Chapter 11 Summary of Rothwell & Kazanas: Key Points
Instructional Strategies
Introduction:
Instruction is..
...a set of events external to the learner which are designed to support the
internal processes of learning.
Gagné and Briggs, 1979
...a translation of a philosophical or theoretical position regarding
instruction into a statement of the way in which instruction should be
carried out in specific circumstances.
Romiszowski, 1981
It is at this point that all the information gathering is over; as is all of the
relating of diagnosed problems to educational solutions; the analysis of
the tasks and/or the content; the creation of objectives which relate to
those tasks and that content; and the development of ways to assess the
learning. Now the more creative parts begin. How can you imagine and
create a way for every learner who will work with the materials you create
to learn the material, to be motivated while doing it, and be able to use the
learning in meaningful ways afterward?
The two issues the instructional designer must now face are sequencing
the learning and establishing an instructional strategy, followed in turn by
message design. While both sequencing and the development of a
strategy can be done intuitively, using whatever suggests itself to mind,
both can benefit by disciplined reflection on the nature of the learning and
which approach to sequencing and structuring the learning experience
should work best. This is also a point in the process where there is a great
deal of moving between categories as sequencing, developing a strategy,
and designing the message characteristics of a learning experience
interact with each other to a high degree in the design process.
Specifying Instructional Strategies
Defining Instructional Strategy
An instructional strategy is an overall plan that will govern content (what will be
taught).
It is a plan for systematically exposing learners to experiences that will help them
acquire verbal information, establish a cognitive strategy, or develop intellectual
skills, motor skills or new attitudes
It’s like a blueprint – it shows what can be done. It can be used:
1. as a prescription to develop instructional materials
2. as a set of criteria to evaluate existing materials
3. as a set of criteria by which you can revise existing materials
4. As a framework for planning lecture notes, class exercises an
homework (Dick and Carey, 1997).
It’s something needs doing before the materials are created…to spell out:
1. What methods, devices and settings people need to instruct the
message
2. What media will be used
3. the location for instruction
4. the methods of integrating 1 to 3
Distinguishing between 2 Kinds of Instructional Strategy
Macroinstructional strategies: an overall plan governing a discrete learning
experience – like a course or module. This is a strategy to help learners
achieve overall terminal performance objectives. (Big Picture Road Map).
Microinstrutional strategies: are specific plans governing each PART of
the learning experience – such as a unit or lesson within a course or
module.
Conceptualizing Instructional Strategy
There are 2 ways to think about strategy – based on the philosophy of learning
and instruction or.. based on the events of instruction
1. Instructional Strategy. Based on Philosophy
If instruction is believed to occur through the communication (transmission)
process, it happens in 4 steps:
1. present information to passive learners.
2. test learners for practice or apply the message
3. present opportunities for learners to practice or apply the message
4. present opportunities for learners to generalize what they have learned
from real situations or problems.
Or
If instruction is believed to occur through the communication (exploration) or
discovery strategy process, it happens in 4 steps:
1. structure learning events so learners have an opportunity to observe
things and reflect on them
2. question the learners about experiences and observe learner reactions
3. help learners think about the experiences and observe learner reactions
4. help learners discover general principles applying to the observations
2. Instructional Strategy Based on Events of Instruction
See Gagne and Briggs
http://www.ucalgary.ca/%7Eekowch/673/resources/gagnebriggsindex.html
Trainers and instructional designers designing performance training events start
by examining performance objectives in order to determine what type of learning
is to be created. They choose an instructional strategy based on the kind of
learning that is to occur such as intellectual (speak it), motor skill (do it),
intellectual skill (recall & apply it), cognitive skill (problem solve it) or attitude
(change my behavior in this way…).
Once the overall instructional strategy has been selected, consider the events of
instruction (per Gagne link, above).
Choosing Appropriate Strategies and Tactics
Expository instruction works well if learners have no experience in the content at
hand.
On the job training works well if scaffolding is in placed, and instruction /
mentoring / apprenticeship can be coordinated
See table page 219: Some instructional Strategies and Tactics include
Contextualizing instruction (strategy)

Gain learner attention (tactic)

Pose questions to learners

Learner poses question to others

Present and cue lesson content

Vary lesson unit size

Large chunks

Small chunks

Etc..

Present vocabulary

Provide Examples

Use Cueing systems

Advise the learner
Activate Learner processing of instruction

Elicit learner activities

Review prerequisites skills or knowledge

Learner selects quality information resources

Learning strategies to use are chosen.
Etc..

Elicit recall strategies

Facilitate learner elaboration’s

Help learners integrate new knowledge

Help leanness organize new information
Assess learning

Provide feedback after practice

Confirmatory, knowledge of correct response

Corrective or remedial

Informative feedback

Analytical feedback

Enrichment feedback

Self-generated feedback

Provide Practice

Testing learning
Sequencing Instructional Events

Sequence instruction in logical order

Deductive sequence

Inductive sequence

Inductive sequence with practice

Sequence instruction in learning prerequisite order

Sequence instruction in procedural order

Sequence instruction according to content organization

Sequence instruction according to story structure.
Source: Jonassen, D., & Grabinger, S. (1990). Analyzing and selecting Instructional Strategies
and Tactics. In Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1990, 3(2), 34-38.
Appreciating the Learner’s Perspective: Cognitive Strategies
Input Cognitive Strategies
Include both internal and external motivators / interests. ARCS. Pay attention to what interests
the learner in the job context
Process Cognitive Strategies

Help learners make sense of what they learn:

Rehearsal: the trying out of something new

Elaboration: associating something new with something previously learned

Organization: imposing structure on something newly learned through outlining,
categorizing, diagramming
Output Cognitive Strategies

Students apply what they learn or acquire a new skill by applying what they have learned –
try getting the student to teach to others.
Feedback Cognitive Strategies

Students learn by providing feedback to others. Cases work well here, and tutoring / teaching
other students or rating other students.
Judging Instructional Strategy:
Designers: Test your strategy by asking these questions:
1. How sound is the instructional strategy, considering the learners’
characteristics?
2. How sound Is… considering the performance objectives?
3. How congruent is the instructional strategy considering the
setting resources and constraints?
4. How clearly does the instructional strategy describe the
techniques, media and settings?