv.bg;
Yana Boshkova – yana_boshkova@abv.bg;
Galena Ivanova- galena.80@abv.bg;
Daniela Stancheva - daniela_stancheva@yahoo.com;
Tanya Slavova - tanya23@abv.bg
Mariyana Stancheva - mariyana_85@mail.bg;
Neli - neli_kz@mail.bg
67
Tsveti Boicheva - tsveti_boicheva@yahoo.com;
Sonia Sarabqn- sonia_sr@abv.bg;
Zori - zoribori@gbg.bg
Tanq Karabelova - taidi@abv.bg
Tania Daneva - kreizito_tania@abv.bg
Elena Koleva - elis.k@abv.bg
Milena Dimitrova – mimikoserkata@abv.bg
Snezhka Popova-Koleva – snezhka@gbg.bg
68