Introduction to Clinical Practice with
Individuals, Families, and Groups
CP 759
Fall 2012
Trudy Zimmerman
trudyz@bu.edu
617-353-7719
264 Bay State Road, Boston, MA 02215
Office Hours by appointment
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This foundation course teaches the clinical skills needed at various stages of the helping
process (i.e., engagement, assessment, goal-setting and treatment planning, intervention and
termination), whether the client is an individual, group, or family. Clinical methods are
highlighted—what the social worker purposefully does as s/he works with individual clients and
larger systems (e.g., groups, families, communities) and how the social worker reacts and
interacts in the helping relationship. The helping relationship is seen as requiring collaboration
between clinician and client and the strategic use of clinical skills (e.g., strengthening rapport,
assessing needs and strengths, reaching for feelings, identifying goals and expectations,
setting limits) throughout the process. The helping relationship is also based on sound social
work values and ethics, positive regard for the full range of human diversity, and dedication to
social and economic justice.
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While the course emphasizes ways that clinicians can help clients accomplish goals, it also
emphasizes the value of the helping relationship as a vehicle for client growth. Because a
major hallmark of effective social work practice is the ability to reflect on one’s interactions with
individual clients and larger client systems, this course highlights the need for students to develop
the capacity for professional self-reflection (i.e., the ability to observe and critique one’s actions
in relation to clients, supervisors, and colleagues and the integration of personal and
professional “selves”). Core concepts of individual, family, and group intervention, case
management, short-term work, and crisis intervention are introduced. Individual methods focus
on developing and maintaining the helping relationship. Family methods focus on joining with the
family as an entire system when multiple members are available, or when only an individual is
available, intervening with the individual while considering influences and implications for the
family system. Group work methods concentrate on group types, group formation, and group
development.
URBAN CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
BUSSW’S urban mission provides the context for clinical practice taught in this course. Urban
environments represent a rich cultural mosaic of people and social institutions, but also
generate complex social problems that have existed since the emergence of cities. Since its
inception, the social work profession has focused on providing clinical services to urban
dwellers. Starting with the Industrial Revolution, the needs of urban populations have
influenced the mission, values, and direction of social work and remain central to our practice
today. Work for social change is mandated by the social work code of ethics, and clinical social
workers are committed to working with client strengths to address the bio-psycho-social
problems endemic to urban communities.
By and large, urban problems are related to population density, geographical size, and
economic impoverishment. There are problems in the city and problems of the city. Generally,
problems in the city are difficulties experienced by the society as a whole—drug addiction,
HIV/AIDS, easy access to weapons, mental illness, poverty, racism, sexism, ageism, and other
forms of discrimination. Problems of the city are difficulties unique to urban communities—
deteriorating physical structures, limited or costly housing, pollution, increased risk of
communicable diseases, and improper disposal of waste and various pollutants. Commonly,
urban ecologies share particular properties described below that must be considered in
rendering clinical services to clients living in urban settings.
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Cities have population density in a small geographic space. The pace in cities
may be faster and interactions more impersonal than in suburban or rural areas.
Cities are rich in diversity and multiculturalism.
Cities are absorption centers for immigrants and refugees with diverse ethnic
backgrounds and languages.
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Cities often have enclaves and neighborhoods based on class, race, ethnicity,
religion, and/or sexual orientation. They may have clearly segregated residential
areas.
Cities have complex social, political, and physical infrastructures that provide
services to residents.
Cities have numerous educational, medical, cultural, religious, social, and
recreational resources and institutions.
Cities are hubs of employment in the corporate and industrial complex, as well as
representative of changing employment trends.
Thus, this urban focus provides a context for social work education and practice at BUSSW.
COURSE POLICIES, EXPECTATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS
Attendance:
As developing professional colleagues, students are expected to attend all class
sessions. Furthermore, students are expected to inform the instructor in advance
of any absences. Failure to attend class sessions is likely to have a negative
effect on students’ course grade.
Given that missing one class session in an off-campus course has significant
implications regarding a student’s ability to successfully complete the course,
students must notify instructors by phone or email of any impending absence,
indicating how they will obtain material from the missed session. Students who
miss more than one class may: (a) be asked to make up the missed class
session by attending course lectures at the Boston campus, (b) receive a lower
final grade as a result of the absence, (c) be asked to retake the entire course
due to poor attendance, or (d) receive a failing grade for the course. Students
who are asked to retake a course may not be able to continue their enrollment in
the off-campus programs (OCP) due to the schedule and structure of the course
offerings at the OCP sites. Students should notify instructors by phone or email of any impending absence.
Since the framework for each class is established in the opening minutes of the
session, it is important that all participants arrive on time. A persistent pattern of
unapproved lateness may affect negatively a student’s course grade.
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Writing Style and References:
Students are expected to follow the editorial and reference standards set out in
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2010). A
helpful BUSSW APA Style Guide can be found at
http://www.bu.edu/ssw/current/academic/index.shtml. For a tutorial go to:
http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm.
Academic Writing Assistance:
Students in need of tutoring and / or academic writing assistance should contact
their faculty advisor for available resources. Additional information on writing
assistance for Off-Campus students is available via the OCP web page at:
http://www.bu.edu/ssw/academic/msw/off-campus/current/supports/index.shtml
Academic Honesty:
Papers and presentations in the School of Social Work must meet standards of
academic honesty and integrity, avoiding any possibility of plagiarism or other
forms of academic misconduct. For specific information about the BUSSW policy
regarding academic misconduct, see Student Handbook: Ways & Means
(http://www.bu.edu/ssw/current/stud_hb/index.shtml).
Incomplete Grades:
A student who cannot complete the assignments for a course must initiate an
incomplete grade dialogue with the instructor before the final class. Individual
instructors can refuse to grant a grade of Incomplete.
The Incomplete Grade Contract can be found at:
http://www.bu.edu/ssw/current/assets/forms/incomplete_form.pdf
A student who does not submit to the Registrar a negotiated Incomplete Grade
Contract with the instructor will receive a grade of F for the course. Students
must resolve incomplete grades by the agreed upon contract date. An incomplete
grade will be changed to a grade of F by the instructor if the student fails to
complete work by contract date. A student must successfully complete a prerequisite course to continue in the next course in the sequence.
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Students with Disabilities:
If you have a disability and want to request reasonable accommodation, the
University requires that you consult with Boston University’s Office of Disability
Services for information regarding this process.
Electronic Devices in the Classroom:
Computers may be used to support the learning activities in the classroom, with
permission of your instructor. These include such activities as taking notes and
accessing course readings under discussion. However, non-academic use of
laptops and other devices are distracting and seriously disrupt the learning
process for everyone. Neither computers nor other electronic devices are to be
used in the classroom for non-academic reasons. This includes e-mailing,
texting, social networking, and use of the Internet. The use of cell phones during
class time is prohibited. Please turn off cell phones and refrain from taking calls
unless you are “on call” and have cleared this with the instructor prior to class.
Under such circumstances, please put your phone on vibrate, sit close to a door,
and step out of the room to take the call.
Audio Taping of Classes:
A Massachusetts statute, MGL c. 272 section 99, prohibits the taping of any oral
communication without notice to all parties involved. It is important, therefore,
that any taping of classroom proceedings (e.g., for the benefit of absent students
or as a study aid to all students) occur only with effective prior notice to all.
Class lectures at BUSSW are not routinely audio taped, but occasionally a
student or faculty member may wish to do so. In the event that a specific class
session is to be taped (e.g., for a student who will be absent for that session), the
faculty member should notify students at the beginning of the class that the
session will be taped. If a course will be audio taped throughout the semester
(e.g., as an academic accommodation for a student with a documented disability
or for other educational purposes) the faculty member will inform students (in the
course syllabus or in a written communication) that the class lectures will be
taped.
Religious Holidays:
The school, in scheduling classes on religious holiday, intends that students
observing those holidays be given an opportunity to make up work.
Confidentiality: Federal health regulations of 2003 mandate the protection of
client confidentiality by changing the name of the client, significant others,
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agency, conditions, other descriptors, and geographic locations that could lead to
client identification.
THIS COURSE SUPPORTS THE ATTAINMENT OF COMPETENCY IN:
Competency 2.1.1
Professional Identity
Competency 2.1.2
Ethical Practice
Competency 2.1.3
Critical Thinking
Competency 2.1.4
Diversity in Practice
Competency 2.1.5
Human Rights and Justice
Competency 2.1.6
Research Based Practice
Competency 2.1.7
Human Behavior
Competency 2.1.8
Policy Practice
Competency 2.1.9
Practice Contexts
Competency 2.1.10 Engage, Assess, Intervene, Evaluate
Specific assignments in this course will assess your attainment of this competency.
Information about the specific competencies and related practice behaviors addressed
in this course and your other MSW courses can be found at SSWLINK.
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COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
1. Describe the development of the mission, core values, and ethics of professional
social work.
2. Demonstrate the clinical skills essential in the helping process.
3. Develop skills in completing an assessment interview and writing up a bio-psychosocial assessment.
4. Apply in practice the basic concepts and principles of clinical practice with
individuals, families and groups.
5. Apply in practice the basic concepts and principles of family assessment and
intervention.
6. Describe the steps involved in the evidence-based practice process.
7. Utilize a strengths perspective in clinical work with individuals, groups, and families.
8. Value the clinical relationship as a key tool in helping clients address problems.
9. Develop and practice skills of self-reflection to become an effective social worker.
10. Understand the importance of evaluating outcomes of the helping process.
11. Recognize the pervasive societal influence of oppression and economic injustice.
12. Identify ethical dilemmas in social work practice.
13. Describe the characteristics of an urban environment and implications for social work
practice.
14. Identify and describe the various roles assumed by direct social work practitioners.
15. Understand the relationship among research, theory, and social work practice.
16. Explain the importance of evaluating outcomes of the helping process.
APPENDIX: (pp. 26-44 course syllabus)
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Eco-map
Case study: Peter
List of Practice Skills
List of group work specific skills & Yalom's therapeutic factors
Group types
Guidelines for group composition
Guidelines for co-leadership
Group design chart
Required Texts:
Hepworth, D., Rooney, R., Rooney, G., Strom-Gottfried, K., & Larson, J. (2013). Direct social
work practice: Theory and skills (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Murphy, B. C., & Dillon, C. (2011). Interviewing in action in a multicultural world (4th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole.
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COURSE OUTLINE
Please read the following chapter and articles in addition to the readings for Weekend 1
before coming to the first class:
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 1, The Challenges of Social Work, pp. 3-24
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 4, Operationalizing the Cardinal Social Work Values, pp. 5785
Lawless, J. J. (2008). Transforming a racist legacy. In M. McGoldrick & K. V. Hardy (Eds.), Revisioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice (pp. 191-196).
New York, NY: Guildford Press. (MUGAR)
Recommended Reading:
Berndt, L. (2008). Legacies of white privilege. In M. McGoldrick & K. V. Hardy (Eds.), Revisioning family therapy: Race, culture, and gender in clinical practice (pp. 184-190).
New York, NY: Guildford Press. (MUGAR)
Sue, D. W. (2006). The conceptual dimensions of multicultural social work practice. In
Multicultural social work practice (pp. 3-21). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
(MUGAR)
Weekend 1: September 6-7, 2012
Introduction to Social Work History, Practice, Values and Ethics in the Sociocultural
Context of the Urban Environment
Objectives:
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a. Describe the mission of social work and the purpose of social work practice and
services.
b. Articulate the core social work values and ethics, and how they guide
professional social work practice.
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c. Be familiar with and apply the four core social work ethical principles (i.e., selfdetermination, informed consent, professional boundaries, confidentiality) and
two professional mandates (i.e., duty to warn, mandated reporting).
d. Describe the characteristics of an urban environment and consider implications for
clinical social work practice.
e. Demonstrate beginning self-awareness and critical thinking skills.
Introduction to Social Work Theory, Research, and Practice
Objectives:
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a. Articulate the principles and elements of direct social work practice.
b. Describe the various roles assumed by direct social work
practitioners.
c. Describe the steps in the evidence-based practice process.
d. Describe the relationship between evidence-based practice,
assessment, intervention, and evaluation in social work practice
e. Articulate how class and race characterize and shape the human
experience and are critical to the formation of identity.
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 2, Direct Practice: Domain, Philosophy, and Roles, pp. 25-34
Recommended Reading:
Cournoyer, B. R. (2011). Critical thinking, scientific inquiry, and career-long learning. In The
social work skills workbook (6th ed., pp. 52-75). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. (MUGAR)
Murphy & Dillon (2011), Chapter 2, Responsible Practice: Cultural Awareness and
Professional Ethics, pp. 29-60
O’Hare, T. (2009). Overview: Defining and linking assessment, intervention, and evaluation. In
Essential skills of social work practice: Assessment, intervention, and evaluation (pp. 337). New York, NY: Lyceum. (MUGAR)
The Professional Helping Relationship, Engagement, and Beginning Work with
Individuals, Families, and Groups (Part I)
Objectives:
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Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a. Identify and demonstrate ways to increase self and client awareness
(“tuning in”).
b. Identify key elements of a professional helping relationship including:
 Client-centered focus
 Goal-directed relating and work
 Collaboration (noting that participants have different power,
resources, and skills)
 Intentional and ethical use of self
 Cultural knowledge and sensitivity
 Trust, privacy, and confidentiality
 Respect for the unique worth of each individual, family, and group
 Nonjudgmental acceptance and responsiveness
c. Describe the key skills in the beginning stage of work with individuals,
families, and groups (e.g., attending, listening, tuning-in, empathizing,
exploring, and session contracting).
Required Reading:
Murphy & Dillon (2011), Chapter 4, Attending and Listening, pp. 97-123
Murphy & Dillon (2011), Chapter 5, Support and Empathy, pp. 127-154
Recommended Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 3, Overview of the Helping Process, pp. 35-55
Weekend 2: September 13-14, 2012
The Professional Helping Relationship, Engagement & Beginning Work with
Individuals, Families and Groups (Part II)
Objectives:
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a. Demonstrate key skills used in the beginning phase of work with individuals,
families and groups
b. Identify challenges to engagement with individuals, families, and groups.
c. Recognize ways that culture and class may influence beginning interactions
between the individual, family, or group and the worker, access to resources,
sense of identity and expectations of self and others.
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d. Differentiate the worker’s tasks in the beginning work with individual, groups
and families.
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 6, Verbal Following, Exploring, and Focusing Skills,
pp.135-164
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 7, Eliminating Counterproductive Communication
Patterns, pp. 165-183
Gutierrez, L. (1990). Working with women of color: An empowerment perspective.
Social Work, 35, 149-153. (MUGAR)
Nelson, R., Mitrani, V., & Szapocnik, J. (2000). Applying a family-ecosystemic model to
reunite a family separated due to child abuse: A case study. Contemporary
Family Therapy, 22, 125-146. (MUGAR)
Recommended Reading:
Furuto, S.B.C.L. (2004). Theoretical perspectives for culturally competent practice with
immigrant children and families. In Fong, R. (Ed.), Culturally competent practice
with immigrant and refugee children and families (pp. 19-38). New York, NY: The
Guilford Press. (MUGAR)
Pope, K. S., & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2008). A practical approach to boundaries in psychotherapy:
Making decisions, bypassing blunders, and mending fences. Journal of Clinical
Psychology: In Session, 64, 638-652. (MUGAR)
Sanders-Thompson,V.L., Bazile,A. & Akbar, M. (2004). African American’s perceptions
of psychotherapy and psychotherapists. Professional psychology: Research and
practice, 35, 19-26. (MUGAR)
Saino, M. (2003). A new language for groups: Multilingual and multi-ethnic group work.
Social Work with Groups, 26, 69-80. (MUGAR)
Shulman, L. (2013). The preliminary phase in group practice: The group as a mutual aid
system. In The skills of helping individuals, families, groups and communities (7th
ed.), (pp. 342-385). (MUGAR).
Assessment and Formulation with Individuals
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
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a. Describe assessment as both a process and a product.
b. Attend to the context of the assessment and a variety of relevant sources of
information (exploring a situation from multiple perspectives).
c. Identify methods and tools of assessment, including situations of suicide risk and
crisis assessment.
d. Apply relevant theory and research findings in assessment.
e. Develop a biopsychosocial formulation that highlights central issues, offers a
tentative understanding of them, applies critical thinking, and establishes the
ground work for understanding clients’ presenting problems.
f. Demonstrate assessment skills.
***If your agency uses a particular biopsychosocial outline or form, please bring a blank
copy to class.
Required Reading:
Brems, C. (2000). The challenge of threats of suicide: The duty to protect. In Dealing with
challenges in psychotherapy and counseling (pp. 162-193). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
(MUGAR)
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 8, Assessment: Exploring and Understanding Problems and
Strengths, pp. 185-213
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 9, Assessment: Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, and
Environmental Factors, pp.215-249
Murphy & Dillon (2011). Chapter 13, Work with People in Crisis, pp. 367-407
Dean, R. & Poorvu, N. (2008). Assessment and formulation: A contemporary social work
perspective. Families in Society, 89, 596-604. (MUGAR)
Recommended Reading:
Gambrill, E. (2007). Special section: promoting and sustaining evidence-based practice.
Journal of Social Work Education, 3, 447-462. (MUGAR)
Hepworth et al. (2013), Crisis Intervention, pp. 399-408
Weekend 3: September 27-28, 2012
Goal Setting, Contracting and Interventions with Individuals
Objectives:
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Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Identify purposes of goal setting and contracting.
Identify the tasks of the worker and client in goal setting and contracting.
Explain the collaborative nature of goal setting and mutual accountability.
Demonstrate the differences and challenges in contracting with involuntary clients.
Through the evidence-based process, identify effective interventions appropriate to a
specific client
f. Demonstrate skills used in the initial phase of work with individuals.
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 12, Developing Goals and Formulating a Contract, pp 327-375
[skip section on crisis intervention]
Malgady, R.G. & Costantino, G. (2003). Narrative therapy for Hispanic children and
adolescents. In A. E. Kazdim & J.R. Weisz (Eds.), Evidence-based psychotherapies for
children and adolescents (pp.425-435). New York, NY: Guilford Press. (MUGAR)
Murphy & Dillon, Chapter 9, Gaining New Perspectives: Helping Clients Feel and see Things
Differently, pp. 245-282.
Recommended Reading:
Courneyor, B. (2008) Clarifying issues for work and establishing goals. In The social work
skills workbook (6th ed., pp. 345-346, 348-351) (MUGAR)
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 13, Planning and Implementing Change-Oriented Strategies,
pp. 379-398, 408-434
Shulman, L. (2013). Chapter 4, Beginning and contracting skills. In The skills of helping
individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed., pp. 97-144). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole. (Blackboard)
Group Types and Group Formation
Objectives:
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Describe types of groups and their helpful elements such as mutual aid.
Discuss the multiple factors in decision to provide group services in diverse settings.
Identify differences between group purpose and activities/content.
Describe the steps in group formation.
Identify key principles of group composition
Demonstrate skills used in group formation
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 11, Forming and Assessing Social Work Groups, pp. 295-326
Kurland, R. & Salmon, R. (1998). Purpose: A misunderstood and misused keystone of group
work practice. Social Work with Groups, 21, 5-17. (MUGAR)
Brown, A., & Mistry, T. (1994). Group work with “mixed membership”: Issues of race and
gender. Social Work with Groups, 17, 5-21. (MUGAR)
Steinberg, D. (2004). The mutual-aid approach in social work with groups. In Mutual-aid
approach to working with groups: Helping people help each other (2nd ed., pp.
13-33). Binghamton, NY: Haworth Press. (MUGAR)
Weekend 4: October 5-6, 2012
Goal Setting and Contracting with Groups
Objectives:
Upon completing these sessions, students will be able to:
a. Demonstrate contracting with groups, including defining purpose and group structure
and establishing ground rules and culture of safety.
b. Gain a working knowledge of the stages of group development from contrasting
models.
c. Articulate the two-client concept (the individual and the group as a whole) and begin to
apply that understanding to group practice.
d. Articulate co-leadership guidelines and dynamics.
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013). Chapter 16, Intervening in Social Work Groups, pp. 507-533
Shulman, L. (2013). Chapter 11, First group sessions and contracting. In The skills of helping
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individuals, families, groups, and communities (7th ed., pp. 388-419). Belmont, CA:
Brooks/Cole. (MUGAR)
Wright, W. (2000). The use of purpose in on-going activity groups: Framework for maximizing
the therapeutic impact. Social Work with Groups, 22, 31-54. (MUGAR)
Recommended Reading:
Garland, J., Jones, H., & Kolodny, R. (1978). A model for stages of development in social work
groups. In S.Bernstein (Ed.), Explorations in group work: Essays in theory and practice
(pp. 17-71). Bloomfield, CT: Practitioner’s Press. (MUGAR)
Assessment and Formulation with Families
Upon completing these sessions, students will be able to:
a. Shift thinking from an individual to the family system as a whole.
b. Recognize the range of family structures, roles and rules, patterns of interactions,
stressors, and strengths in the family assessment.
c. Develop a family formulation.
Required Reading:
Hepworth et al. (2013), Chapter 10, Assessing Family Functioning in Diverse Family and Cultural
Contexts, pp. 251-294
Lasloffy, T., & Hardy, K. (2000). Uncommon strategies for a common problem:
Addressing racism in family therapy. Family Process, 39(1), 35-50.
Taibbi, R. (2007).The power of one: Individual work in a family context. In Doing family
therapy: Craft and creativity in clinical practice (pp. 237-250). New York, NY: Guilford
Press. (MUGAR)
Weekend 5 : October 12, 2012
Group Presentations
Transitions, Endings and Evaluation with Individuals, Families, and Groups
Objectives:
Upon completing this session, students will be able to:
a. Describe how evaluation builds on the biopsychosocial assessment, and goal
setting and treatment planning.
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b. Demonstrate ways to evaluate practice effectiveness of work with individuals,
families and groups.
c. Describe common termination reactions and how to address them in a timely
and appropriate way.
d. Demonstrate skills used in ending and transition.
Readings:
Cournoyer, B.R. (2011). Chapter 11, Ending. pp. 393-396. (MUGAR)
Hepworth et al. (2013). Chapter 19, The Final Phase: Evaluation and Termination. pp.
591-607.
Murphy & Dillon (2011). Chapter 14, Endings and Transitions, pp. 410-4
ASSIGNMENTS
Assignments should be e-mailed to trudyz@bu.edu by midnight on the due date
Assignment #1 provides the opportunity to reflect on your identity as a professional
social worker and the behaviors appropriate to that role (competencies include: practice
personal reflection, attend to professional roles and boundaries, and articulate
challenges experienced).
Assignment #2 offers the chance to apply critical thinking to inform and communicate
professional judgments and utilize conceptual frameworks to guide assessment,
intervention and evaluation (competencies include: distinguish and integrate multiple
sources of knowledge, including research based knowledge; communicate an
understanding of differences in shaping life experiences).
Assignment #3 provides an opportunity to use research to inform your practice and
plan a group (competencies include: develop a mutually agreed upon focus of work and
desired outcomes, assess client strengths and limitations, and select appropriate
intervention strategies).
ALL ASSIGNMENTS SHOULD BE COMPLETED USING APA (6th edition) FORMATTING.
Please see the Grading Policy description on Blackboard under Syllabus.
ASSIGNMENT #1
DUE: Sunday, September 15
REFLECTION ON INITIAL WORKER-CLIENT/CONSTITUENT INTERACTION
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The first assignment is weighted at 20% of the course grade and should be NO MORE THAN 5
PAGES. The assignment will involve a description and self-reflection on a beginning client
contact. This assignment is due no later than September 15. Assignments should be
completed in MS Word using APA style (6th edition).
1. Please respond to the following questions as they relate to an initial contact
with a client, consumer, or constituent: (1 page)
 What did you see as your purpose in this interaction with the client?
 What did the client see as the purpose?
 How did you and the client talk about your similar or different goals?
 How did you negotiate the next step in your work together?
2. Using at least 2 course readings for 3 quotes/citations (i.e., required and
recommended) discuss: (1-2 pages)
 What role(s) did you assume as a professional social worker and
its/their relation to the purpose of this client interaction?
 How was worker authenticity and empathy applied and/or
demonstrated in this contact?
 What social work skills did you use to foster a working relationship with
this client/consumer/constituent? Identify which of these skills were
most helpful to the client/consumer/constituent. Why?
3. What challenges did you experience in this interaction related to your own
personal biases, assumptions and values, cultural differences, and ethical
issues? Provide a few ideas of how you might address these in the future. (up to
1 page)
4. What questions and/or concerns do you have about your work with this
client/consumer/constituent? (up to 1 page)
ASSIGNMENT #2
DUE: Sunday, September 29
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ASSESSMENT
Due date: September 29
This assignment should be 8-9 pages long, double-spaced, in 12-pt. font, with
an alphabetized References page at the end. This assignment is weighted at
40% of your grade.
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Please incorporate a minimum of 6 citations from 4 reference sources in the course
bibliography. (No more than 2 chapters from each textbook can be used as
references.) Citations should support each of the three sections of your paper if
possible. Use APA style throughout. One of your references should be
specifically focused on your specific population or agency setting. If you cannot
find references related to your population or setting in the course bibliography,
these references may come from other professional literature sources.
This paper gives you an opportunity to apply concepts and skills learned in the
first part of this course to the assessment process in the work you are doing with
an individual in a group or family context. The assignment is divided into
three sections:
Section 1 asks for a brief discussion of the client’s referral for service and a
biopsychosocial assessment of the client (see outline for assessment in course
syllabus);
Section 2 asks for a working formulation;
Section 3 asks for the use of an evidenced-based process to identify an effective
intervention or approach with the client about whom you are writing.
SECTION 1: BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ASSESSMENT
This section of the paper can follow the topic outline reviewed in class, or may
follow an outline that is more relevant to the particular client, family, or agency
setting you are describing. Regardless of the format used, the assessment
should include the following:
OUTLINE FOR A BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ASSESSMENT
Description of agency (2 paragraphs): What type of agency you are working in
(i.e. community mental health center, school, daycare, community
organization…)? What is the treatment modality (individual, group or family) in
which the client is seen?
1. Areas of client’s life/situation to cover:
a. Description of client: (2 paragraphs): A description of the client/family
including name (disguised), age, gender, ethnic and racial background,
economic background, sexual orientation, etc.
b. Presenting Problem (1/2-1 page): What are the client’s concerns and
problems or those of the people who referred him or her? Why is the client
seeking help at this time? What brings the client to the agency at this
time? What are the "facts" of the problem(s)? (This information might be
18
gathered from sources like background sheets, direct observation or
collateral information). What is the individual's/family's interpretation of the
problem(s)? What is the client’s response to his/her feelings? What is the
client’s response to family members or others’ interpretation of the
problem? Are there any other precipitants to the problem(s)? Are there
any potentially serious health or safety concerns? Are there any legal
mandates?
c. Source of referral (1 paragraph): This should include reason for referral
and client's understanding of and part in the referral. Was client mandated
to see you? Or was the client’s participation voluntary?
d. Description of client (1 paragraph): Appearance, dress, posture, eye
contact, facial expressions, mannerisms, modes of communication, verbal
as well as nonverbal, and range of emotions expressed.
e. Work and school data and history: (1-2 paragraphs). Employment and
unemployment history, current occupation, professional skills, reasons for
ability or inability to maintain employment, current level of education, and
current or future plans to further education.
f. Economic and living situation (2 paragraphs): Includes home,
neighborhood, natural support networks, economic resources, opportunities,
stresses and entitlements.
g. Family information (2-3 paragraphs): Includes information about family
structure (disguised names, ages, relationships, etc.) as well as family
dynamics, cultural and ethnic background, roles and activities, strengths,
family goals and communication styles. Address both strengths and stresses
related to the family environment.
h. Selective physical, emotional, and social history, depending on nature of
problem (2-3 pages):

Client and family alcohol and drug history/use/abuse and
the consequences on the client's health, social, work/ school,
familial and emotional functioning. Experience with, attitudes
towards, and outcomes of treatment programs, self-help groups,
12-step, etc. Extent of sobriety, experiences with relapses, and
family response to substance use and/or treatment (i.e.,
supportive, not supportive, enabler, participating in treatment).

History and current experience with child, sexual,
spouse/partner, elder abuse or other abuse, neglect or
victimization, or trauma or other crisis.
19

History and current experience with mental illness and/or
psychiatric treatment, including level of functioning and
support systems.

History and current experience with physical illness, and/or
hospitalization or other treatment.

Religious and/or spiritual affiliations, experiences, activities,
etc.

Legal/court history (e.g., incarceration history, child custody,
divorce, etc. as well as resulting outcomes, strengths, and
limitations of these experiences)

Alternative healing history or experiences.

Social, cultural, racial, ethnic, gender, sexual orientation,
age, and socio-economic factors as they affect and are
related to the current problem(s), client's strengths, and
resources (e.g., depressive symptoms related to retirement and
growing older)
i.
Nature of interactions with relevant individuals and groups in the agency or
community that are related to and affecting current social functioning. For
example, how does the individual act in a group setting if this is where you
see him or her? (2 paragraphs).
j.
Strengths and limitations of the individual, family and community in
relation to working on resolution of the problem(s). (2 paragraphs)
*Note: If your setting uses a particular biopsychosocial outline or form, please
include a blank copy at the end of your paper. Feel free to include any additional
assessment tools you have used (these are best included as an Appendix to your
paper—per APA) such as genograms, life charts, ecomaps, questionnaires or
self-rating scales used by your agency.
SECTION 2: INITIAL FORMULATION (2 paragraphs)
Write a formulation which represents your hypotheses about possible factors
(psychological, interpersonal, social, cultural, environmental, biological,
developmental, economic, political) that may have caused or influenced the
client’s current situation. These may be fairly obvious or quite subtle and may be
outside the client’s awareness. The formulation includes your hypotheses about
how the client/family has come to this point in his/her/their life, and it notes some
of the themes or threads that you and the client have identified. It incorporates
both the strengths and problems presented by the client and the situation, and it
forms the basis for the next steps, that is, determining goals for the work you and
20
the client will be doing together and the contract about how the work will be done
to reach those goals. Be sure to consider in your assessment the client’s
membership in at-risk or vulnerable groups (e.g., gender, class, age, sexual
orientation, race, culture, religion, ability), experience of oppression or
social/economic injustice, and ways these factors influence the client’s strengths
and needs.
SECTION 3: Evidence-based Practice (EBP) and Decision-making:
Beginning Skills for Clinical Practice (1-2 pages)
In this section of the paper, you will consult the research literature related to the
client about whom you have written in the psychosocial assessment. You will
develop a question that you would like to research regarding an effective
approach to working with this client. Your question should be specific and
focused and should take into account the cultural characteristics of the client
system as well as the agency setting. You will be looking for articles or abstracts
that describe clinical research that attempts to answer a question about effective
interventions with clients.
You will then search the relevant research databases to find 3 articles or
abstracts which provide answers to your question. If they don’t directly provide
answers, you may find articles which at least give some direction about helpful
interventions related to the particular client, problem or setting. In some cases,
you may not find anything related to relevant research on clinical interventions
with your particular client/problem. In that case, please describe your search
process: databases you used; search terms you used; research that was
partially related but could be potentially helpful; barriers encountered in the
search process. For this part of the assignment, do not spend more than an
hour searching for articles (unless you get so interested and involved that
you can’t stop searching!!)
If you find articles or abstracts that are useful in some way, write a couple of
paragraphs addressing the following:

how does the information provided in the articles/abstracts help you think
about working with this particular client?
 Is the information about effective interventions consistent with
interventions used in your agency?
 How might you use this information to discuss goals and make a contract
with your client?
If your search does not yield articles/abstracts that are helpful, write a
couple of paragraphs describing how you will decide how to approach working
with this client.
21


What sources of guidance/information will you use (course readings,
discussion with your supervisor and other staff at the agency, your own
past professional experience)?
How are decisions at your agency made about intervention approaches to
clients? What evidence do practitioners use to decide how they will work
with clients?
ASSIGNMENT #3
DUE: Presented in class on October 12
GROUP WORK PROPOSAL PRESENTATION
All groups will present their proposal during the final class.
This assignment is weighted at 20% of your overall grade.
This presentation gives you an opportunity to integrate theory and skills learned in
the course to plan a group or to reflect on a group you are currently conducting at
your agency. You will address tasks and issues of group development during the
beginning, working, and ending phases of groups such as: population strengths
and needs, group type, formation and composition, group purpose and contracting,
group format and activities, group dynamics (safety, power and control, conflict,
etc.), and evaluation of the group experience.
Your presentation is expected to be of a professional quality and would as closely
as possible approximate what you would actually present in an agency setting to a
group of stakeholders consisting of administration, board members, staff or
potential group members.
You will need to cite from a minimum of 6 scholarly references, 1-2 of which
should address evidence-based group work models with your target population or
specific problem area. Attend to issues of race gender, ethnicity, age, religion, and
class, as they are relevant to all aspects of work with groups. A reference list
should be submitted at the time of your presentation. Class time will be
provided for you to meet as a group, but it is expected that you will also need to
plan this assignment as a group outside of class.
Presentation preparation overview
1. You will be assigned to groups consisting of three or four members based on
common areas of interest which you identify. First, your group should choose an
agency setting in which one of you is interning on which to focus your
assignment. If none of you are currently placed in an agency that matches your
22
area of interest, you can use a previous work setting, create a fictional agency,
or research one online. During class, I will be available to consult with you as
you initiate the process.
2. Discuss each of the domains below and use the outline to organize your
presentation. Make sure to address all the areas within each item.
Disguise details to preserve confidentiality.
1. Agency Context: Describe the agency, department, and general population
served. You may use the description of the agency from one of your
placements, previous employment, one that is fictional, or one that you
researched.
2. Need: What population have you and/or your agency identified for this group?
What client needs and problems will the group address? What client strengths
will the group build upon?
3. Structure: What type of group will this be? And why? And by whom was this
group type chosen? (See Garland’s group types in the appendix.) What is the
length of each meeting? Will it be open-ended or closed? Number of group
members? Will it be led by a single facilitator or co-led? Justify your decisions.
Was research evidence a factor in the choice of group type? Please elaborate
using appropriate citations from the research literature.
4. Recruitment: What steps would you take in getting the group started? Include
how you would approach the agency system and staff, and deal with any
ensuing resistance/reluctance.
5. Composition: What composition factors would you consider? (If you are
already working with a group, discuss the rationale for the selection of
members, and the effects of this composition.)
6. Purpose: How would you clarify the purpose of the group and negotiate a
working agreement with the members?
7. Content: What will the group actually do in the meetings? Include such issues
as meeting format, themes, activities, and decision-making.
8. Contracting, Power, and Safety: How are/might issues of power, control and
authority be manifested in your group (e.g., through your leadership style, in this
group’s early development, in roles that group members may take on, in
mandated groups)? How might you help members and yourself develop safety
and competency? If you would like to use the Schiller group development
23
model, how would issues of challenge and change be expressed in the group
(e.g., through your leadership style, in this group’s early development, in roles
that group members may take on, in mandated groups)? If this is a mandated
group, consider limits of confidentiality and effect on contracting, power, and
safety.
9. Evaluation: How do you plan to evaluate the group experience (e.g., use of
standardized instruments, on-going feedback, questionnaires, attrition)? If this is
a mandated group, what are your reporting requirements/criteria for group
members?
10. Pitch it! Finally, you will be asked to explain the group to a potential group
member (Played by your Professor!). You will need to provide essential
information the client (i.e., client demographics and history) and you will have
ten minutes to pitch the group and answer my questions. (Your classmates will
have an opportunity to ask questions after your presentation.) Consider the
following:
First, you will have ten minutes to present the group proposal. You will decide what
group of stakeholders will comprise your audience. Examples are: your agency
director, supervisor, board or community group (pick one). This presentation should
cover the major areas outlined above. Start with title of the group.
Does your group pass the “purpose” sniff test? Consider these criteria: The
purpose of the group can be stated clearly and concisely by both the worker and
the group member. Avoid use of jargon.
You will have ten minutes to present your group and five minutes to conduct your
“interview “of the potential group member. There will be time for questions and
comments from the audience.
You need to provide a list of references in APA form that you cite and utilize during
your presentation.
 The group will receive one grade overall based on the quality of the content
and the professionalism of the presentation.

The final 20% of your grade includes active class participation, consistent
attendance, and keeping up with the readings for each class.
24
APPENDIX
Eco-Map
Fill in connections where they exist. Indicate nature of connections with a
descriptive word or by drawing different kinds of lines:
_________ for strong, - - - - - - - - - - for tenuous, ++++++++++ for stressful.
Draw arrows along lines to signify flow of energy, resources, etc. 
Identify significant people and fill in empty circles as needed.
Social
Welfare
Health
Care
Work
Religion
Community
Groups
Family or Household
Friends
School
Extended
Culture
Family
25
Recreation
PETER: A CASE OF AN INVOUNTARY CLIENT
Setting:
An outpatient substance abuse and mental health clinic in a suburb of Santa Fe
Client:
A 38-year-old, gay, white Catholic male of Irish-German descent, working as a
carpenter to support his work as a sculptor
Worker:
White female social worker in her early 30s
Presenting Problem:
You are engaging a client who has been mandated for outpatient substance
abuse treatment following his second driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI)
offense.
Case Record:
Peter, the subject of this study, was referred to the Counseling Center, an
outpatient mental health clinic in the suburbs of Santa Fe, to receive aftercare
treatment for his 2nd DUI offense. He had just completed two weeks of inpatient
treatment in a program designed specifically to treat 2nd time offenders. The
referral source was Dr, Weiss, and the Clinical Director of the program. Dr. Weiss
described Peter as, "a quiet man who was cooperative and pleasant. He seemed
to get a lot of the educational portion of the program, but didn't participate at all in
the group discussions." While the Counseling Center is listed in the yellow pages
26
as a substance abuse treatment center, it does not specialize in this field and
receives only a nominal number of mandated referrals. Such referrals tend to be
given to a select number of clinicians at the agency who have a greater
understanding of substance abuse and dependence and who are more
comfortable sitting with a coerced client (who is often very angry and "resistant"
to treatment). I happen to be one of those clinicians and Peter was referred to
me.
Peter identifies himself as "an artist unable to make a living from art." He is a
sculptor and makes large, spiny, abstract sculptures in the backyard of his small
home in suburban Santa Fe. To supplement his income, he works a 40-hour job
as a carpenter. Peter is the fourth of five children; he has four brothers. His father
was a lifetime Navy officer, and Peter, his mother and siblings moved around the
country every two to three years. Peter is gay and stated, "I always knew this
and am quite comfortable with it now." He has long been disillusioned with the
Catholic Church because he feels the church is wrong to reject him simply
because of his sexual orientation.
My first session with Peter has been arranged by Dr. Weiss and took place two
days after Peter completed his inpatient treatment. Peter came to the session
neatly but casually dressed in a flannel shirt and blue jeans. He sat down;
slumped into the chair I offered him and dropped his leather jacket in a heap on
the floor next to him. He started the interview immediately: “I can't come this time
of day. I just spent two weeks out-of work and my boss was pissed at that and
now I had to come here In the middle of the day and take some more time off. I
just can't afford that and I definitely can't afford to lose my job!" I responded, "We
can try to negotiate a better time and if today's not good, we can reschedule."
Peter interrupted and in a calmer tone said, "No, I'm here; we may as well start.
What do we need to do?" I said, '"The best place to start maybe is to get to know
one another to see if we can work together…." Peter interrupted again, "What do
you want to know about me?" His questions were both plaintive and challenging
and I needed to breathe slowly to keep from giving quick responses. Studying his
harried face I asked, "What do you think would be important for me to know
about you?" He said, "that I come from a dysfunctional family, that I have a
problem with alcohol, and that I am gay.” Peter studied my face.
Amodeo, M. (Ed.) Social work approaches to alcohol and other drug problems:
Case studies and teaching tools for education and practitioners.
27
28
GOAL ATTAINMENT SCALING FORM
Levels of predicted
attainment
Problem
1:
Problem
2:
Problem
3:
Problem
4:
Problem
5:
Most Unfavorable outcome
thought likely
0
0
0
0
0
Less than expected success
5
5
5
5
5
Expected level of success
10
10
10
1
0
1
0
More than expected
success
15
15
15
1
5
1
5
Most favorable outcome
thought likely
20
20
20
2
0
2
0
Score
28
LIST OF PRACTICE SKILLS ~ CP 759
Shulman
Tune in
Challenge the illusion of
work
Use silence
Validate
Point out obstacles to
work
Universalize
Share worker’s feelings
Support clients in taboo
areas
Identify and affirm
strengths
Contain
Share data
Reach for non-verbal
cues
Provide concrete
services
Summarize
Put client’s feelings into
words
Empathize
Elaborate
Identify content and
process connections
Generalize
Use empathic echo
Identify next steps
Rehearse
Identify doorknob
communication
Move from general to
specific
Explore client resistance
Question/explore
Reach inside silences
Reach for feelings
Make a demand for
work
Partialize client’s
concerns
Hold to focus
Check for underlying
ambivalence
Use closed/open ended
questions
Prompt
Help client see life in
new ways
Focus listening
Mirror
Facilitate confrontation
Advocate for client
Reach for individual
communication in a
group
Reflect
Underline
Summarize
Refocus
Initiate new topics
Appreciate and use
resistance
Monitor the group
Monitor the individual
Goal-set
Partialize and prioritize
Murphy & Dillon
Accentuate the positive
Psychologically attend
Encourage client
hypothesizing
Physically attend
29
Reflect discrepancies
Observe stuck patterns
Educate/share
information
Model
Hepworth, Rooney &
Larsen
Give positive feedback
Determine client’s
expectations
Clarify roles
Respond verbally and
non-verbally
Use metaphors
Look for underlying
feelings and use feeling
words
Respond to nonverbal
messages
Assess obstacles and
strengths
Teach client to respond
empathically
Convey assessment
findings to client
Be authentic
Provide immediate
benefits
Use self-disclosure
Share feelings/reactions
Identify impact of
problem on others
Make requests and give
directives
Interrupt dysfunctional
processes
Give concrete
assistance
Reassure
Offer hope
Set goals jointly
Say no and set limits
Identify relevant social
systems
Lean into client’s anger
Define goals explicitly
Maintain focus and
manage interruption
Increase self-efficacy
Identify the problem
Convey empathy
Clarify ecological factors
Stay in touch with client
Assess developmental
needs and wants
Accurately assess client
problems
Normalize
Assess strength in
family
30
Enhance self-esteem
Encourage
empowerment
Mobilize resources
Recognize threats to
relationship
SPECIAL STRENGTHS, TECHNIQUES, AND SKILLS IN GROUP WORK
I. Yalom describes the therapeutic factors that operate in groups:











Imparting of information
Instillation of hope
Universality
Altruism
Corrective recapitulation of the primary family group
Development of socializing techniques
Imitative behavior
Interpersonal learning
Group cohesiveness
Catharsis
Existential factors (life is tough, but we can take responsibility)
These factors assume differential importance depending on the goals and compositions
of the specific group. Many of the factors are interdependent. In the change process,
some refer to actual mechanisms of change; others to conditions for change.
Yalom, I. (1995) The theory and practice of group psychotherapy (4th ed.) New York,
NY: Basic Books.
II. The Worker's tasks and skills (Schwartz)
Tasks:
1. Finding, through negotiation, the common ground between the requirements of the
group members and those of the systems they need to negotiate.
2. Detecting and challenging obstacles to work, as these arise.
3. Contributing facts, ideas, and values when such data may be useful to the work.
4. Lending his own vision and projecting his own feelings about the struggles in which
they are engaged.
5. Defining the requirements and limits of the situation (working agreement).
Skills required are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Reinforcing the different ways in which people help each other.
Partializing large problems into smaller, more manageable pieces.
Generalizing: finding connections between small segments of experience.
Calling for talk that is purposeful and invested with feeling (2 nd and 3rd stages of
elaboration).
5. Reaching for opposites, ambiguities.
6. Demanding work.
31
Schwartz, W., & Zalba, S. (1971). The practice of group work. New York,
NY: Columbia University.
(Schwartz's ideas have been developed and elaborated upon by Shulman
in Skills of helping.)
32
BASIC GROUP TYPES
1. Task and Social Action





Focuses on the task, outcome, productivity (rather than individual development
or social relationships).
In some instances, the task may serve as a way for members to interact.
Allows people to act on their own behalf in bringing about changes in their
environment.
Gives people voice in decisions that affect their lives--empowerment.
Multiplies solutions and resources - power in numbers.
Examples: Committees, community organization, planning or governing groups, Tent
City Organization for Mixed-Income Housing, Coalition for Pregnant and Parenting
Teens, Oral History Video Project, Planning Committee for Junior High Drug
Awareness Week, AIDS Brigade, Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual & Trans-sexual Caucus.
Worker: Helps to define the task, confront barriers, and keep group focused. May
share vision and knowledge of resources and strategies. Encourages and develops
leadership from within the group.
2. Growth & Education for Life







Promotes normal social growth -helps people meet developmental challenges
and transitions, and adapt to new situations.
Preventive, especially around stress and crises.
Provides information, opportunity for mastery of content.
Helps people learn new skills and new roles.
Expands the range and quality of social relationships.
Stimulates creative expression.
Allows persons who have been isolated or subject to oppressive environments,
to learn basic social skills.
Examples: Activity groups at community centers and schools, new mother's group,
alcohol education group, groups for Southeast Asian students who are newcomers,
special interest groups (drama, photography, dance), group for people making
career changes, multicultural awareness group.
Worker: Roles may range from that of teacher of specific information or skills to that
of a facilitator of group expression and program to that of resource provider. The
worker may be didactic or reactive/reflective in stance.
3. Support and Stabilization

Helps people who are experiencing life crises, stress, or lack of support in their
33




lives (including those experiencing discrimination and economic instability).
Promotes the strengths and adaptive capacities of persons.
Provides supports for those in danger of deterioration.
Helps build coping skills.
Provides opportunity for education, expression of feelings, mutual aid,
clarification, problem solving, specific skill building.
Examples: Groups for homeless women (after-school activity group for their
children), for persons who are divorced (and their children), for persons diagnosed
as HIV+, for persons addicted to drugs/alcohol (and their families), for families with a
person in the hospital; groups for people with cancer, for parents of court-involved
adolescents, for elderly facing a housing crises, groups for survivors of sexual
abuse, single session to help families deal with the violent death of teens in a
community.
Worker: Can be active, instructive, initiating, as needed. Use of support, clarification,
and structural/environmental modification.
4. Recapitulation/Restitution




Allows for re-working of relationships through re-experiencing or playing them out
in the present.
Helps connect the source with current problems in relationships.
Suitable for those with good reality testing, impulse control, ability to handle
anxiety, willingness to examine their relationships in the present.
Focus on the process-feelings and interactions-of the group in the present.
Examples: Therapy groups for young adults having problems in relationships, for
people who are anxious, stuck, or dissatisfied in their work, for adult children or
people in recovery who are ready to examine the nature and impact of formative
relationships.
Worker: Likely to be permissive, interpretive, less directive. Use of transference,
catharsis and regression; reflection of here-and-now interactions.
NOTE: Groups that have a curriculum or that are more didactic in nature are often
referred to as educational/support or psycho-educational groups. At times there may be
some overlap of group types. However, one should always be clear about the purpose
of the group and the outcome expected. Are you aiming towards prevention? Growth?
Stabilization? Social change?
Adapted from:
Garland, J.(1986). The relationship between group work and group therapy. In M.
Parnes (Ed.), Innovations in social group work: Feedback from practice to
theory(pp. 17-28). New York, NY: Haworth Press.
34
GUIDELINES FOR GROUP COMPOSITION
Introduction:
You may not have a choice about the composition of your group. Attendance may be
mandated by the courts or may be required by virtue of an individual's admission to a
specific program (e.g., day treatment center, hospital unit). Obviously, it is preferable to
have group members who are motivated to work on their problems and who have
expectations for a positive outcome. This is not to say, however, that individuals who
are reluctant to participate or acknowledge problems should be counted out. Through
the group and skillful leadership, it may be possible to reach that part of them that is
seeking help. You may not have choices for other reasons, e.g., there are limited
numbers of people available or members are self-selected. If you do have choices,
consider the following:
1. Consider the purpose of the group foremost: It is essential that members have a
common need, so that they have some focus for the content of group life. Is there a
connection between the individual's personal sense of urgency and the work of the
group? (Shulman& Schwartz). Remember that common status and common need
are not the same. For example, addicts in a treatment center have many different
needs. In the time that they have, around what needs can they come together?
Rape victims have a common experience; however, their needs differ at various
points. Initially, they need to deal with the immediate crisis and get their life
stabilized; later, they need to deal with any residual feelings or difficulty in
relationships.
2. Aim toward assembling a compatible and cohesive group (Yalom). The group should
be homogeneous in enough ways to ensure stability and heterogeneous in enough
ways to ensure vitality (Redl's law of optimum distance). In a cohesive group,
conflict can be tolerated and transformed into productive work. Think about people
who are similar in developmental level, degree of vulnerability and capacity to
tolerate anxiety Think about people who are different in coping patterns and
defenses.
3. Compose the group, if possible, so that no single member represents a significant
difference, resulting in pressure to exemplify or speak for an entire group (e.g., only
man, only person of that age, only Black, only gay person, only person of a
particular socioeconomic group, etc.) You may talk to that person about the
composition so that s/he can make an informed decision about joining. You may feel
that the special focus of the group transcends differences. In any case, it is
important to acknowledge and discuss the salience of race and other differences.
35
4. Think in terms of pairing, blending, & bridging; that is, persons who might be similar
or compatible or provide a link with other persons.
5. Choose people who can communicate in a meaningful way with each other.
6. When the purpose of the group is to help members help each other because they
have specific problems, such as children of alcoholics, children of divorced parents,
people with AIDS, women who have been battered, etc, demographic factors are not
as important variables for grouping. Persons who are in pain because of such
problems can relate and form groups even though they are of different sexes and
are different in age, sexual orientation, educational level, socioeconomic
background, ethnic origin and race (Klein). This principle applies particularly to
short-term, focused groups, where the common situation and issues are
experienced intensely and where the goals are circumscribed.
7. Variables may be more or less important according to the type or treatment groups;
less important in task groups (Daniels & Paradise). Children's groups require
consideration of age (2-3 year span recommended, generally) and developmental
level. In psychodrama groups, it is important to consider physical vulnerabilities and
problems with reality or boundaries.
Race appears a more critical factor (wish to have greater percentage of members
like them) in intimate groups than in task groups (Davis). In research involving small
problem-solving groups, those composed of equal numbers of Black and white
members experienced more conflict than groups with a majority of one race (Davis,
Chen, & Strobe).
8. Consider the specific requirements of your specific agency and group. For example,
a group for people with panic disorders requires that members be able to tolerate
attendance and be receptive and capable of doing daily homework assignments.
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CO-LEADERSHIP ISSUES IN GROUPS
[Duffy/Garland]
These are musts in co-leadership, especially important for a student paired with a regular
agency staff member. These guidelines are to be pursued diplomatically but resolutely.
1. Clarify what "co" means. Is it truly equal participation and equal status or a
euphemism for something else? Acknowledge it to each other and to the group if
you are in fact an observer, assistant, etc.
2. Develop a plan a timetable and procedures by which you will reach full participation.
3. Clarify you respective philosophies, styles, and theories.
4. If the group is being formed, you should participate in all of the decision making
(goals, model, etc.) and in as many of the procedures (e.g. interviewing prospective
members) as is logistically feasible.
5. If the group is already running, you should be informed of its history, both in terms of
the ongoing operations and evolution as well as the purpose, goals and formation
activity that brought it into being.
6. You and your partner should meet between group sessions to de-brief, cathart,
theorize, talk about your co-work and relationship, and plan for the next session.
7. Be especially aware of potential power differences, conflicts of interest and the like,
if your co-worker is also your field instructor (supervisor).
8. It is highly desirable to have available a third party or parties all the way from a
consultant to a peer or co-worker's group.
9. It is not advisable to be supervised or consulted to apart from your partner.
10. Last, but not least, try hard to deal with and/or put into place all of these items at the
very beginning of your association. If you do not, it usually becomes increasingly
difficult as time goes by to "retro-fit" your contract and modus operandi.
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EXPLANATION SHEET OF TASK AND MAINTENANCE ROLES
Benne, K., & Sheats, P. (1948). Functioning roles of group members. Journal of Social
Issues, 4, 42-47.
Task Roles
1. Initiating: Proposing tasks or goals: Defining a group problem; suggesting a
procedure or ideas for solving a problem.
2. Information or opinion seeking: Requesting facts; seeking relevant information
about a group concern; asking for suggestions or ideas.
3. Information or opinion giving: Offering facts; providing relevant information about
a group concern; stating a belief; giving suggestions or ideas.
4. Clarifying or elaborating: Interpreting or reflecting ideas and suggestions; clearing
up confusion; indicating alternatives and issues before the group; giving examples.
5. Summarizing: Pulling together related ideas; restating suggestions after the group
has discussed them; offering a decision or conclusion for the group to accept or
reject.
6. Consensus testing: Sending up trial balloons to see if the group is nearing a
conclusion; checking with the group to see how much agreement has been reached.
Maintenance Roles
1. Encouraging: Being friendly, warm, and responsive to others; accepting others and
their contributions; rewarding others by giving them an opportunity or recognition.
2. Expressing group feelings: Sensing feelings, mood, and relationships within the
group; sharing own feelings with other members.
3. Harmonizing: Attempting to reconcile disagreements; reducing tension through
“pouring oil on troubled waters”; getting people to explore their differences.
4. Compromising: When own idea or status is involved in a conflict, offering to
compromise own position; admitting error, disciplining self to maintain group
cohesion.
5. Gate-keeping: Attempts to keep communication channels open; facilitating the
participation of others; suggesting procedures of others; suggesting procedures for
sharing opportunity to discuss group problems.
6. Setting standards: Expressing standards for the group to achieve; applying
standards in evaluating group functioning and production.
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