Seismic Waves
and the Slinky
Prof. Lawrence W. Braile
Purdue University
braile@purdue.edu
(March, 2006)
Seismic Waves: Because of the elastic properties of Earth
materials (rocks) and the presence of the Earth's surface,
four main types of seismic waves propagate within the
Earth. Compressional (P) and Shear (S) waves propagate
through the Earth’s interior and are known as body waves.
Love and Rayleigh waves propagate primarily at and near
the Earth's surface and are called surface waves. Wave
propagation and particle motion characteristics for the P, S,
Rayleigh and Love waves are illustrated in Figures 1-4.
Additional illustrations of P, S, Rayleigh and Love waves
are contained in Bolt (1993, p. 27 and 37; 2004, p. 22) and
in Shearer (1999, p. 32 and 152). Effective animations of
P and S waves are contained in the Nova video
"Earthquake" (1990; about 13 minutes into the program)
and of P, S, Rayleigh and Love waves in the Discovery
Channel video "Living with Violent Earth: We Live on
Somewhat Shaky Ground" (1989, about 3 minutes into the
program), and at:
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/WaveDe
mo.htm.
Slinky Demonstrations of P and S Waves: The P and S
waves have distinctive particle motions (Figures 1-4) and
travel at different speeds. P and S waves can be
demonstrated effectively with a slinky (the original metal
slinky works best). For the P or compressional wave, have
two people hold the ends of the slinky about 3-4 meters
apart. One person should cup his or her hand over the end
(the last 3-4 coils) of the slinky and, when the slinky is
nearly at rest, hit that hand with the fist of the other hand.
The compressional disturbance that is transmitted to the
slinky will propagate along the slinky to the other person.
Note that the motion of each coil is either compressional or
extensional with the movement parallel to the direction of
propagation. Because the other person is holding the
slinky firmly, the P wave will reflect at that end and travel
back along the slinky. The propagation and reflection will
continue until the wave energy dies out. The propagation
of the P wave by the slinky is illustrated in Figure 5.
Demonstrating the S or Shear wave is performed in a
similar fashion except that the person who creates the shear
disturbance does so by moving his or her hand quickly up
and then down. This motion generates a motion of the
coils that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation,
which is along the slinky. Note that the particle motion is
not only perpendicular to the direction of motion but also
Copyright
2001-2006. L. Braile. Permission granted for
reproduction for non-commercial uses.
in the vertical plane. One can also produce Shear waves
with the slinky in which the motion is in the horizontal
plane by the person creating the source moving his or her
hand quickly left and then right. The propagation of the S
wave by the slinky is illustrated in Figure 6. Notice that,
although the motion of the disturbance was purely
perpendicular to the direction of propagation (no motion in
the disturbing source was directed along the slinky), the
disturbance still propagates away from the source, along
the slinky. The reason for this phenomenon (a good
challenge question for students) is because the material is
elastic and the individual coils are connected (like the
individual particles of a solid) and thus transmit their
motion (disturbance or deformation) to the adjacent coils.
As this process continues, the shear disturbance travels
along the entire slinky (elastic medium).
P and S waves can also be generated in the slinky by an
additional method that reinforces the concept of elasticity
and the elastic rebound theory which explains the
generation of earthquakes by plate tectonic movements
(Bolt, 1993, p. 74-77; 2004, p. 113-116). In this method,
for the P wave, one person should slowly gather a few of
the end coils of the slinky into his or her hand. This
process stores elastic energy in the coils of the slinky that
are compressed (as compared to the other coils in the
stretched slinky) similar to the storage of elastic energy in
rocks adjacent to a fault that are deformed by plate motions
prior to slip along a fault plane in the elastic rebound
process. When a few coils have been compressed, release
them suddenly (holding on to the end coil of the slinky)
and a compressional wave disturbance will propagate
along the slinky. This method helps illustrate the concept
of the elastic properties of the slinky and the storage of
energy in the elastic rebound process. However, the
compressional wave that it generates is not as simple or
visible as the wave produced by using a blow of one’s fist,
so it is suggested that this method be demonstrated after
the previously described method using the fist.
Figure 1. Perspective view of elastic P-wave propagation
through a grid representing a volume of material. The directions
X and Y are parallel to the Earth's surface and the Z direction is
depth. T = 0 through T = 3 indicate successive times. The
disturbance that is propagated is a compression (grid lines are
closer together) followed by a dilatation or extension (grid lines
are farther apart). The particle motion is in the direction of
propagation. The material returns to its original shape after the
wave has passed.
Figure 3. Perspective view of Rayleigh-wave propagation
through a grid representing a volume of elastic material.
Rayleigh waves are surface waves. The disturbance that is
propagated is, in general, an elliptical motion which consists of
both vertical (shear; perpendicular to the direction of
propagation but in the plane of the raypath) and horizontal
(compression; in the direction of propagation) particle motion.
The amplitudes of the Rayleigh wave motion decrease with
distance away from the surface. The material returns to its
original shape after the wave has passed.
Figure 2. Perspective view of S-wave propagation through a grid
representing a volume of elastic material. The disturbance that is
propagated is an up motion followed by a down motion (the shear
motion could also be directed horizontally or any direction that is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation). The particle
motion is perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The
material returns to its original shape after the wave has passed.
Figure 4. Perspective view of Love-wave propagation through a
grid representing a volume of elastic material. Love waves are
surface waves. The disturbance that is propagated is horizontal
and perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The
amplitudes of the Love wave motion decrease with distance away
from the surface. The material returns to its original shape after
the wave has passed.
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person can generate the motion of the Rayleigh wave by
rapidly moving his or her hand in a circular or elliptical
motion. The motion should be up, back (toward the person
generating the motion), down, and then forward (away
from the person), coming back to the original location and
forming an ellipse or circle with the motion of the hand.
This complex pattern will propagate along the slinky but
will look very similar to an S wave. Rayleigh wave motion
also decreases with depth below the surface. Excellent
illustrations of the wave motion of Love and Rayleigh
waves can also be found in Bolt (1993, p. 37). Further
details on the characteristics and propagation of Love and
Rayleigh waves can be found in Bolt (1993, p. 37-41).
Figure 5. Compressional (P) wave propagation in a slinky. A
disturbance at one end results in a compression of the coils
followed by dilation (extension), and then another compression.
With time (successive times are shown by the diagrams of the
slinky at times t1 through t6), the disturbance propagates along
the slinky. After the energy passes, the coils of the slinky return
to their original, undisturbed position. The direction of particle
motion is in the direction of propagation.
Similarly, using this "elastic rebound" method for the S
waves, one person holding the end of the stretched slinky
should use their other hand to grab one of the coils about
10-12 coils away from the end of the slinky. Slowly pull
on this coil in a direction perpendicular to the direction
defined by the stretched slinky. This process applies a
shearing displacement to this end of the slinky and stores
elastic energy (strain) in the slinky similar to the storage of
strain energy in rocks adjacent to a fault or plate boundary
by plate tectonic movements. After the coil has been
displaced about 10 cm or so, release it suddenly (similar to
the sudden slip along a fault plane in the elastic rebound
process) and an S wave disturbance will propagate along
the slinky away from the source.
Figure 6. Shear (S) wave propagation in a slinky. A disturbance
at one end results in an up motion of the coils followed by a down
motion of the coils. With time (successive times are shown by the
diagrams of the slinky at times t1 through t6), the disturbance
propagates along the slinky. After the energy passes, the coils of
the slinky return to their original, undisturbed position. The
direction of particle motion is perpendicular (for example, up and
down or side to side) to the direction of propagation.
Wave Propagation in All Directions: An additional
demonstration with P and S waves can be performed with
the 5-slinky model. By attaching 5 slinkys to a wood
block as shown in Figure 7, 5 people can hold the ends of
the 5 slinkys (stretched out in different directions to about
3-4 m each). One person holds the wood block and can
generate P or S waves (or even a combination of both) by
hitting the wood block with a closed fist or causing the
block to move quickly up and then down or left and then
right. The purpose of this demonstration is to show that
the waves propagate in all directions in the Earth from the
source (not just in the direction of a single slinky).
Surface Waves: The Love wave (Figure 4) is easy to
demonstrate with a slinky or a double length slinky.
Stretch the slinky out on the floor or on a tabletop and have
one person at each end hold on to the end of the slinky.
Generate the Love wave motion by quickly moving one
end of the slinky to the left and then to the right. The
horizontal shearing motion will propagate along the slinky.
Below the surface, the Love wave motion is the same
except that the amplitudes decrease with depth. Using the
slinky for the Rayleigh wave (Figure 3) is more difficult.
With a regular slinky suspended between two people, one
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Five Slinky P and S Wave Propagation Demonstration
Slinky
Screw and
washer
Holes,
6.3 cm apart
~ 10 cm
Figure 8. Photograph of the five slinky model.
Wood block
~ 25 cm
Figure 7. Diagram showing how five slinkys can be attached to
the edge of a wood block. Photographs of the five slinky model
are shown in Figures 8 and 9. When the slinkys are stretched out
to different positions (five people hold the end of one slinky each)
and a P or S wave is generated at the wood block, the waves
propagate out in all directions. The five slinky model can also be
used to show that the travel times to different locations (such as
to seismograph stations) will be different. To demonstrate this
effect, wrap a small piece of tape around a coil near the middle
one of the slinkys. Have the person holding that slinky compress
all of the coils from the outer end to the coil with the tape so that
only one half of the slinky is extended. Also, attach an additional
(sixth) slinky, using plastic electrical tape, to the end of one of the
slinkys. Have the person holding this double slinky stand farther
away from the wood block so that the double slinky is fully
extended. When a P or S wave is generated at the wood block,
the waves that travel along the slinky will arrive at the end of the
half slinky first, then at approximately the same time at the three
regular slinkys, and finally, last at the double length slinky
Figure 9. Close-up view of five slinky model showing attachment
of slinky using screws and washers (holes are 6.3 cm apart,
screws are #6, ½” long, washers are 3/16”).
wave types and wave characteristics. One can also use
slinky activities for authentic assessment by asking
students to show their understanding by performing the
demonstrations in class.
Attaching an additional slinky (with small pieces of
plastic electrical tape) to one of the five slinkys attached to
the wood block makes one slinky into a double length
slinky which can be stretched out to 6-8 m. For one of the
other four slinkys, have the person holding it collapse
about half of the coils and hold them in his or her hands,
forming a half slinky, stretched out about 1½ - 2 m. Now
when a source is created at the wood block, one can see
that the waves take different amounts of time to travel the
different distances to the ends of the various slinkys. An
effective way to demonstrate the different arrival times is
to have the person holding each slinky call out the word
"now" when the wave arrives at their location (if the
people holding the slinkys close their eyes and call out
when they feel the wave arrive, their responses may be
more accurate). The difference in arrival times for the
different distances will be obvious from the sequence of
the call of "now." This variation in travel time is similar to
what is observed for an earthquake whose waves travel to
various seismograph stations that are different distances
from the source (epicenter).
Although these two
demonstrations with the five slinky model represent fairly
simple concepts, we have found the demonstrations to be
very effective with all age groups. In fact, the five slinky
demonstrations are often identified the “favorite activities”
of participants.
Connections to National Science Education Standards
(National Research Council, 1996): Teaching Standards:
inquiry-based (A,B); opportunity for assessment (C).
Professional Development Standards: opportunity for
learning new Earth science content (A,C); suggestions for
effective teaching strategies (B). Assessment Standards:
authentic assessment (C). Content Standards: Science as
Inquiry – practice inquiry and fundamental science skills
(grades 5-8 and 9-12, A); Physical Science – properties of
matter, motion, transfer of energy (grades 5-8, B), structure
of matter, motion, interactions of energy and matter
(grades 9-12, B); Earth and Space Science – relate to
energy in the Earth system (grades 9-12, D).
References:
Bolt, B.A., Earthquakes and Geological Discovery, Scientific American
Library, W.H. Freeman, New York, 229 pp., 1993.
Bolt, B.A., Earthquakes, (5th edition; similar material is included in earlier
editions), W.H. Freeman, New York, 378 pp., 2004.
Earthquake, NOVA series videotape, 58 minutes, available from 800-2559424; http://www.pbs.org, 1990.
Living with Violent Earth: We Live on Somewhat Shaky Ground,
Assignment Discovery series videotape, Discovery Channel, 25
minutes, http://www.dsc.discovery.com, 1989.
National Research Council, National Science Education Standards,
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 262 pp., 1996.
Shearer, P. M., Introduction to Seismology, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK, 260pp, 1999.
(This description of seismic waves and the slinky is excerpted from
Seismic Waves and the Slinky: A Guide for Teachers available at:
web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile. Developed in cooperation with the IRIS
Consortium [Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology,
www.iris.edu], supported by the National Science Foundation.)
Exploration and Assessment:
After demonstrating
seismic waves with the slinky, have students use the slinky
to explore wave propagation and generation of different
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