BENITO MUSSOLINI - ITALY
By Shreya and Kitty







Mussolini’s Biography:
 Was known as il duce (the leader)
 Prime minister of Italy and dictator 188319451
 Born in Predappio, Romagna
 From a poor family
 Expelled out of two schools for knife assaults
on other students
 Became italy’s most intelligent and menacing
young socialists
 Broke with the Italian Socialist Party after
advocating Italian Intervention in WWI
 1919 helped establish the Faci di
Combattimento as a would-be revolutionary
force2
1922 became Prime Minister3
1925 established himself as dictator4
 Rule saw the replacement of parliamentarism by a ‘corporate state’ and an
officially totalitarianism system; establishment of the Vatican state
1929 the annexation of Abyssinia5
1935-36 and Albania
1939 the formation of the Axis with Germany
Declaration of war on Britain and France exposed Italy’s unpreparedness and was
followed by a series of defeats in N and E Africa
Jun 1943 Allied invasion of Sicily leading to his followers deserting him, he was
overthrown and arrested Jul 19436
1
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1994. Pg. 681.
2
Crystal, David
3
Ibid
4
Ibid
5
Ibid
6
 Rescued from imprisonment by the German paratroopers, placed in charge of the
puppet Italian Social Republic but in 1945 he was captured by the Italian
Resistance and shot
 His body was exposed to insult in Como iand in Milan, the old
headquarters of Fascism
Ibid
1. World/Country context - conditions helped account for the leader’s rise to
power
 What was going on in the country/world before the leader rose to
power?
Mussolini rose to power as a reactionary force and responded to the persuasive
popular disillusionment of the people with the weak government at the time. The Italian
citizens were disappointed by the devastating economic conditions created by the war
(WWI). One grievance in particular was the Treaty of Versaille which was perceived as
being unfair because Italy was not allotted any war reparation payments even though they
suffered great losses fighting for the allies. This left the nation impoverished by the war
effort. The government was furthermore regarded as ineffective as they were unable to
solve the nation’s problems. Many people were attracted to Fascism, and Fascist leader
Mussolini for various reasons stemming from disappointment and fear. In included
wealthy landowners and industrialists who were afraid that the Russian Revolution would
repeat in Italy, Nationalists who were frustrated with the government’s failure to gain the
land promised to them by British and French for participating in WWI, and discharged
men who were mocked and insulted publically by communists and generally had a hard
time settling in.7 There was also the fear of a socialist revolution which paved way for
extreme right wing factions to rise to power. With all these conditions in place, this
created prime conditions for the rise of the coup.
2. Ideology/Form of government
 What was the ideology of the leader,
his motivations, aims?
 What was the leader’s form of
government that was set up?
Mussolini was the first fascist leader and his
political party took up the name Fascist, fasces, from
the ancient Roman Emblem of Authority - An ax over a
bundle of sticks. As a fascist group, they had extreme
militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral
democracy, political and cultural liberalism (a belief of
a natural hierarchy) and the desire to create a “people’s
community.”8
7
Blackwood, Alan, and Edward Mortelmans. "Benito Mussolini." In Twenty Tyrants. Reference
ed. New York: M. Cavendish, 1990.
8
Soucy, Robert. "Fascism (politics)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed October 7, 2014.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202210/fascism.
Mussolini decided his destiny was to rule Italy as a modern Caesar and re-create
the Roman Empire. He looked to the days of the Roman Empire where his country had
ruled over the Western World. He believed that respect for individual rights and freedoms
were signs of weakness; and that strength and power were the most important qualities.
After the first world war, he and his Fascist party aimed to overthrow the government and
take power. Although he did improve the country, his ultimate aim was to create a new
Roman Empire.
3. How they achieved/rose to power
 How and why did this leader rise
to power?
In 1919 after the completion of World War One the
Italian government had been damaged. The
democracy was very weak and Italy and people
desired for a new government because they were
beginning to lose faith in the constructs of the
nation. Furthermore, Mussolini founded the Fasci
Di Combattimento9 (groups)- he organized the
veterans of the war into squads known as the
“Black Shirts” from 1920-1921 and they were used
to terrorize political opponents (in this case the socialists). During 1921 Socialism was on
an upward trend, expanding greatly so the Fascist party was invited into parliament to
form a coalition government in hopes of slowing down the rise of Socialism10. The last
important factor which aided Mussolini to gain power is Italy’s economic problems. After
the First World War this was inflation, debt and unemployment and the economic
conditions increased the support of extremists. Mussolini took advantage of this situation
and conducted the “March of Rome” in hopes of overthrowing the gov. He succeeded
but their was still the king left.
9
UAHSDGriffin. "Mussolini 1918-1926." uahsibhistory -.
https://uahsibhistory.wikispaces.com/Mussolini+1918-1926 (accessed September 19,
2014).
10
BBC. "Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)." BBC News. 19,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml (accessed
September 2014).
4. How they consolidated, maintained power, reinforced power
 What was the role of the army, police, and special forces?
 How was opposition dealt with from within and without?
 What role did propaganda and censorship play?
 To what extent did the dictator try to be popular and why?
It was important for Mussolini to establish a positive relationship with the Roman
Catholic Church. Using the Lateran Treaty he guaranteed loyalty from the Catholics who
may not have been in support of fascism in Italy11 and this is because many people
looked to the Church for advice. Even before the Lateran Treaty, Mussolini and the Grand
Fascist council introduced the “Acerbo Law” in 1923 which changed election results so
that any party with 25% or more votes would get 66%12 of the seats in parliament. He
also used fascist force (Black Shirts) to silence anyone who spoke against this law.
Consequently, Mussolini was supported by the Liberals and with their help he introduced
strict censorship and changed election methods13. He had tight control over the press and
his propaganda skills manipulated people causing minimal opposition. If there was any
opposition they were put down by his secret police and the Fascist Party militia.
Moreever, he engaged in highly sophisticated propaganda methods to elevate his status
(wrapping himself in the Italian flag-- living embodiment14). To expand his influence he
used media to publicize and push his agendas and also targeted the education system for
reform15-- the kids were infused with patriotism. In order to be all power-full he initiated
11
"Mussolini's Dictatorship." Mussolini's Dictatorship.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_dictatorship.html (accessed September
24, 2014).
12
"Mussolini's Dictatorship." Mussolini's Dictatorship.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_dictatorship.html (accessed September
24, 2014).
13
"Silvapages." Benito Mussolini. http://ibatpv.org/projects/italy/mussolini.htm
(accessed October 5, 2014).
14
Keko, Don. "Mussolini and Propaganda." Examiner.com.
http://www.examiner.com/article/mussolini-and-propaganda (accessed
October 5, 2014).
15
Keko, Don
the March of Rome as stated
previously to seize power
over the capital and create a
cult of personality for the
Italians to worship.
“A good beating never
hurt anyone.” Mussolini (1924)16
This further reinforces that
Mussolini would revert to
violence and force when and if necessary in order to get people to cooperate with his
ideas.
5. Their policies both internal and external policies with sufficient detail,
impacts of these policies, their motivations
 What were the dictator’s main
foreign, economic, education,
military, minority and social
policies?
Foreign Policies:17
During the Corfu incident in 1923, Mussolini
demanded an apology and 50 million lira from
Greece. However, once they refused, he occupied the
island of Corfu. But Italy eventually withdrawaled
after being confronted by the great European powers.
This is significant that although Italy could bully the
smaller powers, he is unable to stand up to the bigger
ones and thus highlights the gap between power.
Another police was the 1924 Pact of Rome
which ceded Fiume from Yugoslavia to Italy (The
area of land that was promised to Italy for
16
"Mussolini's Dictatorship." Mussolini's Dictatorship.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_dictatorship.html (accessed September
24, 2014).
17
"Sweetibnotes." Mussolini Leadership. July 3, 2011. Accessed October 5, 2014.
http://sweetibnotes.blogspot.ca/2011/07/mussolini-leadership.html.
participation during the first world war). Mussolini’s success gained him great popularity.
In fact, the success of Flume persuaded Mussolini that he could establish spheres of
influence over Yugoslavia. As a result, Mussolini financed chieftain Ahmed Zog who
came to power in Albania on Yugoslavia’s southern border which ultimately gave Italy
influence influence over Albania. The Treaty of Friendship was later developed between
Italy and Albania in 1926. These interactions and pacts gave clear indication of Italy’s
potential military threat to Yugoslavia. This was further accentuated by his funding of
ethnic minorities such as Croatia within Yugoslavia.
Italy also remained in the League of Nations, signed the Locarno Treaties, entered
into the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928. Mussolini enjoyed being taken seriously as an
Italian statesman and saw the opportunity to enhance prestige and power at home. He
hoped his moderation would lead to concessions for Italy from Britain and France.
Mussolini entered the Locarno conference by racing across Lake Maggiore in a
flotilla of speedboats. The dramatic entrances portrayed by Italian press to show
Mussolini was treated equal to the great powers - exaggeration created a powerful
impression on Italians.
Anschluss, Austro-German union threat triggered another foreign policy. The
Anschluss which united Austria with Germany meant that Germany would have a
powerful extension to sharing an Alpine border with Italy meaning Italy would lose
security of their north-eastern border. This led to the creation of the “Sresa Front” with
Britain and France. This gave added protection against Anschluss (and indicated that the
Western powers wanted to avoid Germany allying with other states) which Mussolini
took advantage to gain Italian concessions.
The conquest of Abyssinia was another major foreign policy used to avenge
Italy’s honour from loss at Battle of Adowa
in 1896 (6,000 Italian men killed by
Ethiopian Army).
Economic Policies:
As one of his first measures of
government, Mussolini appointed Alberto
De Stefani as Minister of Finance. A
“Laissez faire” policy was put into effect
which lasted till resignation and resulted in a
balanced budget by 1925. A rate of savings
and capital accumulation was unsurpassed
until Italy’s economic prosperity of the
1950s, and major industrial growth.
Perrone Memorandum of April 1924 - “Mussolini cannot submit to the present
situation; he must become the mast of the keys of national economy.” It demonstrated
views of key government figures who believed absolute economic authority was
necessary of prosperity in Italy due to its industrial backwardness.
Pact of Palazzo Vidoni, signed October 1925 between Confederation of
industrialists and Fascist unions, monopolized worker’s unions under a Fascist syndicate.
This outlawed socialist and catholic trade unions, placing workers under the submissive
control of the Fascist party. There was also a removal of the commissioni interne, took
away the right for investigation or representation for workers. This was essentially when
Italy lost the last remaining aspect of a free electoral system.
Centralized banking began 1926, by fall, the Instituto di Emissione became
responsible for the issuance of national currency.
Part of his rule, Mussolini also announced re-evaluation of the lira in August
1926, and pegged the exchange rate at 90 lira to the point sterling
On June 1925, Mussolini introduced a program to increase the cereal and grain
yield of the peninsula and establish protective tariffs on grain (to gain independence of
foreign grain imports). This policy was meant to reduce the country’s dependency on
foreign bread which was a significant drain on the country’s ability for foreign exchange.
As a result, in 1935: Italy’s total foreign exchange reduced by 15% which in 1925 was
devoted to grain imports. This signified Mussolini’s success of helping Italy gain
independence as a self-sufficient nation
Furthermore, the Fascist government introduced public work schemes (eg.
building motorways, hydroelectric power plants). This Increased amount of money in
circulation significantly, stimulated demand and created more jobs
Moreover, the government intervened to ‘bail-out’ banks, and ultimately created
the Institute for industrial Reconstruction in January 1933. This helped avoid the severe
banking collapse experienced by the US and Germany (1932, US banks closing
40%/day). The Italian state become major shareholder, thus
effective owner of many Italian companies
Education:
Regime took measures to secure loyalty of teachers.
Teachers suspect of political views could be dismissed from
1925 onwards. From 1929, all teachers were required to take
an oath of loyalty to the regime. In 1931, Fascist Teachers’
Association set up to regulate profession (membership
compulsory by 1937). Furthermore, the Duce’s portrait had to
be hung of the King (Mussolini’s genius constantly
emphasized). It was also compulsory textbook for eight-yearolds stated: “The eyes of the Duce are on every one of you.”
and “You must obey because you must.”
In 1926, 101/317 textbooks were banned for being
insufficiently patriotic. And by the 1936, there was one single official history textbook
that was compulsory. Achievements of Marco Polo, Michelangelo and Christopher
Columbus were celebrated in the texts. There were also gross exaggerations (e.g. Italian
victories in WWI were responsible for saving France, Britain and the US from defeat).
Military:
One of Mussolini’s main Military
Policies was the “Fascist Military Policy”. In
the book Mussolini Unleashed 1931-194118 it
states that he subordinated this policy to the
maintenance of his personal position as a
leader and as a result the military focused
more on the “duce” in comparison to the
nation itself. The military was solely used to
reinforce his power and to wipe out any
opposition or threat to Mussolini. In addition,
the military was used for invasions such as the
one in Ethiopia with modern tanks and
airplanes to expand the Italian empire. He also
used the military to support other fascist
regimes in the world-- for example he sent his
own regime to Spain to support the Spanish
Fascists in the Spanish Civil War.
Minority:
18
"Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941." Google Books.
http://books.google.ca/books?id=FNjxX7uZYQEC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=mussolin
i%27s+military+policy&source=bl&ots=wT7GZ-fNzg&sig=Oxrm_HTiBSiA-veOiTCGKqz3i8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZsgxVPK0EpekyATuw4AI&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCA#v=onepa
ge&q=mussolini's%20military%20policy&f=false (accessed October 5, 2014)
After Mussolini took power
in 1922, he suppressed the ethnic
minorities very ruthlessly. He
himself was an atheist but targeted
religion to suppress the ethnic
minorities (in this case the Jewish
people). He formed the “Manifesto”
which was really close to the
Nuremberg laws established by
Hitler and was the basis for
Mussolini’s racial policies19. There
were severe restrictions and
judgements made about the Jewish
population. If you had a Jewish ancestor you were by default also a Jewish, their passport
was confiscated along with property, children were not allowed into any education
institution, Jewish adults were banned from all jobs especially government positions and
to top it all off, they were required to live in specified Jewish quarters which were
guarded at all times by the Fascist militia.
Social:
19
"Benito Mussolini: Italian Fascist, His Racial Laws, and Ultimate Downfall Part
4: Attack on the Jews." HubPages.
There were only two main goals to
Mussolini’s social policies: first to secure
himself as an all-powerful leader and
second was the transform the Italian society
into a bourgeois mentality (commitment to
fascism and the nation). The “Battle of
Births”20 was introduced in 1927 and
encompassed the idea that women should
be reproducing faster in order to provide for
the nation’s army and show that there are
signs of vitality. The reason behind this was
to increase the population from 40 million to 60 million by 1950 21 so therefore 12
children were seen as the ideal for each family. He used incentives for married couples
such as tax breaks and loans to increase the fertility rate, whereas the childless couples
were punished with high taxes and job restrictions. It was severe to the point where in the
1930s the Civil Service would only employ people who were married and were fertile.
Overall the policy was seen as unsuccessful because the population had only risen to 47.5
million, the marriage rate remained approx. the same and birth rates declined until 1936.
Religious Policies:
Being an atheist himself Mussolini did not place much interest in religion, but he
preferred to replace Catholicism with Fascism to win a greater public support. The
Lateran Treaty of 192922 ended the conflict between the Italian state and Catholic church
because the pope was given control over Vatican city and compensation for many of the
historic losses faced by the Church. There were advantages for both Mussolini since he
was provided with the recognition of the Catholic Church and the Church because it was
then seen as the state religion and it became mandatory for this religious knowledge to be
taught in schools. The policy proved to be somewhat successful because it secured the
moral backing of the Church and promised them they would not be seen as political
20
Rudbeck. "3.20 Mussolini's social and religious policies." Rudbeck-IB-HistoryRevision -. https://rudbeck-ib-historyrevision.wikispaces.com/3.20+Mussolini's+social+and+religious+policies (accessed
October 5, 2014).
21
Rudbeck. "3.20 Mussolini's social and religious policies." Rudbeck-IB-HistoryRevision -. https://rudbeck-ib-historyrevision.wikispaces.com/3.20+Mussolini's+social+and+religious+policies (accessed
October 5, 2014).
22
"Mussolini's Dictatorship." Mussolini's Dictatorship.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_dictatorship.html (accessed September
24, 2014).
opposition or be brought into political affairs. However, the policy in a sense could also
be seen as a minor failure because Mussolini had failed to replace Catholicism with
Fascism which made people believe that he was giving up on replacing the influence of
the Church.
6. Conclusion - Assess their legacy, impact, influence, successes, failures (both
short and long term)
 What happened to the Dictator: How long did the dictator stay in
power?
 To what extent were the dictators goals implemented?
 How will or has history viewed this particular dictator?
 Assess the good and bad that this dictator
did for the state.
During the last days of the war in Italy, Mussolini
attempted to escape the advancing allied Army by hiding in a
German convoy headed towards the Alps. However, the
Partisans stopped and searched the convoy in Dongo where he
was found wearing a private’s overcoat over his striped
general’s pants. He was taken prisoner and was later joined by
mistress, Clara Petacci, at Mezzegra. The council of partisan
leaders, lead by Communists, secretly decided to execute
Mussolini and 15 leading Fascists in retaliation. They were
executed on April 29th, 1945, and their bodies hung at an Esso
gas station in the Piazzale Lorento in Milan where the crowd
vented their anger on the corpses. Eventually, the Allies
ordered the bodies removal for burial.
He was the leader of the first Fascist movement in Italy and had a major impact
on the nation between 1922 (when he first gained power) to 1939. People were driving by
Mussolini’s vision of establishing a powerful authoritarian state with a centre in
international affairs.23 He introduced many policies and although many failed to achieve
their intended results he was able to consolidate a fascist state under his rule. His fascism
was popular in Italy because he aspired to fulfill Italy’s desires24 (one of which included
23
"Evaluate the impact of Mussolini's domestic policies on Italy between 1922
and 1939.." Vedant Batras Blog. http://vedantbatra.wordpress.com/2013/04/13/evaluatethe-impact-of-mussolinis-domestic-policies-on-italy-between-1922-and-1939/ (accessed
October 7, 2014).
24
"Evaluate the impact of Mussolini's domestic policies on Italy between 1922
and 1939.." Vedant Batras Blog. http://vedantbatra.wordpress.com/2013/04/13/evaluatethe-impact-of-mussolinis-domestic-policies-on-italy-between-1922-and-1939/ (accessed
October 7, 2014).
the status of Italy as a world power). Mussolini gave his citizens the much needed
attentions and dynamics that they needed and were not provided with by the older and
inefficient democratic systems.25 Historian Martin Clark believes that everything that
Mussolini was based on politics and propaganda.26 Overall many of the policies created
by Mussolini brought him considerable public support, but Mussolini was never able to
establish his “ideal fascist state” and most of his policies were instruments of propaganda
without actual measures being taken
25
Ibid
26
Ibid
Bibliography
1. "Evaluate the impact of Mussolini's domestic policies on Italy between 1922 and
1939.." Vedant Batras Blog.
http://vedantbatra.wordpress.com/2013/04/13/evaluate-the-impact-of-mussolinisdomestic-policies-on-italy-between-1922-and-1939/ (accessed October 7, 2014).
2. "Mussolini's Dictatorship." Mussolini's Dictatorship.
http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mussolini_dictatorship.html (accessed
September 24, 2014).
3. Rudbeck. "3.20 Mussolini's social and religious policies." Rudbeck-IB-HistoryRevision -. https://rudbeck-ib-historyrevision.wikispaces.com/3.20+Mussolini's+social+and+religious+policies
(accessed October 5, 2014).
4. Benito Mussolini: Italian Fascist, His Racial Laws, and Ultimate Downfall Part 4:
Attack on the Jews. HubPages.
5. "Mussolini Unleashed, 1939-1941." Google Books.
http://books.google.ca/books?id=FNjxX7uZYQEC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=m
ussolini%27s+military+policy&source=bl&ots=wT7GZfNzg&sig=Oxrm_HTiBSiA-veOiTCGKqz3i8&hl=en&sa=X&ei=ZsgxVPK0EpekyATuw4AI&ved=0CFYQ6AEwCA#v
=onepage&q=mussolini's%20military%20policy&f=false (accessed October 5,
2014)
6. "Sweetibnotes." Mussolini Leadership. July 3, 2011. Accessed October 5, 2014.
http://sweetibnotes.blogspot.ca/2011/07/mussolini-leadership.html.
7. Keko, Don. "Mussolini and Propaganda." Examiner.com.
http://www.examiner.com/article/mussolini-and-propaganda (accessed October 5,
2014).
8. "Silvapages." Benito Mussolini. http://ibatpv.org/projects/italy/mussolini.htm
(accessed October 5, 2014).
9. BBC. "Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)." BBC News. 19,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/mussolini_benito.shtml (accessed
September 2014).
10. UAHSDGriffin. "Mussolini 1918-1926." uahsibhistory -.
https://uahsibhistory.wikispaces.com/Mussolini+1918-1926 (accessed September
19, 2014).
11. Soucy, Robert. "Fascism (politics)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Accessed
October 7, 2014. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202210/fascism.
12. Blackwood, Alan, and Edward Mortelmans. "Benito Mussolini." In Twenty
Tyrants. Reference ed. New York: M. Cavendish, 1990.
13. Crystal, David. The Cambridge Biographical Encyclopedia. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1994. Pg. 681.