Annotated Bibliography
“Numerical modeling of stratigraphy”
Istvan Csato, Department of Geology
Study Grant: Spring, 2008
My study reviewed concepts of numerical modeling developed over the last two decades,
particularly the theory of diffusion applied in sediment transport and deposition.
Suggested key readings:
Cross, T.A. (Ed), 1990, Quantitative Dynamic Stratigraphy, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
Harbaugh et al., eds., 1999. Numerical Experiments in Stratigraphy: recent
advances in stratigraphic and sedimentologic computer simulations, SEPM
Special Publication 62, Tulsa, 362 p.
Paola, C., 2000. Quantitative models of sedimentary basin filling. Sedimentology
47 (Suppl. 1), 121– 178.
Syvitski, J. P. M., and E. W. H. Hutton, 2001. 2D SEDFLUX 1.0C: an advanced
process-response numerical model for the fill of marine sedimentary basins.
Computers and Geosciences, v. 27, p. 731-753.
C.A. Nittrouer, J.A. Austin, M.E. Field, J.H. Kravitz, J.P.M. Syvitski, and P.L.
Wiberg (Eds.), 2007. Continental-Margin Sedimentation: From Sediment
Transport to Sequence Stratigraphy. IAS Spec. Publ. No. 37.
My readings also included the latest developments in this field of geology: (i)
hyperpycnal flows (special turbidite currents that are fed directly by rivers and not
generated by slope failure), their recognition based on their specific grain size
distribution, numerical modeling of their deposition; (ii) slope fans and basin floor fans
forming during sea level highstands (the original concept considered these fans as
products of sea level falls), (iii) lack of turbidite fans during sea level falls when the
sediment supply is not sufficient to cause sediment bypass over the shelf, (iv) formation
and types of shelf margin deltas (a type of delta which was essentially overlooked until
recently), these deltas constitute a link between continental sedimentation, submarine
canyons and deep sea fans.
Suggested key readings:
(i) Hyperpycnal flows
Mulder, T., and Alexander, J., 2001. The physical character of subaqueous
sedimentary density flows and their deposits. Sedimentology, 48, 269-299.
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Mulder, T., Syvitski, J., P. M., Migeon, S., Faugères, J.-C., Savoye, B., 2003.
Marine hyperpycnal flows: initiation, behavior and related deposits. A review.
Marine and Petroleum Geology, 20, 861-882.
Parsons, J. D., Bush, J. W., Syvitski, J. P. M., 2001. Hyperpycnal plume
formation from riverine outflows with small sediment concentrations.
Sedimentology, 48, 465-478.
Plink-Bjorklund, P. and R.J. Steel, 2004. Initiation of turbidity currents: outcrop evidence
for Eocene hyperpycnal-flow turbidites. Sedimentary Geology 165, 29-52.
(ii) Turbidite fans at highstands
Carvajal, C. R.., and R. J. Steel, 2006, thick turbidite succession from supply
dominated shelves during sea-level highstand, Geology, v. 34, p. 665-668.
(iii)Lack of turbidite fans at lowstands
Plink-Bjorklund, P. and R. J. Steel, R.J., 2002. Sea level fall below the shelf edge,
without basin-floor fans. Geology, v. 30 115-118.
(iv) Shelf margin deltas
Porebski, S. and R. J. Steel, 2002. Shelf-margin deltas: their stratigraphic significance
and relationship to deepwater sands. Earth Science Reviews, 1282, p. 1-44
Annotated Bibliography
Aigner, T., Brandenburg, A., van Vliet, A., Doyle, M., Lawrence, D. & Westrich, J.,
1990, Stratigraphic modelling of epicontinental basins: two applications. Sedimentary
Geology, 69, 167-190.
This model falls in the geometric models category. In its time, late 80s and
early 90s, the geometric models were an essential part of the stratgraphic
modeling approach, however, later the process-oriented models became more
powerful. Today, geometric models are used mainly for teaching or
demonstration purposes.
Bowman, S. A., and P. R. Vail, 1999, Interpreting the stratigraphy of the Baltimore
canyon Section, offshore New Jersey with PHIL, a stratigraphic simulator in: Harbaugh
et al., eds., Numerical Experiments in Stratigraphy: recent advances in stratigraphic and
sedimentologic computer simulations, SEPM Special Publication 62, Tulsa, 362 p.
Bowman was a student of P. Vail, the father of sequence stratigraphy. He
developed a semi-geometric and semi-process based model for Macintosh
platform. His program never became a widely used tool in the scientific
community or the industry. The 1999 SEPM special publication is an
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important volume on stratigraphic modeling, it contains many innovative
studies and certainly represents a major stage in the development of this
field.
Cant, D.J., 1991, Geometric modeling of facies migration: theoretical development of
facies successions and local unconformities. Basin Research 3, p. 51-62.
Cant is a less known Canadian geologist who used a geometric approach to
analyze facies relations, but he formulated in my view very interesting ideas
that later were rediscovered or revised by many other authors.
Catuneanu, O., 2006, Principles of Sequence Stratigraphy, Elsevier, pp 375.
Catuneanu is a major figure in the relatively younger generation of sequence
stratigraphers working in Edmonton. His main study areas are old,
Precambrian basins. He wrote a superior book on the general concepts of
sequence stratigraphy and also contributed to sequence stratigraphy by the
development of the falling stage systems tract with other authors.
Carvajal, C. R.., and R. J. Steel, 2006, thick turbidite succession from supply dominated
shelves during sea-level highstand, Geology, v. 34, p. 665-668.
Ronald Steel has been of the greatest sequence stratigraphers in the last
decade. He developed with co-authors and students several new concepts,
including shelf edge deltas, hyperpycnal flows, autoretreat of margins.
Cross, T.A. (Ed), 1990, Quantitative Dynamic Stratigraphy, Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
This book was very innovative at its time; today it is outdated as this field has
developed significantly since 1990. T. Cross worked at Colorado School of
Mines (now retired), since then, new important research centers grew around
the nation and the world.
Einsele G., Ricken W., and Seilacher A., (Eds), 1991, Cycles and events in stratigraphy,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York 1991. 955p.
This volume was edited by German scientists; Einsele wrote other very good
textbooks as well. This book does not contain very innovative articles about
stratigraphic modeling, rather it focuses on geologic cycles. An article of P.
Vail has been cited extensively ever since in the sequence stratigraphic
community: about the order of depositional sequences.
Flemings, P. B., and J. P. Grotzinger, 1996, STRATA: Freeware for analyzing classic
stratigraphy problems, in: GSA Today, v. 6, n.12, p. 1-7.
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P. Fleimgs is one of the smartest brains in the field. He started his scientific
carrier in quantitative modeling of stratigraphy and wrote a code STRATA
in his PhD work at Cornell. Later he switched to studying geofluids, which is
obviously a “hotter” area for the oil industry where he maintains a
consortium. Additionally, he participates intensively in the deep see drilling
project. The STRATA, he developed at his early part of his carrier is not in
use anymore.
Frohlich, C., Matthews, R.K., 1991. Strata-various: a flexible program for dynamic
forward modeling of stratigraphy. In: Franseen, E.K., et al. (Eds.), Sedimentary
Modeling: Computer Simulations and Methods for Improved Parameter Definition,
Kansas Geol. Surv. Bull., vol. 233, pp. 449– 462.
Interestingly, Kansas Geological Survey was the pioneer of quantitative
stratigraphic modeling. This volume appeared in their edition. They were the
first, but they are not frontrunners today in the field. However, it is useful to
read their major early contributions.
Griffiths, C. M., F. Gradstein, 1996, Essentials of Quantitative Stratigraphy, Published by
Kluwer Academic Publishers Group.
C. Griffiths is a British geologist who is a professor at Adelaide University in
Australia. He took the program Sedsim, developed at Stanford and
significantly improved it and has used it in many real world modeling cases.
His research group has accumulated a lot of knowledge and experience in
this field and developed the program to 3-dimensional. Griffiths also wrote
this textbook type summary of concepts of modeling.
Griffiths C. M., Dyt, C., Paraschivoiu, E., Liu, K., 2001, Sedsim in hydrocarbon
exploration, in Merriam, D., Davis, J. C. (Eds.) Geologic Modeling and Simulation,
Kluwer Academic, New York, p. 71- 97.
This article presents Sedsim, originated at Stanford (see also previous
paragraph). The program is powerful in coastal environments, especially for
shorter geological time spans.
Harbaugh et al., (Eds.), 1999, Numerical Experiments in Stratigraphy: recent advances in
stratigraphic and sedimentologic computer simulations, SEPM Special Publication 62,
Tulsa, 362 p.
Harbaugh at Stanford was one of the earliest scientists who worked on
numerical modeling of geological processes. They developed, among others,
the Sedsim program, which today is being developed in Adelaide (see also
previous two paragraphs). This program is based on the Navier-Stokes
equation, which requires usually a lot of computational time especially in 3dimensions. The program is sophisticated and powerful, but it may not be
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always the best software in complicated geological cases, especially in basin
scale problems.
Harff, J., Lemke, W. and K. Stattegger, 1998, Computerized Modeling of Sedimentary
Systems, Springer, Berlin, 452p.
This is edited by German scientist, appeared at Springer. The articles have
not been cited by many authors later.
Jervey, M.T., 1988. Quantitative geological modeling of siliciclastic rock sequences and
their seismic expression. In: Wilgus, C.K., et al., (Eds.), Sea-Level Changes—An
Integrated Approach, Spec. Publ. SEPM, vol. 42, pp. 47– 69.
This SEPM special publication is a classical volume, which laid down the
basic concepts of sequence stratigraphy, making a revolution in sedimentary
geology. Jervey’s article was probably the first that attempted to construct a
semi-quantitative geometric approach of sequence development, thus became
the source for many new ideas and papers in the following years. (See also
last item in this list.)
Kendall, C.G.St.C., Strobel, J., Cannon, R., Bezdek, J., Biswas, G., 1991. The simulation
of the sedimentary fill of basins. J. Geophys. Res. 96 (B4), 6911– 6929.
Chris Kendall at USC formed a group to develop and use SEDPAK, a
geometric stratigraphic program. I participated in his research while
working on my Ph.D. The program is a powerful one in the geometrical
model category, and can be used effectively in teaching and some research.
Lawrence, D. T., M. Doyle, and T. Aigner, 1990, Stratigraphic simulation of sedimentary
basins: concepts and calibration: AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, no. 3, p. 273-295.
These authors were working at Shell that time and developed also a
geometric program (same category as SEDPAK). That time, their results
counted significant, today the geometric programs seem to be replaced by
process-response models.
Lessenger, M. A., 1993, Forward and inverse simulation models of stratal architecture
and facies distribution in marine shelf to coastal plain environments: Ph.D. dissertation,
Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 182p.
Lessenger was a student of Cross in Colorado. Her PhD was a so-called
inverse model. However, in reality, it falls also in the geometric models. Her
program was only (or mainly) used internally at Colorado School of Mines.
Mulder, T., and Alexander, J., 2001. The physical character of subaqueous sedimentary
density flows and their deposits. Sedimentology, 48, 269-299.
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T. Mulder is a great quantitative sedimentologist. He did his PhD. in UK and
later became a professor at Bordeaux university in France. He has published
extensively about hyperpycnal flows and became with his co-authors primary
authority of this specialty. His papers are certainly recommended for those
who are interested in turbidite or deep water sedimentary processes.
Mulder, T., Syvitski, J., P. M., Migeon, S., Faugères, J.-C., Savoye, B., 2003. Marine
hyperpycnal flows: initiation, behavior and related deposits. A review. Marine and
Petroleum Geology, 20, 861-882.
Mulder also worked with Syvitski, a great innovator in sedimentary process
modeling.
Nittrouer, C.A., J.A. Austin, M.E. Field, J.H. Kravitz, J.P.M. Syvitski, and P.L. Wiberg
(Eds.), 2007. Continental-Margin Sedimentation: From Sediment Transport to Sequence
Stratigraphy. IAS Spec. Publ. No. 37.
This is a great volume, contains many valuable papers that are not only case
studies, but reviews of a field: continental margin sedimentary processes,
sediment delivery to the seabed, post-depositional deformation, oceanic
dispersal of sediments, submarine mass movements, mechanics of marine
sedimentary gravity flows, prediction of margin stratigraphy.
Paola, C., 2000. Quantitative models of sedimentary basin filling. Sedimentology 47
(Suppl. 1), 121– 178.
C. Paola is a professor in Minnesota and director of the National Center of
Earth-Surface Dynamics, a highly regarded scientist. He has a major
contribution to computer modeling of stratigraphy by using the diffusion
theory. This article is a lengthy summary of knowledge and his contributions
in 2000. His research is focused mostly on fluvial sedimentary processes.
Parsons, J. D., Bush, J. W., Syvitski, J. P. M., 2001. Hyperpycnal plume formation from
riverine outflows with small sediment concentrations. Sedimentology, 48, 465-478.
Syvitski at the University of Colorado at Boulder, is one of the most
productive scientists at using numerical models for earth processes. He
investigates mostly modern geological processes rather that ancient
stratigraphy. He developed with colleagues the Sedflux program and many
others as well. Sedflux is probably the most sophisticated model available for
researchers to analyze many processes from fluvial to deep water
environments.
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Plink-Bjorklund, P. and R. J. Steel, R.J., 2002. Sea level fall below the shelf edge, without basinfloor fans. Geology, v. 30 115-118.
Steel with his students and colleagues has generated strikingly innovative ideas in
sequence stratigraphy. This article reports on evidences of sea level fall with no
existing lowstand systems tracts – a contradiction to the original sequence
stratigraphic concept.
Plink-Bjorklund, P. and R.J. Steel, 2004. Initiation of turbidity currents: outcrop evidence for
Eocene hyperpycnal-flow turbidites. Sedimentary Geology 165, 29-52.
This is another novel idea (see also previous comment): “Lowstand” turbidite
fans formed during sea level highststand- another contradiction to the
original sequence stratigraphic concept. Steel himself, does not do numerical
modeling, but works with modelers and makes innovative new
interpretations of stratigraphy.
Porebski, S. and R. J. Steel, 2002. Shelf-margin deltas: their stratigraphic significance
and relationship to deepwater sands. Earth Science Reviews, 1282, p. 1-44.
A major contribution of R. Steel. Shelf margin deltas were virtually
unknown before Steel’s work. He and his co-author make a great review of
the shelf margin delta concept and its relationship to fluvial transport and
submarine canyons and fans.
Posamentier, H. W., and G. P. Allen, 1999, "Siliciclastic Sequence Stratigraphy Concepts and Applications", published by the Society of Economic Petrologists and
Paleontologists, 216 pages.
Henry Posamentier is one the pioneers of the sequence stratigraphy theory.
As a young scientist, he worked in Vail’s group at Exxon. Ever since, he has
made regular contributions based on his industrial experience. However,
today he belongs the “older” generation and most of the innovations come
from other authors. But certainly, he remains the main authority of sequence
stratigraphy.
Reynolds, D.J., Steckler, M.S., Coakley, B.J., 1991. The role of the sediment load in
sequence stratigraphy: the influence of flexural isostasy and compaction. J. Geophys.
Res. 96 (B4), 6931–6949.
These authors are from Lamont Doherty and Columbia University, a
prestigious place in earth sciences and oceanography. They also developed a
diffusion based numerical model for stratigraphy in the late 80s-early 90s
and this paper presents very thoughtful ideas about stratigraphic
architecture that may be used even today.
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Rivenaes, J.C., 1997, Impact of sediment transport efficiency on large-scale sequence
architecture: results from stratigraphic computer simulation in: Basin Research, v9/2, p.
91-105.
This author is part of the Norwegian scientific community who became
significant by the 1980s as the North Sea oil exploration became one of the
largest projects in the world. This paper presents a very smart diffusion
approach for transport and deposition of sediments. Rivenaes is certainly an
important player in the field.
Slingerland, R., Harbaugh, J.., and Furlong, K.P., 1994, Simulating Clastic Sedimentary
Basins: Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall, 220 p.
Harbaugh at Stanford created several important programs and wrote books
about coastal modeling. He is already retired and his research group seems
to be nonexistent any more, the department takes a different research
direction.
Syvitski, J. P. M., Morehead, M. & Nicholson, M. (1998) HYDROTREND: A climatedriven hydrologic-transport model for predicting discharge and sediment to lakes or
oceans. Computers & Geosciences, 24, 51-68.
Syvitski, J. P. M., Pratson, L. & Morehead, M. D. (1997) EARTHWORKS: A large
spatial scale numerical model to study the flux of sediment to ocean basins and reworking
of deposits over various time scales. EOS Supplement, 78, F258.
Syvitski, J. P. M., and E. W. H. Hutton, 2001. 2D SEDFLUX 1.0C: an advanced processresponse numerical model for the fill of marine sedimentary basins. Computers and
Geosciences, v. 27, p. 731-753.
See above comments about Syvitski. He and his group invented several
valuable computer programs and work intensively on arctic, glacial, coastal
research projects for government and other organizations. He is also director
of the Community Surface Dynamics Modeling Systems. The above three
programs listed are great inventions and are used in climate change,
sedimentary modeling problems.
Vail, P.R., Todd, R.G., Sangree, J.B., 1977, Seismic Stratigraphy - applications to
hydrocarbon exploration, C.E. Payton, ed., AAPG Memoir 26.
This book is the ultimate classical publication of sequence stratigraphy. This
book started a revolution in sedimentary geology, petroleum geology and the
concept is developing ever faster.
Van Wagoner, J.C., R. M. Mitchum, K. M. Campion, and V. D. Rahmanian 1990,
"Siliciclastic Sequence Stratigraphy in Well Logs, Cores, and Outcrops: Concepts for
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High-Resolution Correlation of Time and Facies", AAPG Methods in Exploration, No. 7,
pp 55
This is the third classical book of sequence stratigraphy. It illustrates and
explains beautifully all the basic concepts and uses not only seismic data (as
the previous book above did), but also well logs and outcrops.
Wilgus, C.K., Hastings,B.S., Kendall, C.G.St.C., Posamentier H.W., Ross,C.A., & Van
Wagoner, J.C., eds., 1988, "Sea-Level Changes - an Integrated Approach", SEPM Spec.
Pub. 42, pp 407
This is the second classical book of sequence stratigraphy. When I was a
young geologist in the late 1980s, this book was used as a daily manual, or
indispensable guidebook by geologists at famous oil companies. Even today,
everybody who wants to understand what sequence stratigraphy is, must
start their reading with these last three books in this list.
Synopsis:
The first attempt to quantify stratigraphic evolution was made by Jervey (1988) published
in the famous SEPM special publication, which founded the rigorous concept of sequence
stratigraphy. Computer modeling of stratigraphy started also in the late 1980s with
primarily geometrical models using many ideas of Jervey (1988). These programs did not
use much physics concepts, only geometrical rules and relationships of coastal
architecture and facies (Aigner et al. 1990, Lawrence et al. 1990, Kendall et al. 1991).
Soon, process-based programs appeared and paved the road for future developments.
These process-response programs took two major avenues: the main group of programs
applied the diffusion theory for sediment transport and deposition (Reynolds et al 1991,
Flemings and Grotzinger 1996, Rivenaes 1997, Paola 2000) and the others built on the
Navier-Stokes equation (Harbaugh et al 1999, Griffiths 2001). The diffusion programs
seem more widely used for a variety of stratigraphic problems in different basins. These
programs have been used successively in passive margins, extensional as well as
compressional basins. The Navier-Stokes equation programs although sophisticated,
seem to have narrower applicability. Syvitski and his group have developed several
numerical models that employ quite thoughtful physical models for sedimentary
processes (Syvitski et al. 1997, 1998, 2001), which are state of the art in their categories.
These programs are mainly used in solving engineering, environmental tasks rather than
basin exploration. Their programs seem very precise, can model events on even a daily
time scale, but probably not usable very well for modeling events occurred over
geological times (millions or tens of millions of years). The sequence stratigraphy theory
has been applied stunningly widely all over the world which originated in Houston in the
late 1970s and 80s (Vail et al 1977, Wilgus et at, 1988, Van Wagoner et al 1990) and has
made exciting new discoveries in recent years. Such new discoveries are: the recognition
and quantitative modeling and sequence stratigraphic interpretation of hyperpycnal flows,
autoretreat concept of shelf margins, stratigraphic link between shelf edge deltas and
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submarine fans, development of the falling stage systems tract (Plink-Bjorklund and Steel
2002, 2004, Porebski and Steel 2002, Mulder et al 2003, Nittrouer et al. 2007).
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