A
ability grouping
Assigning students to classes based on their past achievement or
presumed ability to learn (also known as homogeneous grouping).
Grouping students according to their actual progress in a particular
school subject is different from grouping them according to
assumptions about their ability to learn the subject—although the
results may be quite similar. And grouping them by subject is
different from tracking, which strictly speaking refers to placing them
in the same groups for all their classes based on their general ability
to learn. Students may also be grouped within classes, but intraclass
grouping permits more flexibility so is less controversial.
Whether students should or should not be grouped by ability is a
persistent issue in education. Advocates say it is unrealistic to expect
teachers to provide for the great range of differences in student
backgrounds and abilities, and that a certain amount of grouping is
better for students. Critics contend, citing research, that when
students are grouped by ability, those in lower tracks are usually
taught poorly and don't get exposed to "high-status" knowledge.
abstinence only
The view that sex and family-life education courses should teach that
sexual intercourse is always inappropriate for young unmarried
people. Advocates say it is self-defeating for educators to say, "You
shouldn't, but if you do…." Instead, they say, adults must
communicate an unambiguous message that sex outside marriage is
wrong. Opponents of the abstinence only position, which is
sometimes required by law, say it ignores the reality of widespread
sexual activity and deprives young people of information they should
have, especially with the current threat of AIDS.
accountability
The responsibility of an agency to its sponsors and clientele for
accomplishing its mission with prudent use of resources. In
education, accountability is currently thought to require measurable
proof that teachers, schools, districts, and states are teaching
students efficiently and well, usually in the form of student success
rates on various tests.
In recent years, most accountability programs have involved
adoption of state curriculum standards and required state tests based
on the standards. Many political leaders and educators support this
approach, believing that it brings clarity of focus and is improving
achievement. Others argue that, because standardized tests cannot
possibly measure all the important goals of schooling, accountability
systems should be more flexible and use other types of information,
such as dropout rates and samples of student work.
accreditation
Official recognition that an individual or institution meets required
standards. Accreditation of teachers is usually referred to as licensing
or certification.
Schools are accredited in two ways: by voluntary regional accrediting
associations (such as the North Central Association Commission on
Accreditation and School Improvement), and by state governments,
which are legally responsible for public education. Most high schools
seek and receive accreditation by their regional association so that
their graduates will be accepted by institutions of higher education.
However, that form of accreditation does not necessarily ensure
recognition by the state. In recent years, some states have begun to
refuse state accreditation to schools with unacceptably low scores on
state standards tests.
achievement gap
Persistent differences in achievement among different types of
students as indicated by scores on standardized tests, teacher
grades, and other data. The gaps most frequently referred to are
those between whites and minority groups, especially AfricanAmericans and Hispanics.
achievement tests
Tests used to measure how much a student has learned in various
school subjects. Most students take several standardized
achievement tests, such as the California Achievement Tests and the
Iowa Tests of Basic Skills. These norm-referenced, multiple-choice
tests are intended to measure students' achievement in the basic
subjects found in most school districts' curriculum and textbooks.
Results are used to compare the scores of individual students and
schools with others—those in the area, across the state, and
throughout the United States.
action research
Systematic investigation by teachers of some aspect of their work in
order to improve their effectiveness. Involves identifying a question
or problem and then collecting and analyzing relevant data. (Differs
from conventional research because in this case the participants are
studying an aspect of their own work and they intend to use the
results themselves.) For example, a teacher might decide to give
students different assignments according to their assessed learning
styles. If the teacher maintained records comparing student work
before and after the change, he would be doing action research. If
several educators worked together on such a project, it would be
considered collaborative action research.
active learning
Any situation in which students learn by moving around and doing
things, rather than sitting at their desks reading, filling out
worksheets, or listening to a teacher. Active learning is based on the
premise that if students are not active, they are neither fully engaged
nor learning as much as they could. Some educators restrict the term
to mean activities outside of school, such as voluntary community
service, but others would say that acting out a Shakespeare play in
the classroom is active learning.
ADA
See average daily attendance.
ADD and ADHD
See definition for attention deficit disorder and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder.
advanced placement (AP) program
College-level courses offered by high schools to students who are
above average in academic standing. Most colleges will award college
credit to students who pass one of the nationally standardized AP
tests. Passing AP tests can save students time and tuition on entrylevel college courses.
advisory system
A way of organizing schools so that all students have an adult advisor
who knows them well and sees them frequently. Although most
schools have trained counselors, the counselors work with hundreds
of students and cannot see any one student very often. To make
advisory groups as small as possible, schools ask staff members who
are not classroom teachers—sometimes including the principal, the
librarian, or others—to serve as advisors. Most schools schedule
periods of time, sometimes daily, for advisory groups to meet for
group and individual activities.
affective education
Schooling that helps students deal in a positive way with their
emotions and values is sometimes called affective to distinguish it
from cognitive learning, which is concerned with facts and ideas.
Programs designed to help students handle their emotions, which
might at one time have been termed affective education, are now
more frequently called social and emotional learning.
AFT
See the American Federation of Teachers.
alignment
The effort to ensure that what teachers teach is in accord with what
the curriculum says will be taught and what is assessed on official
tests. If students are not taught the intended content—because of
inadequate learning materials, inadequate teacher preparation, or
other reasons—or if official tests assess knowledge and skills
different from those taught, test scores will obviously be lower than
they otherwise would be. For this reason, schools and school districts
often devote considerable attention to alignment. In general, this is a
desirable practice. However, alignment can be destructive if the
process is driven by tests that themselves are inadequate, and if
educators feel obligated to teach only what the tests measure.
alternative assessment
Use of assessment strategies, such as performance assessment,
constructed response items, and portfolios, to replace or supplement
assessment by machine-scored multiple-choice tests.
alternative scheduling
Sometimes called block scheduling, alternative scheduling is a way of
organizing the school day, usually in secondary schools, into blocks
of time longer than the typical 50-minute class period. Students take
as many courses as before (sometimes more), but the courses do not
run the entire school year. One alternative schedule used in some
secondary schools, known as 4 × 4 (four by four), has four 90minute classes a day with course changes every 45 days (four times
a school year). Students and teachers have fewer classes to prepare
for and experience fewer interruptions in the school day. Longer
blocks of time allow for more complex learning activities, such as
complicated science experiments.
alternative schools
Schools that differ in one or more ways from conventional public
schools. Alternative schools may reflect a particular teaching
philosophy, such as individualization, or a specific focus, such as
science and technology. Alternative schools may also operate under
different governing principles than conventional schools and be run
by organizations other than local school boards.
The term alternative schools is often used to describe schools that
are designed primarily for students who have been unsuccessful in
regular schools, either because of disabilities or because of
behavioral or emotional difficulties. However, some proponents argue
against establishing "last chance" or "remedial" schools in which the
students are seen as a problem to be fixed. They say a better
approach is to alter the program and environment to create a
positive match with each student.
Although some school districts continue to operate alternative
schools established a few years ago, those districts starting new
unconventional schools these days often characterize them as charter
schools.
alternative teacher certification
A way for individuals to become classroom teachers without
completing an undergraduate or graduate program in teacher
education. Alternative certification takes into account an individual's
background and experience and usually requires some professional
training in the first years of teaching. Alternative certification is most
common in urban school systems that have difficulty hiring enough
regularly qualified teachers. For example, Teach for America recruits
recent college graduates to teach for two years in needy urban
schools. Advocates point out that such programs provide a way for
bright, idealistic young people to make a needed and worthy
contribution. Critics say teaching requires extensive preparation and
that such shortcuts undermine efforts to make teaching a true
profession.
American College Test (ACT)
The ACT is one of the two commonly used tests designed to assess
high school students' general educational development and their
ability to complete college-level work. Some states or institutions
require or prefer the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) for college
entrance, some the American College Test. The ACT covers four skill
areas: English, mathematics, reading, and science reasoning. More
than 1 million college-bound high school students take the ACT each
year.
American Federation of Teachers (AFT)
One of the two large teacher unions (the other is the National
Education Association). The AFT represents about 1 million teachers,
school support staff, higher education faculty and staff, health-care
employees, and state and municipal employees. The AFT is affiliated
with the AFL-CIO.
aptitude tests
Tests that attempt to predict a person's ability to do something. The
most familiar are intelligence tests, which are intended to measure a
person's intellectual abilities. The theory underlying intelligence tests
is that each person's mental ability is relatively stable and can be
determined apart from her knowledge of subject matter or other
abilities, such as creativity. Some aptitude tests measure a person's
natural ability to learn particular subjects and skills or suitability for
certain careers.
ASCD
Founded in 1943, ASCD—an international, nonprofit association—is
one of the largest professional development organizations for
educator leaders. It provides world-class education information
services, offers cutting-edge professional development for effective
teaching and learning, and supports activities to provide educational
equity for all students. ASCD's 165,000 members reside in more than
140 countries and include principals, teachers, superintendents,
professors of education, and other educators.
assessment
Measuring the learning and performance of students or teachers.
Different types of assessment instruments include achievement tests,
minimum competency tests, developmental screening tests, aptitude
tests, observation instruments, performance tasks, and authentic
assessments.
The effectiveness of a particular approach to assessment depends on
its suitability for the intended purpose. For instance, multiple-choice,
true-or-false, and fill-in-the-blank tests can be used to assess basic
skills or to find out what students remember. To assess other
abilities, performance tasks may be more appropriate.
Performance assessments require students to perform a task, such
as serving a volleyball, solving a particular type of mathematics
problem, or writing a short business letter to inquire about a product.
Sometimes the task may be designed to assess the student's ability
to apply knowledge learned in school. For example, a student might
be asked to determine what types of plants could be grown in various
soil samples by measuring their pH levels.
Authentic assessments are performance assessments that are not
artificial or contrived. Educators who want assessments to be more
authentic worry that most school tests are necessarily contrived.
Writing a letter to an imaginary company only to demonstrate to the
teacher that you know how is different from writing a letter to a real
person or company in order to achieve a real purpose. One way to
make an assessment more authentic is to have students choose the
particular task they will use to demonstrate what they have learned.
For example, a student might choose to demonstrate her
understanding of a unit in chemistry by developing a model that
illustrates the problems associated with oil spills.
at-risk students
Students who have a higher than average probability of dropping out
or failing school. Broad categories usually include inner-city, lowincome, and homeless children; those not fluent in English; and
special-needs students with emotional or behavioral difficulties.
Substance abuse, juvenile crime, unemployment, poverty, and lack
of adult support are thought to increase a youth's risk factor.
The term came into use following the 1983 report of the Commission
on Excellence, which declared America's public schools to be "at
risk." Educators responded that the real problem was society's
neglect of certain students.
Some advocates question use of the term "at risk," arguing that it
may affect the way teachers, administrators, and peers view the
student. But they agree that such students need special attention
and support, including caring adults who challenge them with high
expectations.
attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Children diagnosed with attention deficit disorder tend to have
problems staying on task and focusing on conversations or activities.
ADD children may be impulsive, easily distracted (e.g., by someone
talking in another room or by a passing car), full of unfocused
energy, fidgety, and restless.
Many people with ADD are also hyperactive and may move rapidly
from one task to another without completing any of them.
Hyperactivity, a disorder of the central nervous system, makes it
difficult for affected children to control their motor activities. More
than half of students with learning disabilities exhibit behaviors
associated with attention problems but do not necessarily have ADD.
According to the National Attention Deficit Disorder Association,
ADHD is a "diagnosis applied to children and adults who consistently
display certain characteristic behaviors over a period of time. The
most common core features include: distractibility (poor sustained
attention to tasks); impulsivity (impaired impulse control and delay
of gratification); and hyperactivity (excessive activity and physical
restlessness). In order to meet diagnostic criteria these behaviors
must be excessive, long-term, and pervasive. The behaviors must
appear before age 7, and continue for at least 6 months. A crucial
consideration is that the behaviors must create a real handicap in at
least two areas of a person's life, such as school, home, work, or
social settings. These criteria set ADHD apart from the 'normal'
distractibility and impulsive behavior of childhood, or the effects of
the hectic and overstressed lifestyle prevalent in our society."
Source: Quote from Fact Sheet on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD/ADD), 1998, Highland Park, IL: National Attention
Deficit Disorder Association. Copyright 1998 by Peter Jaksa.
Retrieved February 18, 2002, from
http://add.org/content/abc/factsheet.htm
authentic assessment
Assessment that measures realistically the knowledge and skills
needed for success in adult life. The term is often used as the
equivalent of performance assessment, which, rather than asking
students to choose a response to a multiple-choice test item,
involves having students perform a task, such as serving a volleyball,
solving a particular type of mathematics problem, or writing a short
business letter. There is a distinction, however.
Specifically, authentic assessments are performance assessments
that are not artificial or contrived. Most school tests are necessarily
contrived. Writing a letter to an imaginary company only to
demonstrate to the teacher that you know how is different from
writing a letter to a real person or company in order to achieve a real
purpose. One way to make an assessment more authentic is to have
students choose the particular task they will use to demonstrate what
they have learned. For example, a student might choose to
demonstrate her understanding of a unit in chemistry by developing
a model that illustrates the problems associated with oil spills.
authentic learning
Schooling related to real-life situations—the kinds of problems faced
by adult citizens, consumers, or professionals. Advocates complain
that what is taught in school has little relationship to anything people
do in the world outside of school; efforts to make learning more
authentic are intended to overcome that problem. Authentic learning
situations require teamwork, problem-solving skills, and the ability to
organize and prioritize the tasks needed to complete the project.
Students should know what is expected before beginning their work.
Consultation with others, including the instructor, is encouraged. The
goal is to produce a high-quality solution to a real problem, not to
see how much the student can remember.
average daily attendance (ADA)
Based on counts taken on predetermined dates during the school
year, average daily attendance is a factor used by state and federal
departments of education to determine how much money schools are
to receive.
B
basal reader
Textbooks and anthologies (collections of stories or other writings)
used to teach beginning reading. Many basal readers used to have
mostly stories written especially for teaching (only certain words
were used, as in the Dick and Jane stories), but many now contain a
wider variety of children's literature.
basic skills
The fundamental skills needed to succeed in school and eventually in
life. Most people think of basic skills as the ability to read, write, and
compute. Others, however, would broaden the term to include such
skills as the ability to use a computer, the ability to work
cooperatively with others, or even the temperament to cope with
continuous change.
behavior modification
Use of an approach based on behavioral science to change a person's
way of doing things—specifically, systematic use of rewards, and
sometimes punishments, to shape students' classroom deportment.
Such systems usually involve explicit objectives, elaborate record
keeping, and visible tracking of progress.
Used especially in special education classes for behaviorally disturbed
students, behavior modification is controversial. Opponents say it is
impersonal and mechanistic, makes students dependent rather than
independent (at least at first), and borders on cruelty. Advocates see
it as scientifically based and effective.
benchmark
A standard for judging a performance. Just as a carpenter might use
marks on his workbench to measure how long a part should be,
teachers and students can use benchmarks to determine the quality
of a student's work. Some schools develop benchmarks to tell what
students should know by a particular stage of their schooling; for
example, "by the end of sixth grade, students should be able to
locate major cities and other geographical features on each of the
continents."
bilingual education
The use of two or more languages for instruction. In the United
States, students in most bilingual classes or programs are those who
have not acquired full use of the English language, so they are taught
academic content in their native language (usually Spanish) while
continuing to learn English.
Bilingual education is controversial, having been outlawed in
California and severely criticized in other places. Opponents say it is
expensive, impractical, and prevents students from learning English
rapidly and efficiently. Advocates say it gives language learning
students access to the same academic curriculum as other students
and that it allows limited English proficient (LEP) parents to remain
involved in their children's studies. They claim that maintaining
students' native language does not interfere with their learning of
English and that research shows that bilingual instruction is effective.
block grant
The result of combining funding for several separate government
programs (usually federal) into a larger program with one set of
requirements. A positive feature of such a grant is greater flexibility.
When federal funds are released to states in the form of block grants,
the individual states have more discretion in allocating the funds.
Advocates believe that states can define and serve their own areas of
need better than the federal government can. A negative aspect of
block grants is that the total amount provided is often less than it
would otherwise have been.
block scheduling
A way of organizing the school day, usually in secondary schools, into
blocks of time longer than the typical 50-minute class period.
Students take as many courses as before (sometimes more), but the
courses do not run the entire school year. One block schedule used in
some secondary schools, known as 4 × 4 (four by four), has four 90-
minute classes a day with course changes every 45 days (four times
a school year). Students and teachers have fewer classes to prepare
for and experience fewer interruptions in the school day. Longer
blocks of time allow for more complex learning activities, such as
complicated science experiments.
Bloom's taxonomy
A classification of educational objectives developed in the 1950s by a
group of researchers headed by Benjamin Bloom of the University of
Chicago. Commonly refers to the objectives for the cognitive domain,
which range from knowledge and comprehension (lowest) to
synthesis and evaluation (highest). The taxonomy has been widely
used by teachers to determine the focus of their instruction and is
probably the original reference of the term higher-order thinking.
brain-based teaching
Approaches to schooling that educators believe are in accord with
recent research on the brain and human learning. Advocates say the
human brain is constantly searching for meaning and seeking
patterns and connections. Authentic learning situations increase the
brain's ability to make connections and retain new information. A
relaxed, nonthreatening environment that reduces students' fear of
failure is considered by some to enhance learning. Research also
documents brain plasticity, which is the brain's ability to grow and
adapt in response to external stimuli.
Brown v. Board of Education
The case heard by the United States Supreme Court in 1954 in which
racial segregation in public schools was held to be unconstitutional.
C
California Achievement Tests (CATs)
One of several alternative sets of tests commonly used to measure
how much a student has learned in various school subjects. Like
most other such tests, the California Achievement tests are nationally
normed, multiple-choice tests. Results are used to compare the
scores of individual students and schools with others—those in the
area, across the state, and throughout the United States.
Carnegie unit
A measurement used in most high schools to determine how much
coursework a student has completed. Students usually need at least
20 Carnegie units to graduate; one unit is equal to a conventional
50-minute class taken five times per week throughout the school
year. A one-semester course is worth one-half of a Carnegie unit.
The units were established and promoted 100 years ago by the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Today, many
educators involved in school reform oppose the use of Carnegie
units, arguing that "seat time" is not necessarily a measure of
learning.
Channel One
A television news service operated by Primedia that is broadcast daily
to 8 million students in 12,000 schools. Channel One is controversial
because its 10 minutes of news are accompanied by two minutes of
advertisements, an example of the increasing intrusion of
commercialism in public schools.
Chapter I
The label assigned at one time to a section of the federal Elementary
and Secondary Education Act of 1965. The section, which is intended
to benefit children who live in high-poverty areas, was originally
called Title I, was renamed Chapter I when the legislation was
reauthorized, and now is again known as Title I. The current version
emphasizes higher learning standards and requires state
assessments for measuring student progress.
character education
Teaching children about basic human values, including honesty,
kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, and respect. The
goal is to raise children to become morally responsible, selfdisciplined citizens. Problem solving, decision making, and conflict
resolution are important parts of developing moral character.
Through role playing and discussions, students are helped to see that
their decisions affect other people and things. Service learning is
frequently a part of a comprehensive character education program.
Character education is actively promoted by the Character Education
Partnership, a coalition of education and civic organizations with
viewpoints that range from liberal to conservative.
charter school
A self-governing educational facility that operates under contract
between the school's organizers and the sponsors (often local school
boards but sometimes other agencies, such as state boards of
education). The organizers are often teachers, parents, or private
organizations. The charter may detail the school's instructional
design, methods of assessment, management, and finances.
Charter schools usually receive government funding, may not charge
tuition, must be nonsectarian and nondiscriminatory, and must be
chosen by teachers, students, and parents. To renew their charters,
these schools are expected to show that they meet the expectations
of parents and their governing boards, continue to attract families,
and retain and attract teachers. In exchange for this form of
accountability, charter schools are free from most state and local
regulations, often including teacher certification requirements.
chief state school officer
The highest-ranking official responsible for public schools in each
state. Because states call their highest-ranking school administrator
by different titles—superintendent, commissioner, for example—the
national organization of these officials is called the Council of Chief
State School Officers (CCSO).
child-centered
Educational programs designed around the assumed characteristics
and needs of the child, rather than of parents, teachers, or society.
church-state separation
The requirement based on interpretation of the First Amendment of
the U.S. Constitution and reinforced in numerous rulings of the U.S.
Supreme Court that government programs may not advance religion.
Because the language of the First Amendment is somewhat
ambiguous (it only restricts Congress from adopting legislation
"respecting an establishment of religion"), opponents of the court
rulings insist that the supposed "wall of separation" between church
and state is not as solid as claimed.
classroom climate
The "feel" or tone of a classroom, indicated by the total environment,
including especially the way teacher and students relate to one
another. Some classrooms have a cold, impersonal, or even
antagonistic, climate, while others are warm and friendly. Some are
business-like and productive, others disorganized and inefficient.
classroom management
The way a teacher organizes and administers routines to make
classroom life as productive and satisfying as possible. What some
people might describe narrowly as "discipline." For example, teachers
with good classroom management clarify how various things (such as
distribution of supplies and equipment) are to be done and may even
begin the school year by having students practice the expected
procedures.
coaching
Educators use this term, commonly used in athletics, to refer to any
situation in which someone helps someone else learn a skill. The late
Mortimer Adler, who devised the Paideia program, maintained that
coaching is one of three basic modes of teaching (the other two are
presenting and leading discussions). Coaching is also considered an
important part of training programs in which teachers learn new
teaching methods. A process in which teachers visit each other’s
classes to observe instruction and offer feedback is known as peer
coaching.
Coalition of Essential Schools
A high school-university partnership established at Brown University
and founded by Theodore Sizer. The coalition grew out of a study of
secondary education sponsored by the National Association of
Secondary School Principals and the National Association of
Independent Schools.
The coalition does not recognize any one school as a model school,
believing that schools must be unique to best serve their particular
communities, faculties, and students. Instead, coalition schools
accept a set of nine governing principles that include helping young
people learn to use their minds well; mastering a limited number of
essential skills and areas of knowledge, rather than striving for broad
content coverage; holding all students accountable for the same
goals (using various teaching styles to accommodate the different
ways in which students learn); maintaining a teacher-to-student ratio
that permits teachers to know students as individuals; and arranging
for competitive teacher salaries, as well as substantial planning and
training time. The coalition supports the idea that students should
demonstrate their mastery of certain skills and knowledge, decided
on by the faculty and administrators along with the community, in
order to graduate.
Cognitive development
The process, which begins at birth, of learning through sensory
perception, memory, and observation. Children are born into cultures
and backgrounds that affect what they learn as well as how they
learn. Children from enriched environments (in which parents and
caregivers read to and with them, teach them letters and numbers,
and take them to plays and museums) come to school prepared to
learn; children from impoverished or abusive backgrounds often lack
most or all of these preschool advantages. To stimulate the cognitive
development of such children, teachers use strategies such as placing
learning into a meaningful context, providing situations in which
students can be active participants, and combining general
information with specific learning situations.
Cognitive learning
The mental processes involved in learning, such as remembering and
understanding facts and ideas. Educators have always been
interested in how people learn but are now becoming better informed
about cognition from the work of cognitive psychologists, who in
recent years have compiled a great deal of new information about
thinking and learning.
Cohort
A particular group of people with something in common. For
instance, a cohort might be a group of students who had been taught
an interdisciplinary curriculum by a team of junior high school
teachers. Researchers might want to track their progress into high
school to identify differences in success of students in the cohort
compared with students who had attended conventional classes in
the same school.
Collaboration
A relationship between individuals or organizations that enables the
participants to accomplish goals more successfully than they could
have separately. Educators are finding that they must collaborate
with others to deal with increasingly complex issues. For example,
schools and school systems often form partnerships with local
businesses or social service agencies.
Many schools teach students how to work with others on group
projects. Some educators call this collaborative learning, although it
is more commonly known as cooperative learning.
Collaborative action research
Systematic investigation by two or more teachers of some aspect of
their work in order to improve their effectiveness. Action research
involves identifying a question or problem and then collecting and
analyzing relevant data. (It is called action research because the
participants are studying an aspect of their own work and they intend
to use the results themselves.) For example, a group of teachers
might decide to give their students different assignments according
to their assessed learning styles. If the teachers maintained records
comparing student work before and after the change, they would be
collaborating on action research.
Commercialism
The trend, which observers say is growing, to permit commercial
advertising in public schools. Traditionally, public schools prohibited
commercial advertising; however, in recent years some schools have
begun to contract with distributors of particular beverages and to
import television programs, such as Channel One, which are
specifically designed to present advertising to young people. While
advocates argue that advertising in schools is a harmless way of
increasing funding, others argue that because students are a captive
and impressionable audience, advertising should have no place in the
public schools.
Common ground
Fundamental values or goals that people agree upon, although they
may disagree strongly on other matters. The term is sometimes used
to refer to a process for improving communication between public
educators and their critics.
Community center schools
Organizations that provide services—often including medical and
dental services, nutrition classes, parent programs, and social
services—as part of the school program for both students and
families. Community center schools, sometimes called full-service
schools, provide essential services that many families could not
otherwise obtain because they lack transportation, information,
money, or time. The goals of such programs are to help urban
parents feel comfortable with teachers, become a part of the learning
community, and support their children’s studies.
Competency tests
Tests created by a school district or state that students must pass
before graduating. Sometimes called minimum competency tests,
such tests are intended to ensure that graduates have reached
minimal proficiency in basic skills. In recent years, some states have
replaced minimum competency tests adopted in the 1970s or ‘80s
with more demanding tests aligned with adopted curriculum
standards.
Comprehensive school reform
An approach to school improvement that involves adopting a design
for organizing an entire school rather than using numerous unrelated
instructional programs. New American Schools, an organization that
promotes comprehensive school reform, sponsors several different
designs, each featuring challenging academic standards, strong
professional development programs, meaningful parental and
community involvement, and a supportive school environment.
Computer-assisted instruction
Educational programs delivered through the use of computers and
educational software. As computers have become more common in
schools, the term and its abbreviation, CAI, are used less frequently.
CAI has a specific meaning as it applies to special-needs students.
Many software programs and features have been designed to help
students with dyslexia and poor fine-motor skills. Blind students can
work on raille keyboards and command the computer to call up
their work as synthesized speech or as a raille display. Students
with physical challenges can operate computers by activating a
switch with their head, foot, mouth, or the blink of an eye.
conflict resolution
Programs that teach students how to negotiate problems in a
nonviolent way. Core concepts include recognizing that conflict can
be a pathway to personal growth, understanding that there are
alternative solutions to problems, and learning skills to solve
problems effectively. Conflict resolution is often provided through
peer mediation, in which children or teens assist other students to
work through problems without resorting to violence.
Constructed response
Test items on which students must provide an answer (short answer,
explanation of the process for determining the answer, etc.) in
contrast with items (known as selected response or multiple-choice)
on which students choose from among answers provided. Some
psychometricians say that selected response items are preferable
because they are scored by machine and the results are therefore
more reliable. Others, however, believe constructed response items
are a better test of what students can actually do.
Constructivism
An approach to teaching based on research about how people learn.
Many researchers say that each individual “constructs” knowledge
rather than receiving it from others. People disagree about how to
achieve constructive learning, but many educators believe that
students come to understand abstract concepts best through
exploration, reasoning, and discussion.
Continuous progress
A system of education in which individuals or small groups of
students go through a sequence of lessons at their own pace, rather
than at the pace of the entire classroom group. Continuous progress
has also been called individualized education or individualized
instruction and is one version of mastery learning.
In continuous-progress programs, able and motivated students are
not held back, and students take on new lessons only if they show
they have the prerequisite skills. A criticism, however, is that
unmotivated students often progress more slowly than they would in
regular classes.
Coordinated School Health Programs
A model developed by the Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and
Health Promotion that consists of eight interactive components:
health education, physical education, health services, nutrition
services, health promotion for staff, counseling and psychological
services, healthy school environment, and parent/community
involvement.
Source: From “A Coordinated School Health Program” by the National
Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
Retrieved April 2, 2002, from
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/cshpdef.htm.
cooperative learning
A teaching strategy combining teamwork with individual and group
accountability. Working in small groups, with individuals of varying
talents, abilities, and backgrounds, students are given one or more
tasks. The teacher or the group often assigns each team member a
personal responsibility that is essential to successful completion of
the task.
Used well, cooperative learning allows students to acquire both
knowledge and social skills. The students learn from one another and
get to know and respect group members that they may not have
made an effort to meet in other circumstances. Studies show that,
used properly, cooperative learning boosts student achievement.
Schools using this strategy report that attendance improves because
the students feel valuable and necessary to their group.
Core curriculum
The body of knowledge that all students are expected to learn. High
schools often require a core curriculum that may include, for
example, four years of English, three years of science and
mathematics, two or three years of history, one or two years of a
foreign language, and one year of health studies. Courses that are
not required are called electives.
The term core curriculum was used in the mid-20th century to refer to
a block-of-time program (two or more class periods) in which
students and their teacher chose the topics they would study, but
few of today’s schools have such programs now.
Core knowledge
Refers specifically to a reform movement founded by E. D. Hirsch,
professor of English at the University of Virginia. The movement is
based on the idea that there is a body of knowledge that students
and citizens need to know, so school districts should offer a
sequential, uniform curriculum. Such a curriculum is outlined in the
Core Knowledge Resource Series, a collection of books that specify
what students at each grade level should know.
Opponents argue that schools should emphasize the process of
learning and the skills of gathering information, and place less
emphasis on coverage of particular content. Another argument
concerns how to determine the content that all students should
learn: Who should decide? On what basis? The inclusion of certain
topics, literary pieces, or historic events and the exclusion of others
raises issues of cultural bias.
Creationism
The view that human beings were specifically created by God and did
not evolve from other forms of animal life through the process of
natural selection. Advocates of scientific creationism believe that the
creationist view should be taught alongside evolution in science
classes. Opponents argue that creationism is a religious, not a
scientific, position. They insist that the only ideas that should be
taught in science classes are those that are based on scientific
evidence and that are subject to rigorous scientific scrutiny.
Criterion-referenced tests
Tests designed to measure how thoroughly a student has learned a
particular body of knowledge without regard to how well other
students have learned it. Most nationally standardized achievement
tests are norm-referenced, meaning that a student’s performance is
compared to how well students in the norming group did when the
test was normed. Criterion-referenced tests are directly related to
the curriculum of a particular school district or state and are scored
according to fixed criteria.
Critical thinking
Logical thinking based on sound evidence; the opposite of biased,
sloppy thinking. Some people take the word critical to mean negative
and faultfinding, but philosophers consider it to mean thinking that is
skillful and responsible. A critical thinker can accurately and fairly
explain a point of view that he does not agree with.
Cultural literacy
The idea of E. D. Hirsch, professor of English at the University of
Virginia, that there is a certain body of knowledge (core knowledge)
that people must know to be well-educated, well-rounded American
citizens.
Curricula
plural of curriculum. May be Anglicized as curriculums.
Curriculum
Although this term has many possible meanings, it usually refers to a
written plan outlining what students will be taught (a course of
study). Curriculum documents often also include detailed directions
or suggestions for teaching the content. Curriculum may refer to all
the courses offered at a given school, or all the courses offered at a
school in a particular area of study. For example, the English
curriculum might include English literature, literature, world
literature, essay styles, creative writing, business writing,
Shakespeare, modern poetry, and the novel. The curriculum of an
elementary school usually includes language arts, mathematics,
science, social studies, and other subjects.
cyber schools
Educational institutions, many of them charter schools, that offer
most or all of their instruction by computer via the internet. More
such schools are being established each year.
D
data-based decision making
Analyzing existing sources of information (class and school
attendance, grades, test scores) and other data (portfolios, surveys,
interviews) to make decisions about the school. The process involves
organizing and interpreting the data and creating action plans.
decentralization
The deliberate reassignment of decision-making authority from states
or districts to local schools based on the beliefs that people who are
closest to a situation make better decisions and that people work
hardest when implementing their own decisions. The primary vehicle
for school decentralization in recent decades has been site-based
management, under which decision-making authority has been
delegated to local schools, often accompanied by a requirement that
schools establish representative school councils.
democratic education
Advocates of democratic education believe that students, if they are
to acquire the skills, knowledge, and values they need to perform
their roles as citizens in a democracy, should receive a type of
education that actively engages them as citizens in their own schools
and communities. For example, they believe that students should
participate in the governance of the school and engage in servicelearning activities in their local communities.
democratic purposes of education
Historically, one of the primary missions of the public schools in the
United States has been to prepare children to perpetuate American
democracy. Schools are expected to ensure that all children,
regardless of family economic status or future occupation, acquire
the skills, knowledge, and civic values they need to perform their
roles as citizens in a democracy.
Detracking
Reducing or eliminating grouping by ability, resulting in classes with
students from all ability levels. The result of detracking is also called
heterogeneous rather than homogeneous (or ability) grouping.
Strictly speaking, tracking refers to students being lumped into
groups for all their classes based on their general ability to learn.
Grouping for specific purposes, such as current knowledge of
mathematics, is theoretically not tracking, although opponents
charge that the practice usually has the same results. Advocates of
detracking, also called untracking, point to research indicating that
when students are grouped by ability, those in lower tracks are
usually taught poorly and don't get exposed to "high-status"
knowledge. They see detracking as part of a broader restructuring of
schools in which student differences are provided for within each
class. Opponents of detracking say ability grouping is easier for
teachers and better for students—those who are academically able
and should not be held back, and those who are slower and should
have attention to their special needs.
developmental screening tests
Used to identify students who may have disabilities, sensory
impairments (e.g., near-sightedness or reduced hearing), or
behavioral and developmental disabilities.
developmentally appropriate education
Curriculum and instruction that is in accord with the physical and
mental development of the student. Developmentally appropriate
education is especially important for young children because their
physical and mental abilities change quickly and vary greatly from
child to child. For example, some 4-year-old children are able to sit
quietly through a group story time, while others become fidgety. This
does not necessarily mean that the more active children have ADHD;
their neurological functions may simply not have matured as quickly
as others in their age group.
differentiated instruction
A form of instruction that seeks to "maximize each student's growth
by meeting each student where she is and helping the student to
progress. In practice, it involves offering several different learning
experiences in response to students' varied needs. Learning activities
and materials may be varied by difficulty to challenge students at
different readiness levels, by topic in response to students' interests,
and by students' preferred ways of learning or expressing
themselves."
Source: Quote from "Lesson 1: What Is Differentiated Instruction?"
in ASCD PD Online: Differentiating Instruction, by L. Kiernan [course
author], 2000, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development. Retrieved February 21, 2002, from
http://www.ascd.org/pdi/demo/diffinstr/differentiated1.html
differentiated schooling
The view that no single form of education is best for all students and
all situations. Advocates believe school officials should provide
alternative programs and let parents choose among them rather than
play "winner take all."
differentiated staffing
The practice of having different instructional roles rather than
treating all classroom teachers alike. Various people play a part in
the teaching process, but their responsibilities and pay may be
greater or lesser than regular teachers. Typical roles include teacher
aides, paraprofessionals (or assistant teachers), team leaders, and
lead teachers.
differentiated supervision
A system of supervising teachers that depends on factors including
their experience, proven teaching ability, interests, and preferences.
Some members of the teaching staff may be involved in clinical
supervision (intensive analysis of their teaching based on
observations of their classroom teaching), while others may propose
and conduct their own professional development plans.
differentiated teaching
Providing for a range of student differences in the same classroom by
using different learning materials, assigning different tasks, and
using other practices, such as cooperative learning.
direct instruction
Instruction in which the teacher explains the intended purpose and
presents the content in a clear, orderly way. Contrasts with
inductive, discovery, or constructive teaching, in which students are
led, by means of investigation or discussion, to develop their own
ideas.
disaggregated data
Test scores or other data divided so that various categories can be
compared. For example, schools may break down the data for the
entire student population (aggregated into a single set of numbers)
to determine how minority students are doing compared with the
majority, or how scores of girls compare with those for boys.
discovery learning
Learning activities designed so that students discover facts and
principles themselves rather than having them explained by a
textbook or a teacher. These activities are used most often in science
classes where, for example, students can directly observe effects of
various substances on other substances and infer possible reasons.
distance learning
Taking classes in locations other than the classroom or places where
teachers present the lessons. Distance learning uses various forms of
technology, especially television and computers, to provide
educational materials and experiences to students. Small high
schools may arrange for their students to take courses, such as those
for advanced foreign language instruction, by television. Many
colleges and universities broadcast credit courses for students who
live in isolated locations or who for other reasons cannot attend
classes on campus.
diversity
In education, discussions about diversity involve recognizing a
variety of student needs including those of ethnicity, language,
socioeconomic class, disabilities, and gender. School reforms attempt
to address these issues to help all students succeed. Schools also
respond to societal diversity by attempting to promote understanding
and acceptance of cultural and other differences.
dropouts
Students who leave high school before receiving a diploma. Because
it is difficult to keep track of adolescents no longer in school, because
students may re-enter schools and drop out again more than once,
and because many students eventually get the equivalent of
secondary education by means of GED tests, dropout rates are not
completely accurate. However, many observers believe that the
dropout rate is much higher than it ought to be.
dyslexia
A condition that hampers reading ability. Characteristics of dyslexia
may include transposing letters and numbers when reading and
writing; confusing hand dominance; difficulty in keeping track of the
order of time, months, or seasons; hyperactivity; and difficulty with
physical coordination and balance. The cause of dyslexia is unknown.
Boys are four times more likely than girls to have this learning
disability. Students with dyslexia need special resources and learning
techniques to progress with their peers.
E
early childhood education
The education of young children. Many educators think of early
childhood education as including children ages 3 through 7. Recent
research information about the brain development of infants is
causing many specialists to think of this period of rapid learning as
beginning at birth.
Edison schools
Schools run by the Edison Project, a private organization that
contracts with local boards of education. All Edison schools (named to
commemorate inventor Thomas Edison) are expected to follow the
model developed by a design team headed by Benno Schmidt,
former president of Yale University. Features of the model include
extensive use of technology, individualized learning plans, teaching
of values, and parent and community participation. Originally
founded by Christopher Whittle, the Edison Project is an example of
the privatization of public schools.
Education Commission of the States
A nonprofit organization whose purpose is to help governors, state
legislators, state education officials, and others develop policies to
improve the quality of education at all levels. The commission was
formed in 1965 to help states approach education policy decisions in
an organized fashion. Members include 49 states (all but Montana),
three territories, and the District of Columbia
effective schools
Schools in which all students, especially those from families in
poverty, learn at a higher-than-expected level. The idea of effective
schools was pioneered in the early 1980s by the late Ronald
Edmonds, who compared schools in which children in poverty earned
high test scores with other schools that had similar student
populations. He found that effective schools had strong principals
who closely monitored student achievement and created an orderly
environment characterized by high expectations.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
U.S. legislation passed in 1965 that provided large amounts of
federal aid to states and local districts as part of the larger War on
Poverty. ESEA must be reauthorized periodically by the Congress.
The most well-known provision of ESEA is Title I, which targets
funding to schools with high concentrations of economically
disadvantaged children in order to improve their educational
opportunities.
The 2002 version requires that states administer annual tests in
math and reading for all students in grades 3 through 8; schools
failing to produce sufficient improvements in student test scores will
be subject to sanctions. Advocates of these testing provisions argue
that they are necessary to ensure that all children receive a quality
education; others argue, however, that such tests are not an
accurate measure of educational quality and that the accountability
provisions will compel teachers to teach to the test, narrowing the
curriculum and focusing on rote learning.
English as a Second Language (ESL)
Teaching English to non-English-speaking or limited-Englishproficient (LEP) students to help them learn and succeed in schools.
ESOL (English for Speakers of Other Languages) has generally the
same meaning as ESL.
English language learner (ELL)
A student whose first language is other than English and who is in a
special program for learning English (which may be bilingual
education or English as a second language).
Enrichment
Topics and activities that are valuable and interesting to learn but are
not basic education—knowledge that is "nice to know" but not
necessarily what people need to know. Examples might include study
of Wordsworth's poetry or a biography of Alexander Hamilton,
although people will not necessarily agree on what is basic and what
is enrichment.
The term enrichment is also applied to efforts that parents make to
supplement their children's learning outside of school, such as trips
to science and art museums, educational vacations, visits to local
libraries, and attendance at local theaters, orchestras, or ballets.
environmental education
According to the Environmental Education and Training Partnership
(EETAP), environmental education "is a learning process that
increases people's knowledge and awareness about the environment
and associated challenges, develops the necessary skills and
expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes,
motivations, and commitments to make informed decisions and take
responsible action." Although some educators have long argued that
environmental education should be an essential part of the school
curriculum, the movement to incorporate it has gained ground in
recent years as more and more schools have incorporated at least
some of its elements.
Source: Quote from Definition of EE [Web page], Stevens Point, WI:
Environmental Education and Training Partnership. Web page
attributes quote to UNESCO, Tbilisi Declaration, 1978. Retrieved
February 21, 2002, from http://eetap.org/definitionofee.html
equal access
Refers to federal legislation that prohibits public school systems from
discriminating against student religious groups. If schools permit
other non-curriculum-related student groups, such as a chess club,
to meet on school property, they must also permit other voluntary
student groups, such as prayer groups, to meet.
equity
The goal of equity is to achieve a high-quality education for all
students, regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status,
disabilities, or special needs. Studies show widespread inequities in
financial support, classroom expectations, texts and technological
resources, and quality of teaching, especially in inner cities and
among poor populations. Because needs are greater in some
situations than others, equal treatment is not necessarily equitable.
ESEA
See Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
ESL
English as a second language. Teaching English to non-Englishspeaking or limited-English-proficient (LEP) students to help them
learn and succeed in schools. ESOL (English for speakers of other
languages) has generally the same meaning as ESL.
essential questions
Basic questions, such as "What is distinctive about the American
experience?" used to provide focus for a course or a unit of study.
Such questions need to be derived from vitally important themes and
topics whose answers cannot be summarized neatly and concisely.
evolution
Refers to the theory of natural selection, which is the basis for
modern studies of biology. Creationists oppose the teaching of
natural selection in public schools, especially if it is not accompanied
by the idea of creationism as an alternative explanation of biological
differences.
exemplar
An example chosen to illustrate characteristics of a concept. In
schools, the term exemplar sometimes refers to samples of student
work used to show other students what they are expected to do. An
exemplar can also help teachers (and students themselves) evaluate
student work when it is completed.
For example, a teacher might have students write a letter suitable for
publication in the local newspaper commenting on a community
issue. The teacher could provide rubrics specifying the criteria for
evaluating the letters, along with sample letters (exemplars) written
by previous students on a different topic at each level of quality
(e.g., 4, 3, 2, 1 or A, B, C, D). Exemplars are sometimes called
model papers.
exhibitions
Demanding projects designed and conducted by high school seniors
in schools that are members of the Coalition of Essential Schools.
Theodore Sizer, founder of the coalition, proposed the notion of
exhibitions in his book Horace's Compromise. Noting that students in
19th century New England secondary schools were expected to
present evidence of their learning as a requirement for graduation,
he suggested that a similar procedure could make modern high
school education more meaningful.
experiential education
Education that emphasizes personal experience of the learner rather
than learning from lectures, books, and other secondhand sources.
Experiential education, sometimes called experiential learning, may
take the form of internships, service learning, school-to-work
programs, field studies, cross-cultural education, and leadership
development.
F
failing schools
Schools, almost always located in urban or low-income rural areas, in
which an unacceptably low proportion of students meet established
standards, as indicated by test scores. Also called low-performing
schools.
Some observers believe it is unfair to call such schools failing
because, they say, the real failure is society's for allowing the social
conditions that hamper student learning. Others point out that some
schools, called effective schools, succeed in teaching low-income
children, so others could do it too.
Because policies increasingly focus on such schools, and because test
scores usually vary from year to year rather than going steadily up or
down, state and national officials have devoted considerable
attention to procedures for deciding which schools should be declared
failing.
family life education
School programs that teach the knowledge and attitudes needed by
young people to become responsible members of healthy families,
including essential attitudes and knowledge about human sexuality.
Family life education programs are often controversial because one
person's idea of an essential attitude may be completely
unacceptable to someone else.
First Amendment Schools
This project, cosponsored by the Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development and the First Amendment Center, is
national initiative designed to transform how schools model and
teach the rights and responsibilities of citizenship. First Amendment
Schools are built on the conviction that the five freedoms protected
by the First Amendment are a cornerstone of American democracy
and essential for citizenship in a diverse society. First Amendment
Schools not only teach the First Amendment but also develop ways to
model and apply the democratic first principles.
flexible scheduling
Flexible scheduling, or modular scheduling, usually refers to school
schedules in which classes are taught for different lengths of time on
various days. For the best effect, classes are also different sizes. For
example, a lecture may be given to a large group for a relatively
short time, but a seminar discussion would have fewer students for a
longer class period. Innovative secondary schools tried flexible
scheduling in the late 1960s and '70s, but few schools use it today.
Many schools do use block scheduling, however, in which all classes
meet longer than the traditional 50 minutes.
formative test
A test given primarily to determine what students have learned in
order to plan further instruction. By contrast, an examination used
primarily to document students' achievement at the end of a unit or
course is considered a summative test.
four by four (4×4) schedule
A type of block, or alternative, scheduling used in some secondary
schools in place of the usual class periods of about 50 minutes.
Students take four 90-minute classes a day, with course changes
every 45 days (four times a school year). Students and teachers
have fewer classes to prepare for and experience fewer interruptions
in the school day. Longer blocks of time allow for more complex
learning activities, such as complicated science experiments.
full inclusion
The practice of educating all children in the same classroom,
including children with physical, mental, and developmental
disabilities. Inclusion classes often require a special assistant to the
classroom teacher. In a fully inclusive school or classroom, all of the
children follow the same schedules; everyone is involved in the same
field trips, extracurricular activities, and assemblies.
The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142)
made inclusion a controversial topic by requiring a free and
appropriate education with related services for each child in the least
restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized Education
Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991 the bill was renamed
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision
broadened the definition of disabilities and added related services.
One controversy involves interpreting the phrase "least restrictive
environment possible." Supporters of full inclusion interpret the
phrase to mean full provisions in the regular school; others advocate
case-by-case decisions, considering the individual student and
available staff and facilities. For example, some professionals and
some parents of children with learning disabilities believe that these
children benefit from partial inclusion, with some activities and
learning experiences occurring in alternative facilities using different
teaching strategies.
Inclusion has passionate advocates and adversaries. Opponents,
including many parents of children with special needs, feel that the
presence of many children with disabilities holds back average and
gifted students and that special-needs students are frequently
disruptive and are not well-served by inclusion. Advocates of
inclusion argue that all students are better served in structured
inclusive classrooms—that children with disabilities receive more
understanding and respect from their peers and that all students
profit from working together.
full-service schools
Organizations that provide services, often including medical and
dental services, nutrition classes, parent programs, and social
services, as part of the school program for both students and
families. Sometimes called community center schools, full-service
schools provide essential services that many families could not
otherwise obtain because they lack transportation, information,
money, or time. The goals of such programs are to help urban
parents feel comfortable with teachers, become a part of the learning
community, and support their children's studies.
functional illiteracy
The inability to read or write well enough to perform many necessary
tasks in life, such as writing a check, filling out a job application,
reading a classified advertisement, or understanding a newspaper
headline.
fuzzy math
A term used by critics of mathematics instruction that emphasizes
estimation, multiple approaches to problem solving, and use of
calculators, as recommended by the National Council of Teachers of
Mathematics. The critics, including some professors of mathematics,
believe children should be expected to learn established
mathematical knowledge and procedures.
G
gender bias
The idea that one gender or the other is short-changed by school
practices and expectations. The term may refer to the difficulties
boys tend to have in conforming to classroom routines and learning
to read and write, or it may refer to lower average achievement by
girls in science, mathematics, and technology. Bias is sometimes
suspected when test results consistently favor one gender or the
other.
General Educational Development (GED) exam
The GED exam is a high school equivalency test that was first
developed in 1942. Each year, approximately 800,000 adults receive
a GED diploma—sometimes called an equivalency certificate—
certifying that they have skills and knowledge equivalent to those of
a high school graduate. The program is administered by the Center
for Adult Learning and Educational Credentials of The American
Council on Education.
As of January 2002, the GED consists of five tests that cover
language arts-reading, language arts-writing, social studies, science,
and mathematics. GED courses are often available in evening adult
education programs in local school districts. The tests are given at
3,400 official GED testing centers across North America and
elsewhere.
gifted and talented
The National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) says "a gifted
individual is someone who shows, or has the potential for showing,
an exceptional level of performance in one or more areas of
expression." For example, a person may be exceptionally talented as
an artist, a violinist, or a physicist.
For much of the twentieth century, giftedness was usually measured
by IQ tests, and people who scored in the upper two percent of the
population were considered gifted. However, some authorities believe
that giftedness is indicated not so much by test scores as by
consistently exceptional performance. Federal legislation refers to
gifted and talented children as those who show high performance
capability in specific academic fields or in areas such as creativity and
leadership, and who, to fully develop their capabilities, require
services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school.
Source: Quote from "Who Are the Gifted?" in Parent Information
[Web page], Washington, DC: National Association for Gifted
Children. Retrieved February 21, 2002, from
http://www.nagc.org/ParentInfo/index.html
Goals 2000
The first national goals for education were established initially at a
meeting of state governors convened in 1989 by President George
Bush and, with minor changes, incorporated into legislation passed in
1994 under President Clinton. The eight goals, none of which were
(or could reasonably have been) accomplished, were that by the year
2000
1. All children in the United States will start school ready to learn.
2. The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90
percent.
3. All students will leave grades 4, 8, and 12 having demonstrated
competence in challenging subject matter, including English,
mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and
government, economics, the arts, history, and geography.
Every school in the United States will ensure that all students
learn to use their minds well so they may be prepared for
responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive
employment in the modern economy.
4. students will be the first in the world in mathematics and
science achievement.
5. Every adult citizen will be literate and will possess the
knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy
and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
6. Every school in the United States will be free of drugs,
violence, and the unauthorized presence of firearms and
alcohol, and all will offer a disciplined learning environment
conducive to learning.
7. The teaching force will have access to programs for the
continued improvement of their professional skills and the
opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
instruct and prepare all students for the next century.
8. Every school will promote partnerships that will increase parent
involvement and participation in promoting the social,
emotional, and academic growth of children.
governance structure
Provisions for making official decisions in an organization. In schools,
this refers to the distribution of power among levels of government—
including national, state, regional, district, school, and classroom—
and roles of various elected officials, administrators, teachers,
parents, and students. Opinions differ as to the effectiveness of
various governance structures, including the degree to which decision
making is centralized or decentralized.
H
habits of mind
Mental attitudes and ways of behaving that contribute to success in
life, such as being able to make a plan and follow it or to make
decisions based on sound information. The habits of mind sought in
the Dimensions of Learning program are grouped under the headings
of critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-regulated learning.
Head Start
Established in 1965, Head Start is intended to foster healthy
development of low-income children to help them succeed in school.
Head Start and Early Head Start are federally sponsored,
comprehensive child development programs that serve children from
birth to age 5 as well as pregnant women and their families. Head
Start grantee and delegate agencies offer a range of individualized
services in the areas of education and early childhood development;
medical, dental, and mental health; nutrition; and parent
involvement.
health education
A planned, sequential K-12 curriculum that addresses the physical,
mental, emotional, and social dimensions of health. The curriculum is
designed to motivate and help students maintain and improve their
health, prevent disease, and reduce health-related risk behaviors. It
allows students to develop and demonstrate increasingly
sophisticated health-related knowledge, attitudes, skills, and
practices. The comprehensive curriculum includes a variety of topics
such as personal health, family health, community health, consumer
health, environmental health, sexuality education, mental and
emotional health, injury prevention and safety, nutrition, prevention
and control of disease, and substance use and abuse. Qualified,
trained teachers provide health education.
Source: From "A Coordinated School Health Program" by the National
Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
Retrieved April 2, 2002, from
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash/cshpdef.htm.
heterogeneous grouping
Intentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the
same classroom (the opposite of homogeneous grouping). The
success of this method, also called mixed-ability grouping, depends
on the teacher's skill in differentiating instruction so that all students
feel challenged and successful. Advocates say heterogeneous
grouping prevents lower-track classes from becoming dumping
grounds and ensures that all students have access to high-status
content. Opponents say it is difficult for teachers to manage,
hampers the brightest children from moving at an accelerated pace,
and contributes to watering down the curriculum.
hidden curriculum
The habits and values taught in schools that are not specified in the
official written curriculum. May refer to what critics see as an
overemphasis on obedience, dependence, and conformity.
higher-order thinking
Researcher Lauren Resnick has defined higher-order thinking as the
kind of thinking needed when the path to finding a solution is not
specified, and that yields multiple solutions rather than one. Higherorder thinking requires mental effort because it involves
interpretation, self-regulation, and the use of multiple criteria, which
may be conflicting.
Teachers who seek to develop students' higher-order thinking
abilities engage them in analyzing, comparing, contrasting,
generalizing, problem solving, investigating, experimenting, and
creating, rather than only in recalling information. Other terms used
to refer to higher-order thinking include critical thinking, complex
reasoning, and thinking skills.
high-stakes tests
Tests used to determine which individual students get rewards,
honors, or sanctions. Low-stakes tests are used primarily to improve
student learning. Tests with high stakes attached include college
entrance examinations and tests students must pass to be promoted
to the next grade. Tests affecting the status of schools, such as those
on which a given percentage of students must receive a passing
grade, are also considered high stakes.
holistic learning
A theory of education that places importance on the complete
experience of learning and the ways in which the separate parts of
the learning experience are interrelated. Canadian scholar John Miller
defines holistic learning as essentially concerned with connections in
human experience, such as the connections among mind and body,
rational thought and intuition, various subject matters, and the
individual in society.
homeschooling
Teaching children at home instead of sending them to public or
private schools. Over the past decade, the number of homeschooling
families has grown dramatically. In the mid-1980s there were only
about 15,000 homeschools, but by 1994 the Department of
Education estimated the number at about 345,000. A federal report
issued in 2001 estimated that in 1999, the most recent year studied,
at least 850,000 students were learning at home; some experts
believe the figure may now be more like 1.5 million. If so,
homeschooled children would be about 4 percent of the total K-12
population.
State laws on the subject vary, but laws are changing rapidly in
response to changing conditions. At one time many families chose
homeschooling for religious reasons, but more are doing so now
because of apparent dissatisfaction with the quality of public
education. Families are beginning to network their homeschooling
efforts with other families, and in some places, home schools and
public schools are working together to benefit all the students. For
example, some states and school districts permit homeschooled
students to enroll part-time for particular classes or to participate in
student activities.
homogeneous grouping
Assigning students to separate classes according to their apparent
abilities. Placing students in groups for all their classes based
supposedly on their general learning ability has been called tracking.
For example, college-bound students might have all of their classes
together while vocational students and special education students
would attend other classes. In its most extreme form, tracking has
been declared illegal by the U.S. Supreme Court and is considered a
violation of students' civil rights. Alternatively, students may be
grouped according to their achievement in particular subjects. For
example, a student might be in an above-average science course but
an average English course. Strictly speaking, this form of ability
grouping is not tracking, although the results may be similar, so
opponents sometimes call it tracking anyway.
Proponents of ability grouping believe it allows students to excel
within their levels. Less capable students are not intimidated by their
more capable peers, and gifted students are not bored by the slower
pace considered necessary for regular students. Critics say tracking
is undemocratic, allows unequal access to higher-level content, and
creates low self-esteem. Opponents also say that students who learn
more slowly become subject to lower expectations from teachers.
I
IB
See international baccalaureate.
illiteracy
Lack of the skills needed in a literate society. Whereas literacy once
meant minimal ability to read and write, the term is now used to
refer to many types of knowledge and skills, such as computer
literacy. People may also speak of scientific, mathematical, economic,
or musical literacy.
immersion
As used in bilingual education programs, immersion means having
students learn a second language by speaking, hearing, and reading
it all day (or part of the day), including being taught several subjects
in that language. If all students speak the same language, as they
usually do in bilingual programs for Spanish-speaking students, the
lessons are constructed around the students' language competencies,
and the instructor is fluent in both the students' language and the
language being learned. Immersion programs in the United States
are usually for non-English speakers, but some enrichment
immersion programs are designed for English speakers to learn a
second language.
inclusion
The practice of educating all children in the same classroom,
including children with physical, mental, and developmental
disabilities. Inclusion classes often require a special assistant to the
classroom teacher. In a fully inclusive school or classroom, all of the
children follow the same schedules; everyone is involved in the same
field trips, extracurricular activities, and assemblies.
The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142)
made inclusion a controversial topic by requiring a free and
appropriate education with related services for each child in the least
restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized Education
Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991 the bill was renamed
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision
broadened the definition of disabilities and added related services.
One controversy involves interpreting the phrase "least restrictive
environment possible." Supporters of full inclusion interpret the
phrase to mean full provisions in the regular school; others advocate
case-by-case decisions, considering the individual student and
available staff and facilities. For example, some professionals and
some parents of children with learning disabilities believe that these
children benefit from partial inclusion, with some activities and
learning experiences occurring in alternative facilities using different
teaching strategies.
Inclusion has passionate advocates and adversaries. Opponents,
including many parents of children with special needs, feel that the
presence of many children with disabilities holds back average and
gifted students and that special-needs students are frequently
disruptive and are not well-served by inclusion. Advocates of
inclusion argue that all students are better served in structured
inclusive classrooms—that children with disabilities receive more
understanding and respect from their peers and that all students
profit from working together.
indicator
A statistic, such as the percentage of students attending school daily,
used as evidence of success in accomplishing an abstract goal, such
as student interest in learning. The long-term results of education
are difficult to measure, so people use measurable indicators—such
as drop-out rates, honors won, and test scores—to help judge school
quality.
individualized education
Also called individualized instruction, the practice of giving lessons
and assignments according to each student's needs and strengths.
Students work at their own pace, so ideally, slow students master
prerequisite knowledge before moving on and fast learners move
ahead without waiting for others. However, such programs require
self-explanatory instructional materials and extensive record keeping,
which, before the invention of personal computers, caused
management problems. Now, some schools use fully developed
computer-based individualized programs called integrated learning
systems.
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Students with certain special needs, as specified by the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), have a legal right to a special
plan written by a multidisciplinary team. After a series of tests and
observations determine the child's need for an IEP, a team (generally
including a special education teacher, a classroom teacher, a building
principal, a psychologist, and the child's parents or guardians)
designs a program of services to blend the best methods of teaching
with the most conducive learning environment for the child.
The process of creating the IEP allows the parties to discuss and
resolve any differences of opinions and needs. The document
specifies the decisions and anticipated outcomes, and it includes the
child's current level of educational performance, specific services to
be provided, who will provide those services and when, the amount
of time the child will be in regular and special classrooms, and shortand long-term goals. The IEP objectives are used to determine the
child's progress toward the goals. A well-written, carefully developed
IEP protects the child because schools are legally responsible for
implementing it.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
A revision of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, the
IDEA is a federal law passed in 1991 and amended in 1997 that
guarantees a free appropriate public education for eligible children
and youth with disabilities. According to the law, a child with a
disability means a child with mental retardation, hearing impairments
(including deafness), speech or language impairments, visual
impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance,
orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury, other health
impairments, or specific learning disabilities.
information literacy
The ability to use a variety of sources, including computers, to locate
desired information.
inservice
Also written as in-service, this is the continuing education needed by
people in most professions when they have completed their
preservice training and are employed. In education, inservice training
or education is now usually called staff development or professional
development.
integrated curriculum
A way of teaching and learning that does not depend on the usual
division of knowledge into separate subjects. Topics are studied
because they are considered interesting and valuable by the teachers
and students concerned, not necessarily because they appear in a
required course of study. Both integrated curriculum and
interdisciplinary curriculum are intended to help students see
connections, but unlike an integrated curriculum, an interdisciplinary
curriculum draws its content from two or more identifiable
disciplines.
integrated language arts
A way of teaching reading (including phonics), grammar,
handwriting, spelling, and other language skills together rather than
as separate subjects. Students spend their instructional time reading,
writing, listening, and speaking; teachers teach skills as they are
needed. Critics contend that students may miss important
information and skills without systematic instruction. Proponents of
integrated language arts say that teaching skills in context is more
interesting and meaningful to students and therefore more effective.
integrated learning systems
Computer-based systems that provide interactive instruction to
individual students and maintain records of each student's progress.
Sophisticated systems adapt the level of instruction to the student's
achievement, giving slower students additional help and moving
successful students to more challenging levels.
interactive learning
Occurs when the source of instruction communicates directly with the
learner, shaping responses to the learner's needs. Tutoring—one
teacher teaching a single student—is highly interactive. Computers
and other modern technological applications have made it
theoretically possible to provide effective interactive instruction to
any learner on any subject.
interdisciplinary curriculum
A way of organizing the curriculum in which content is drawn from
two or more subject areas to focus on a particular topic or theme.
Rather than studying literature and social studies separately, for
example, a class might study a unit called The Sea, reading poems
and stories about people who spend their lives on or near the ocean,
learning about the geography of coastal areas, and investigating why
coastal and inland populations have different livelihoods. Effective
interdisciplinary studies have the following elements:

A topic that lends itself to study from several points of view.

One or more themes (or essential questions) the teacher wants
the students to explore.

Activities intended to further students' understanding by
establishing relationships among knowledge from more than
one discipline or school subject.
Interdisciplinary curriculum, which draws content from particular
disciplines that are ordinarily taught separately, is different from
integrated curriculum, which involves investigation of topics without
regard to where, or even whether, they appear in the typical school
curriculum at all.
international baccalaureate (IB)
International baccalaureate, a rigorous, pre-university course of
study that leads to examinations accepted by more than 100
countries for university admission. In the Diploma Programme,
candidates for IB diplomas study languages, sciences, mathematics,
and humanities in the final two years of secondary schooling. The
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) now also offers the
Middle Years Programme for students ages 11–16 and the Primary
Years Programme for students ages 3–12. The headquarters of the
International Baccalaureate Organization is in Geneva, Switzerland,
but the IBO also maintains regional offices around the world.
The idea for an IB grew from concerns of schools that had to prepare
students to take university entrance exams in different countries. In
1962 the International Schools Association began to explore the
creation of an international standard examination, and by 1970 the
first exam was offered to 20 schools. The IB is now offered by more
than 1,000 schools. Schools must meet certain criteria to offer IB
curriculum and to administer the examination. Students can take the
IB exam only if they are enrolled in an authorized school.
invented spelling
The way young children write some words when they have not yet
mastered all the conventions of English spelling. Most children, if
encouraged to write when they don't yet know how to spell every
word, will try to use simple phonetic principles. For example, they
might write "muthr" for "mother" or "reed" for "read." Some
language arts specialists say invented spelling is a natural, positive
way for children to learn to write. Critics think children should be
expected to spell correctly from the beginning.
IQ
Intelligence quotient—a number derived by dividing a child's "mental
age" (derived from her score on an intelligence test) by her actual
age. IQ is based on the principle that children who score well on
intelligence tests have mental ability comparable to older children
who are only average. A child whose performance would be expected
for his age has an IQ of 100. A child with mental ability considerably
higher than his actual age might have an IQ of 130. The term "IQ" is
no longer used as frequently as it used to be, but intelligence tests
continue to be scored using the familiar scale.
L
lead teachers
Teachers who have broader responsibilities and higher salaries than
other teachers but who continue to work with students as regular
classroom teachers, at least part time. The idea for lead teachers was
proposed as a way to improve the quality of schooling in 1986 in the
report A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century from a task
force that included leaders of the National Education Association, the
American Federation of Teachers, and leaders in business and
government. The task force noted that education is different from
most professions in that opportunities for career advancement are
relatively limited. Despite various efforts to improve the status and
rewards of teaching, few of today’s teachers hold positions that could
be considered lead teacher roles.
Learning disability
A condition that interferes with a student’s ability to learn. Even the
definition of this term is controversial. The Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act amended in 1997 defines a specific learning
disability as “a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, which disorder may manifest itself in imperfect ability to
listen, think, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations. Such
term may include such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental
aphasia.” Children not included under this provision include those
who have learning problems which are “primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional
disturbance, or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage.”
learning disorder
Another term for learning disability, a condition that interferes with a
student's ability to learn. For example, some people have dyslexia,
which simply means reading disability. People with this condition
have difficulty distinguishing among letters of the alphabet and
translating words on paper into meaningful language.
Learning First Alliance (LFA)
An alliance of 12 national education organizations devoted to
improving public education. The LFA seeks to align priorities, share
and disseminate success stories, encourage collaboration at every
level, and work toward long-term systemic change based on solid
research evidence. It represents more than 10 million individuals
engaged in providing, governing, and improving U.S. public schools
at the local, state, and national levels. It is the only national coalition
focused on improving elementary and secondary education in public
schools to involve chief executive officers and elected leadership of
the major national organizations representing parents, teachers,
curriculum specialists, school principals, administrators, school
boards, state boards of education, chief state school officers, schools,
colleges, and departments.
learning styles
Differences in the way students learn more readily. Scholars have
devised numerous ways of classifying style differences, including
cognitive style (the way a person tends to think about a learning
situation), tendency to use particular senses (seeing, hearing,
touching), and other characteristics, such as whether the person
prefers to work independently or with others.
Advocates interpret research as showing that teaching
underachievers in ways that complement their strengths can
significantly increase their scores on standardized tests. For example,
strongly auditory students learn and recall information when they
hear it, whereas kinesthetic youngsters learn best through activities
such as role playing or floor games.
least restrictive environment
A phrase used in the Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA)
to describe the type of setting schools should provide for students
with disabilities. The phrase is generally understood to mean that
such children should be assigned to regular, rather than special,
classrooms to the extent that they can profit from being there and do
not interfere too much with the education of others. Opinions differ
greatly over what this should mean for particular children, as well as
for such children in general.
LEP students
See limited English proficient (LEP) students.
lifelong learning
The idea that, because people in the modern world must continue
learning all their lives, schools should teach children how to learn
rather than (or in addition to) teaching them fundamental knowledge
and skills. Also refers to changing the mission of public schools from
teaching only children through age 18 to providing educational
opportunities to people of all ages.
limited-English-proficient (LEP) students
Students who are reasonably fluent in another language but who
have not yet achieved comparable mastery in reading, writing,
listening, or speaking English. LEP students are often assigned to
bilingual education or English-as-a-second-language (ESL) classes.
looping
An informal term for assigning students to the same teacher for more
than one school year. Rather than teaching a new group of students
at the same grade level each year, teachers stay with the same
group of students as they move from grade to grade. The practice is
rare in the United States, but has been common for years in some
parts of Europe and is now being tried in some schools in the United
States. Advocates say it provides for more continuous learning
because teachers don't have to take time to learn about an entirely
new group of students each year.
low-performing schools
Schools, almost always located in urban or low-income rural areas, in
which an unacceptably low proportion of students meet established
standards, as indicated by test scores. Also called failing schools.
Some observers believe it is unfair to call such schools failing
because, they say, the real failure is society's for allowing the social
conditions that hamper student learning. Others point out that some
schools, called effective schools, succeed in teaching low-income
children, so others could do it too.
Because policies increasingly focus on such schools, and because test
scores usually vary from year to year rather than going steadily up or
down, state and national officials have devoted considerable
attention to procedures for deciding which schools should be declared
low-performing.
M
magnet schools
Alternative public schools, most of which focus on a particular area of
study, such as performing arts or science and technology but also
offer regular school subjects. Students from any part of the school
district may enroll and the schools often have waiting lists. Most
magnet schools were originally established by large urban school
districts to help achieve racial desegregation, so they have entrance
requirements intended to maintain racial balance. Some magnet
schools have other entry requirements, such as achievement in the
school's area of concentration, but others do not.
mainstreaming
The practice of placing students with disabilities into regular
classrooms. The students usually also receive some assistance and
instruction in separate classrooms, often called resource rooms.
(Programs in which students with disabilities spend all or nearly all of
their time in regular classrooms are called inclusion or full inclusion
programs. Mainstreaming is also known as partial inclusion.)
Experts say successful mainstreaming requires regular
communication and cooperation among teachers, students, and
parents. Individualized Education Programs need to be jointly
developed, thoroughly understood, and carefully followed. The
classroom teacher may need special training and assistance from the
special education staff. Mainstreaming is also more effective when
regular students are given information about their peers with special
needs.
manipulatives
Learning materials designed to help students understand abstract
ideas by handling physical objects. An abacus is a mathematics
manipulative.
mastery learning
A way of organizing instruction that tries to ensure that students
have mastered each increment of a subject before going on to the
next. The idea assumes that a subject can be subdivided into
sequential steps organized hierarchically. The classic mastery
learning model formulated by psychologist Benjamin Bloom calls for
teachers to teach a unit of work and give a formative test. Students
who do not master the material study it in a different way while the
mastery students do enrichment work. Then all students take a
summative test, which nearly all students are expected to pass.
measurement error
The calculated amount by which a test score may vary from the
student's theoretical "true" score (no test can be exact in measuring
a student's ability).
mediation
This term has at least two quite different meanings. One refers to the
recourse taken by school boards when teacher contract negotiations
halt. Mediation over contract specifications is binding arbitration in
some states, meaning that the board and union must accept the
terms negotiated. In other situations involving conflict resolution, a
mediator is a neutral party who works between the two conflicting
parties and attempts to arrive at a satisfactory compromise.
Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein, developer of the Instrumental
Enrichment program, uses the term mediation to refer to the
interactive process by which a teacher promotes the cognitive
development of students.
mentor
A role model who offers support to another person. A mentor has
knowledge and experience in an area and shares it with the person
being mentored. For example, an experienced teacher might mentor
a student teacher or beginning teacher.
Some student mentoring programs are designed to help at-risk
students succeed in school. Acting as role models, mentors spend
time with individual students once or twice a week—encouraging,
listening, making suggestions, and taking the student to events,
activities, or the mentor's place of employment to help the student
learn about a career and consider further education.
merit pay
A system that recognizes teachers or principals who are thought to
be especially capable by paying them higher salaries. Conventional
merit pay, based on judgments made by supervisors or peers, is
controversial because the grounds for awarding it are necessarily
subjective. Because students learn in different ways and teachers
and principals have different styles, some people believe it is unfair
to regard one competent teacher or principal as better than another.
Most current versions of merit pay, known as pay for performance,
are tied to student achievement.
Merit pay is uncommon even though many noneducators argue for it.
Many educators believe it encourages competition rather than
cooperation among teachers and principals and tends to reward a few
teachers and principals at the expense of others.
metacognition
The ability to be conscious of and, to some degree, control one's own
thinking. Educators have come to use the prefix "meta" to refer to
the application of a process to the process itself. (For example, metaanalysis is analysis of a large number of research studies on a
particular topic.) In this case, cognition is thinking, so metacognition
means thinking about one's own thinking.
You are using metacognition when you can track your progress in
solving a multistep problem or when you realize that you have been
looking at a page in a book without following the meaning and
backtrack until you find the place where your mind began to wander.
middle schools
Schools for students in the early adolescent years between
elementary school and high school. Most middle schools include
grades 5 through 8 or 6 through 8. Middle school advocates say that
young adolescents have special needs because of their rapid growth
and change. They say middle schools should have team teaching,
interdisciplinary curriculum, advisory systems, and other provisions
for personalization. Most junior high schools, which have traditionally
included grades 7 through 9, do not have these features.
minimum competency tests
Tests created by a school district or state that students must pass
before graduating. In the 1970s, some states devised minimum
competency tests intended to ensure that high school graduates had
achieved minimal proficiency in basic skills. In recent years, states
have often replaced minimum competency tests with more
demanding tests aligned with adopted curriculum standards.
mixed-ability grouping
Intentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the
same classroom. The success of this method, also called
heterogeneous grouping, depends on the teacher's skill in
differentiating instruction so that all students feel challenged and
successful. Advocates say mixed-ability grouping prevents lowertrack classes from becoming dumping grounds and ensures that all
students have access to high-status content. Opponents say it is
difficult for teachers to manage, hampers the brightest students from
moving at an accelerated pace, and contributes to a watered-down
curriculum.
multi-age grouping
The practice of having children of different ages in the same
classroom, rather than assigning them to age-graded classrooms
(e.g., 6-year-old children to 1st grade and 7-year-old children to 2nd
grade). Multi-age grouping is practiced more often in elementary
schools than in secondary schools. A typical grouping is children ages
5–7 as primary students and children ages 8–10 as intermediate
students. The reason for combining two or more grade levels is that
students can be grouped with others who are at the same
developmental level regardless of age. In other words, they can learn
at a faster or slower pace without being made to feel abnormal.
multicultural education
Schooling that helps students understand and relate to cultural,
ethnic, and other diversity, including religion, language, gender, age,
and socioeconomic, mental, and physical differences. Multiculturalism
is intended to encourage people to work together and to celebrate
differences, not to be separated by them. However, the field itself is
controversial.
Opponents of multicultural education feel that it detracts from
students' knowledge of American history and commitment to
traditional values, especially patriotism. Supporters feel that a
multicultural approach provides a more balanced look at history and
the world, and that studying several viewpoints increases students'
depth of understanding.
Some multiculturalists believe that a natural first step toward helping
students appreciate other cultures is first to focus on the students'
own cultures. For example, they believe an Afrocentric curriculum
gives African-American students pride in their cultural heritage.
Other advocates believe that emphasizing the differences between
groups promotes fragmentation and rivalries. They see multicultural
education as a process that encourages teachers to integrate various
cultures' beliefs, music, language, and social skills into each school
subject, as appropriate.
multidisciplinary curriculum
Refers to curriculum in more than one discipline or subject area.
People may use this term and related ones differently, but, in
general, a multidisciplinary curriculum is one in which the same topic
(e.g., harmony) is studied from the viewpoint of more than one
discipline (e.g., music, history, and literature). For example, students
may study weather using a variety of disciplines. They might study
the current science behind measuring air pressure, learn about the
history of weather prediction, and read and write poetry about
weather.
multimedia presentations
Presentations that use more than one medium to communicate
information. For example, a CD-ROM that combines text, pictures,
sound, voice, animation, and video is multimedia. Multimedia
presentations may be used by teachers to cover new subject matter
or by students to present projects.
multiple intelligences
A theory of intelligence developed in the 1980s by Howard Gardner,
professor of education at Harvard University. Gardner defines
intelligence broadly as "the capacity to solve problems or fashion
products that are valued in one or more cultural setting." He
originally identified seven intelligences: linguistic, logicalmathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and
intrapersonal. He later suggested the existence of several others,
including naturalist, spiritual, and existential. Everyone has all the
intelligences, but in different proportions.
Teachers who use a multiple-intelligences approach strive to present
subject matter in ways that allow students to use several
intelligences. For example, they might teach about the Civil War
using songs from that period or teach the solar system by having
students physically act out the rotation of planets around the sun.
Source: Quote from "Multiple Intelligences Go to School: Educational
Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences," by H. Gardner &
T. Hatch, 1989, in Educational Researcher, 18(8), 4–9.
N
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)
NAEP (pronounced "nape"), is also known as The Nation's Report
Card. It is a federally funded program (currently contracted to
Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J.) that provides
information about the achievement of students nationally and stateby-state. NAEP tests a representative sample of students in grades 4,
8, and 12 each year and reports the results to the public.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
An independent, nonprofit organization that awards national
certification to teachers who successfully complete a set of rigorous
assessments. Teachers voluntarily apply for national certification,
which complements, but does not replace, state licensing. State
licensing systems specify minimum requirements, including entrylevel standards for novice teachers. National Board certification
establishes advanced standards for experienced teachers. A majority
of members of the 63-member board are classroom teachers.
Created in 1987 as recommended in a Carnegie Forum report called
A Nation Prepared, NBPTS has developed standards that describe
accomplished teaching in numerous subjects and at various levels, as
well as multipart performance-based assessments designed to
measure the standards. There are currently about 10,000 National
Board certified teachers in 50 states and the District of Columbia.
National Education Association (NEA)
One of the two large teacher unions (the other is the American
Federation of Teachers). NEA describes itself as America's oldest and
largest organization committed to advancing the cause of public
education. Founded in 1857 in Philadelphia and now headquartered
in Washington, D.C., NEA has more than 2.5 million members who
work at every level of education, from preschool to university
graduate programs. It also has affiliates in every state and in more
than 13,000 local communities across the United States.
national goals
The first national goals for education were established initially at a
meeting of state governors convened in 1989 by President George
Bush and, with minor changes, incorporated into legislation passed in
1994 under President Clinton. The eight goals, none of which were
(or could reasonably have been) accomplished, were that by the year
2000
1. All children in the United States will start school ready to learn.
2. The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90
percent.
3. All students will leave grades 4, 8, and 12 having demonstrated
competence in challenging subject matter, including English,
mathematics, science, foreign languages, civics and
government, economics, the arts, history, and geography.
Every school in the United States will ensure that all students
learn to use their minds well so they may be prepared for
responsible citizenship, further learning, and productive
employment in the modern economy.
4. students will be the first in the world in mathematics and
science achievement.
5. Every adult citizen will be literate and will possess the
knowledge and skills necessary to compete in a global economy
and exercise the rights and responsibilities of citizenship.
6. Every school in the United States will be free of drugs,
violence, and the unauthorized presence of firearms and
alcohol, and all will offer a disciplined learning environment
conducive to learning.
7. The teaching force will have access to programs for the
continued improvement of their professional skills and the
opportunity to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to
instruct and prepare all students for the next century.
8. Every school will promote partnerships that will increase parent
involvement and participation in promoting the social,
emotional, and academic growth of children.
NCTM standards
A description of what students should be expected to learn in
mathematics classes published originally in 1989 by the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The mathematics
standards became the model for other subject matter organizations
that developed standards in the early 1990s. Those standards were
not adopted by the federal government, so instead they are used
primarily for reference rather than for official purposes. For example,
many of standards adopted by most states in the mid and later
1990s were at least partly derived from the national standards.
NEA
See National Education Association.
neighborhood schools
The idea that children should be able to attend the public schools
nearest their homes. School district boundaries are usually drawn to
provide for this, although choice plans let parents decide which
schools their children will attend.
Following the U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1956 outlawing
segregated schools, many public school systems, especially those in
large northern cities, adopted or were ordered by courts to
implement desegregation plans under which some children were
bused to schools away from their homes. Opponents of such plans
called for neighborhood schools instead.
New American Schools
A nonprofit, nonpartisan, business-led organization promoting
comprehensive school reform in more than 3,500 schools across the
United States. Launched in 1991, New American Schools is supported
by corporations, foundations, and the U.S. Department of Education.
It sponsors design teams who help schools improve student
performance by implementing one of several (currently 10) different
research-based designs for organizing an entire school. Although the
designs differ in their approach to teaching and learning, they all
emphasize challenging academic standards, strong professional
development programs, meaningful parental and community
involvement, and a supportive school environment.
New Standards
A joint project begun in 1990 of the National Center on Education
and the Economy and the Learning Research and Development
Center at the University of Pittsburgh. In 1996, New Standards
released a comprehensive set of internationally benchmarked
performance standards in mathematics, English language arts,
science, and applied learning at the elementary, middle, and high
school levels. These were the first integrated set of performance
standards in these subject areas developed for national use in the
United States. In addition to the standards, the project has also
developed a performance assessment system—available in published
form as the New Standards Reference Examinations—tied to the
standards. Several thousand schools in about 20 states were
involved in creation of the standards and assessments.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)
See "Elementary and Secondary Education Act."
nongraded school
A way of organizing schools that uses individual student progress to
determine when students move from one level of schooling to
another. In a nongraded (also called ungraded) primary school, some
students take longer than others to move into 4th grade from a
primary-level multi-age classroom (kindergarten through 3rd grade).
Students are not classified by grade levels and not evaluated using
traditional letter grades (A, B, C, D, F), but their achievement is
carefully monitored.
As part of a major school reform in Kentucky, all schools in that state
are expected to have a nongraded primary school. The idea is that
children ages 5–8 can progress at their own pace without fear of
failure, and that they learn best through well-planned activities
appropriate to each child's level of development.
norm-referenced tests
Standardized tests designed to measure how a student's
performance compares with that of other students. Most
standardized achievement tests are norm-referenced, meaning that a
student's performance is compared to the performances of students
in a norming group. Scores on norm-referenced tests are often
reported in terms of grade-level equivalencies or percentiles derived
from the scores of the original students.
O
OBE
See outcome-based education.
opportunity-to-learn standards
Ensuring that all students have the resources and conditions they
need to reach the same high performance standards. In the mid
1990s, when professional organizations were developing content
standards that most people expected would eventually be adopted by
the federal government, some educators and politicians argued for
parallel adoption of opportunity-to-learn standards, also known as
school delivery standards. They contended that if governments
proposed to specify minimum standards for what students should
know and be able to do, they should also specify what schools must
provide students, including curriculum, instruction, and classroom
equipment. Opponents argued that they did not want to impose
specific requirements but preferred to let local schools decide how
best to meet the standards. In the end, standards were not adopted
nationally but by the states, which already had minimum
requirements, some of which might be interpreted as providing
opportunity-to-learn.
outcome-based education (OBE)
An approach to schooling that makes outcomes—intended results—
the key factor in planning and creating educational experiences. In
the 1990s, some states and local school systems announced plans to
drop some conventional requirements, such as using Carnegie units
to measure the amount of learning, and instead to organize
instruction around intended outcomes, such as teaching students to
be "collaborative workers." Adherents said their intention was to
emphasize actual student accomplishment (outcomes) rather than
traditional measures of school quality, such as course offerings and
teacher qualifications (inputs). They said that the amount of time
spent learning and other factors, such as what the student does in
order to learn, should depend on the outcome to be achieved. In
conventional schooling, they said, time is fixed and outcomes are
variable. Instead, outcomes should be fixed and time should be
variable.
The OBE movement grew from a concern that students were
graduating from high school without having mastered the basic
knowledge and skills needed to participate in adult society. Adherents
proposed that students should be expected to demonstrate what they
had learned and that high school graduation should be based on such
demonstrated learning. However, opponents, including some
religiously oriented groups, severely criticized OBE as an expression
of educators' penchant for social engineering at the expense of
academics and basic skills. The term outcomes became unpopular
with politicians and school officials. As a result, few educators
currently describe their reform efforts as outcome-based.
outcomes
Intended results of schooling: What students are supposed to know
and be able to do. Educators and others may use the term outcomes
to mean roughly the same as goals, objectives, or standards;
however, the word "outcomes" is associated with the idea of
outcome-based education, which was controversial in the 1990s and
is therefore avoided by most school systems today.
P
Paideia
An approach to school reform proposed by the late philosopher
Mortimer Adler in The Paideia Proposal in 1982. Unlike many reform
ideas that try to individualize the curriculum to fit each student’s
needs and strengths, Paideia calls for all students to study a single
rigorous curriculum. The only elective is foreign language. The
Paideia curriculum calls for three methods of learning: didactic
teaching (lecture), the Socratic method (in which a teacher uses
directed questioning to help students arrive at desirable answers),
and coaching.
Parent Teacher Association
See PTA.
Pedagogy
The art of teaching—especially the conscious use of particular
instructional methods. If a teacher uses a discovery approach rather
than direct instruction, for example, she is using a different
pedagogy.
Peer mediation
Programs in which students assist other students to work through
problems without resorting to violence. In such programs, selected
students—or sometimes all the students—are taught conflict
resolution skills: how to negotiate problems in a nonviolent way.
Designated mediators may then patrol school grounds, especially
playgrounds, and intervene when they see a conflict or the threat of
a conflict.
Performance assessment
A form of assessment that is designed to assess what students know
through their ability to perform certain tasks. For example, a
performance assessment might require a student to serve a
volleyball, solve a particular type of mathematics problem, or write a
short business letter to inquire about a product as a way of
demonstrating that they have acquired new knowledge and skills.
Advocates believe such assessments—sometimes called
performance-based assessments—provide a more accurate indication
of what students can do than traditional assessments, which might
require a student to fill in the blank, indicate whether a statement is
true or false, or select a right answer from multiple given choices.
Evaluating students through task performance can be more timeconsuming and therefore more expensive. Most large-scale
assessments (such as state testing programs) use this form of
assessment sparingly, if at all. But many educators believe it is worth
the extra cost because it provides a more accurate and realistic
picture of student learning.
Performance tasks
Activities, exercises, or problems that require students to show what
they can do. Some performance tasks are intended to assess a skill,
such as solving a particular type of mathematics problem. Others are
designed to have students demonstrate their understanding by
applying knowledge. For example, students might be given a current
political map of Africa showing the names and locations of countries
and a similar map from 1945 and be asked to explain the differences
and similarities. To be more authentic (more like what someone
might be expected to do in the adult world), the task might be to
prepare a newspaper article explaining the changes.
Performance tasks often have more than one acceptable solution.
They may call for a student to create a response to a problem and
then explain or defend it. Performance tasks are considered a type of
assessment (used instead of, or in addition to, conventional tests),
but they may also be used as learning activities.
Personalization
Schooling that emphasizes the needs of students as individual human
beings. To personalize learning, teachers must be able to adapt to
students’ particular interests and styles, so they must know students
well. The term is sometimes used to contrast personalization with
individualized instruction, which may be considered more technical
and procedural. Some of the ways schools may try to achieve
personalization include small classes, advisory systems, independent
study, and student-parent-teacher conferences.
Phonics
The relationship between the basic sounds of a language (phonemes)
and the way those sounds are represented by symbols (letters of the
alphabet). Many people see phonics as a method of teaching reading
that begins with the study of individual letter sounds (44 basic
sounds in English), progressing to words that contain those sounds,
and only then to reading the words in stories. This approach, which
might be described as systematic phonics, is opposite in theory and
technique from the whole-language approach, which involves
learning skills in the context of meaningful reading and writing. Most
school reading programs are a compromise between these extremes.
Teachers teach sound-letter correspondences but also have students
spend part of their time on related reading and writing activities.
Portfolio
A collection of student work chosen to exemplify and document a
student’s learning progress over time. Just as professional artists
assemble portfolios of their work, students are often encouraged or
required to maintain a portfolio illustrating various aspects of their
learning. Some teachers specify what items students should include,
while others let students decide. Portfolios are difficult to score
reliably and may be a logistical problem for teachers, but advocates
say they encourage student reflection and are a more descriptive and
accurate indicator of student learning than grades or changes in test
scores.
Privatized schools
Public schools run by a for-profit company, usually under contract
with the local board of education or some other government agency.
Advocates believe that failing schools can benefit from more efficient
management and from competition. Opponents dislike the idea that
the corporations make money by educating children and argue that
the profits should instead be used for teachers, equipment, and
supplies.
Problem-based learning
An approach to curriculum and teaching that involves students in
solution of real-life problems rather than conventional study of terms
and information. Developed in leading medical schools, problembased learning begins with a real problem that connects to the
student’s world, such as how to upgrade a local waste treatment
plant. Student teams organize their methods and procedures around
specifics of the problem, not around subject matter as such. Students
explore various avenues before arriving at a solution to present to
the class. Teachers report that students using problem-based
learning become more interested in their studies, more motivated to
explore in-depth, and more likely to see the value of the lesson.
Problems are chosen for their appropriateness and power to
illuminate core concepts in the curriculum. They must be carefully
selected to ensure that students learn the intended content.
professional development
Also known as staff development, this term refers to experiences,
such as attending conferences and workshops, that help teachers and
administrators build knowledge and skills.
project method
Teaching by engaging students in a long-term activity in which they
gather information and develop a product of some kind, such as a
written report, oral presentation, or model. Some educators believe
that students learn more, understand the content more thoroughly,
and remember information and skills longer when they work on a
project.
PTA
With a membership of nearly 6.5 million, National PTA (also known
as Parent Teacher Association) is a nonprofit organization of parents,
teachers, students, and others that encourages parental and public
involvement in the schools, advocates for children, and assists
parents in developing parenting skills.
public engagement
Involving members of the public in understanding public education
but also providing for their active participation in decision making. In
recent years, advocates have used the term "engagement" rather
than "public relations" or "public information" because the older
terms are identified (perhaps unfairly) with one-way rather than twoway communication. Advocates of public engagement envision a
more balanced, trusting relationship between school officials and
their constituents.
pull-out programs
Programs that provide assistance (often remediation) to individual
children by "pulling them out" of regular classes. Because doing this
results in children missing instruction that their classmates receive,
such programs can put these children at a disadvantage, especially
because they were already those most in need. For this reason—even
though some such programs have been quite effective—pull-out
programs are now discouraged in federal policy, with comprehensive
school reform favored instead.
Pygmalion effect
The effect of teacher expectations on student performance. The term
refers to a Greek myth that was the forerunner of the musical My
Fair Lady, in which a teacher transforms an uneducated person into a
proper lady. Extensive research has documented that student
achievement can be affected by what students' teachers think they
can do.
Q
qualitative research
Research that uses methods adapted from anthropology and other
social sciences, including systematic observation and interviews. Until
recently, most educational research was quantitative. Some
researchers are now using qualitative methods because they think
statistical processes will not produce the understandings they seek.
For example, a researcher might spend an entire year visiting a
particular school; observing classes, meetings, and conversations;
and seeking to identify the way decisions are made and the roles
played by various staff members.
quantitative research
Research conducted in a traditional scientific manner using statistical
procedures to compare the effects of one treatment with another. For
example, a researcher might compare test scores of students taught
using an experimental method with the scores of students taught in a
more conventional way. Some researchers now see this approach as
limited, so make greater use of qualitative research methods.
R
reconstituting schools
Renewing schools with excessively low student achievement by
replacing the administrators and most or all teachers. School officials
and legislators have begun to use this strategy, usually in large
urban school systems, when it appears that other approaches to
school improvement are not having an effect. Teacher unions often
oppose reconstitution because it suggests that staff members, rather
than social conditions, are primarily to blame for low-performing
schools. The strategy has sometimes been successful, but only when
the school system has been able to recruit a strong new leader and
unusually capable teachers. Under the circumstances, this is often
very difficult.
reliability
In testing, an estimate of how closely the results of a test would
match if the test were given repeatedly to the same student under
the same conditions (and there was no practice effect).
remedial education
Education intended to remedy a situation; that is, to teach students
what they should already have learned. For example, reading classes
at the high school or college level are considered remedial because
most students learn to read in elementary school. The success of
remedial education depends on several factors, including the
teacher's approach and expectations, the instructional materials
used, and the students' motivation to learn.
resource room
A special education classroom where students can go for additional
help mastering academic skills. Some schools offer this resource to
any student who desires help in a given subject area, but usually
students with learning disabilities or other special needs are assigned
to the resource room for a certain number of hours each week.
restructuring
The implementation of new organizational patterns or styles of
leadership and management to bring about renewed, more effective
schools. The term restructuring was widely used by educators and
reformers in the early 1990s but is less common now. It can mean
reorganizing the school day or year and changing conventional
practices, such as grouping students by age for an entire school year
or giving competitive grades. Or it may refer to changing the roles of
teachers and administrators, allocating more decision-making power
to teachers, and involving parents in decisions.
rubric
Specific descriptions of performance of a given task at several
different levels of quality. Teachers use rubrics to evaluate student
performance on performance tasks. Students are often given the
rubric, or may even help develop it, so they know in advance what
they are expected to do. For example, the content of an oral
presentation might be evaluated using the following rubric:
Level 4—The main idea is well developed, using important details and
anecdotes. The information is accurate and impressive. The topic is
thoroughly developed within time constraints.
Level 3—The main idea is reasonably clear and supporting details are
adequate and relevant. The information is accurate. The topic is
adequately developed within time constraints but is not complete.
Level 2—The main idea is not clearly indicated. Some information is
inaccurate. The topic is supported with few details and is sketchy and
incomplete.
Level 1—A main idea is not evident. The information has many
inaccuracies. The topic is not supported with details.
S
sampling
In testing programs, a way of estimating how a whole group would
perform on a test by testing representative members of the group or
giving different portions of the test to various subgroups (matrix
sampling).
scaffolding
The way a teacher provides support to make sure students succeed
at complex tasks they couldn't do otherwise. Most teaching is done
as the students go about the task, rather than before they start. For
example, as a group of elementary students proceed to publish a
student newspaper, the teacher shows them how to conduct
interviews, write news stories, and prepare captions for photographs.
Because the teacher supports the students to make sure they don't
fail in their effort, it reminds researchers of the scaffolding that
workers sometimes place around buildings. As the students become
more skillful, the teacher gives them more responsibility, taking away
the scaffolding when it is no longer needed. (This gradual withdrawal
has been called "fading.")
SCANS (Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary
Skills) Report
A report issued in 1991 by the Department of Labor identifying the
knowledge, skills, and abilities that future workers would need to
succeed in entry-level jobs. Competencies listed in the SCANS report
included basic skills (reading, writing, mathematics, listening, and
speaking), thinking skills (creative thinking, decision making,
problem solving, visualizing symbols, reasoning, and knowing how to
learn), and personal qualities (responsibility, self-esteem, sociability,
self-management, and integrity). The SCANS 2000 Center at Johns
Hopkins University continues to promote the teaching of these skills
in elementary, middle, and secondary schools.
Scholastic Achievement Tests (SAT II; formerly ACH)
Subject-matter tests required for college entrance by many
institutions of higher education. The SAT program is administered by
The College Board, a 100-year-old, not-for-profit membership
association.
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT I)
Formerly called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, the SAT was introduced
in the 1950s and renamed in 1994. The SAT I is one of the two
alternative standardized tests commonly used by institutions of
higher education as a primary basis for evaluating a student's
application for admission (the other is the ACT). According to The
College Board, the name now reflects more accurately what the exam
does: It measures what a student has learned, not what a student
might hope to accomplish in life. The SAT I is taken each year by 1.3
million students from a variety of cultures, economic conditions,
regions, and schools. Requiring three hours to take, the test has
seven sections: three verbal, three mathematics, and a nonscored
"equating" section used either to try out new questions or to set the
scoring scale.
school-based management
A system of school governance by which most decisions, including
staffing and spending decisions, are made at the level of the
individual school, rather than at district or other agency level. Also
known as site-based management or decision making. (Schools or
sites are not necessarily whole buildings. In some cases, a building
may house several schools.)
School-based management is frequently confused with participatory
or shared decision making. Participatory or shared decision making
involves multiple stakeholders (generally teams composed of
administrators, teachers, and parents; some include student
representatives, community members, and one or more business
partners) in decision-making processes at the school. School-based
management may make use of such teams; however, it might
instead assign authority to school principals. School-based
management implies only that decisions are made at the school
level; it does not imply who makes those decisions.
Some highly successful programs assign authority to school
principals, who are responsible for deciding how best to involve
others. And shared decision-making tends to be more successful
when local administrators use it voluntarily.
school choice
The idea that families should have more than one alternative when
enrolling their children in school. The term is commonly employed by
advocates of vouchers and tax credits as though it refers only to a
choice between public and nonpublic schools. Actually, some states
and school districts offer numerous options—sometimes in the form
of charter or magnet schools, but also in more comprehensive choice
plans.
Some advocates of school choice argue that it encourages healthy
competition among schools for enrollment, thus raising the quality of
all schools. Opponents contend that advantaged parents are
consistently able to exploit opportunities—for example, by providing
transportation to schools outside their neighborhoods—so choice
contributes to greater inequity.
school climate
The sum of the values, cultures, safety practices, and organizational
structures within a school that cause it to function and react in
particular ways. Some schools are said to have a nurturing
environment that recognizes children and treats them as individuals;
others may have the feel of authoritarian structures where rules are
strictly enforced and hierarchical control is strong. Teaching
practices, diversity, and the relationships among administrators,
teachers, parents, and students contribute to school climate.
Although the two terms are somewhat interchangeable, school
climate refers mostly to the school’s effects on students, whereas
school culture refers more to the way teachers and other staff
members work together.
School culture
The sum of the values, cultures, safety practices, and organizational
structures within a school that cause it to function and react in
particular ways. Some schools are said to have a nurturing
environment that recognizes children and treats them as individuals;
others may have the feel of authoritarian structures where rules are
strictly enforced and hierarchical control is strong. Teaching
practices, diversity, and the relationships among administrators,
teachers, parents, and students contribute to school climate.
Although the two terms are somewhat interchangeable, school
climate refers mostly to the school’s effects on students, whereas
school culture refers more to the way teachers and other staff
members work together.
School-linked programs
Schools that provide not only education but also other services—such
as medical and dental services, nutrition classes, parent programs,
and social services—for both students and families. Such schools,
sometimes called community center schools or full-service schools
and usually located in inner-city urban neighborhoods, provide
essential services that many families could not otherwise obtain
because they lack transportation, information, money, or time. The
goals of such programs are to help parents feel comfortable with
teachers, become a part of the learning community, and support
their children’s studies.
School readiness
The basic background and knowledge that children are usually
expected to have upon entering kindergarten. Some educators
believe that school readiness skills should include

Recognition of colors and basic shapes.

Gross motor coordination that enables children to catch a ball.

Fine motor coordination that enables them to hold a crayon or
pencil.

The ability to sort objects (e.g., beans or coins).

Knowing their first and last names and home address.
In addition, school readiness is usually thought to include, for
example, good nutrition, inoculations, and care, safety, and
guidance. Some programs, including Head Start, attempt to boost
the preschool development of children from low socioeconomic
backgrounds.
School restructuring
The implementation of new organizational patterns or styles of
leadership and management to bring about renewed, more effective
schools. The term restructuring was widely used by educators and
reformers in the early 1990s but is less common now. It can mean
reorganizing the school day or year and changing conventional
practices, such as grouping students by age for an entire school year
or giving competitive grades. Or it may refer to changing the roles of
teachers and administrators, allocating more decision-making power
to teachers, and involving parents in decisions.
School-to-work
A movement based on the belief that students are not adequately
prepared for careers by the time they graduate from high school.
Although a growing number of parents believe their children must
attend college and earn at least a bachelor’s degree to make a
comfortable living, nearly three-quarters of U.S. citizens do not have
a college degree, indicating that high school graduates need
preparation and training to succeed in the work world.
Depending on the nature of the program, preparation for
employment may be called several different things, including career
education and, of course, vocational education. The term school-towork is associated with programs supported with federal funds under
the School-to-Work Opportunities Act, which was intended to
broaden educational, career, and economic opportunities for all
students by creating partnerships between schools and businesses,
community organizations, and government agencies. The act
provides funds for a variety of programs, including apprenticeships,
tech-prep programs, and internships. Schools and businesses work
together to integrate learning and job-training skills.
Schoolwide programs
Also called whole-school reform or comprehensive school reform, this
term refers to an approach to school improvement that involves
adopting a design for organizing an entire school. New American
Schools, an organization that promotes comprehensive school
reform, sponsors several different designs, each featuring challenging
academic standards, strong professional development programs,
meaningful parental and community involvement, and a supportive
school environment.
Selected response
Preferred by some testing specialists over the more common term
“multiple choice” because it is more specific and contrasts with
“constructed response,” meaning items that require the student to
provide an answer.
Self-renewing schools
Schools that have developed the capacity to revise their structures
and processes to adapt to changing conditions. Self-renewing schools
are sometimes called learning organizations because they learn and
change in response to experience. Advocates of self-renewing schools
believe that schools should change traditional practices that do not fit
modern conditions, such as the influence of television and other
electronic media in the lives of today’s children.
Service learning
Provisions for making community service part of the school’s
educational program. At the high school level, this means awarding
school credit for such service. Students usually work on site at such
locations as soup kitchens, recycling centers, homeless shelters, and
community hospital fairs. Some high schools require that students
earn a certain number of credits in service learning in order to
graduate.
Sheltered instruction
Teaching limited-English-speaking students by using simplified
English that is relatively easy to understand and learn.
site-based decision-making
A system of school governance by which most decisions, including
staffing and spending decisions, are made at the level of the
individual school, rather than at district or other agency level. Also
known as school-based or site-based management.(Schools or sites
are not necessarily whole buildings. In some cases, a building may
house several schools.)
Site-based decision-making is frequently confused with participatory
or shared decision-making. Some schools have teams composed of
administrators, teachers, and parents; some include student
representatives, community members, and one or more business
partners. Team members share responsibility for educational,
leadership, and administrative functions.
In fact, site-based decision-making does not depend on any
particular arrangements for governance at the school level. Some
highly successful programs assign authority to school principals, who
are responsible for deciding how best to involve others. And shared
decision-making tends to be more successful when local
administrators use it voluntarily.
social and emotional learning (SEL)
Lessons and other experiences intended to help students learn to
control their emotions and to work and play with others. Several
research-based programs have been developed and tested.
Advocates strongly advise a planned, sequential curriculum with time
set aside for SEL just as it is for other important goals.
social promotion
The practice of promoting students to the next grade whether or not
they have accomplished the goals of their current grade. Social
promotion is almost uniformly condemned by politicians, the public,
and many educators. Opponents argue that students who have not
met minimum requirements must be retained in grade. Otherwise,
they say, failing students will not have the prerequisite skills to
continue learning and will eventually become functionally illiterate
graduates.
Some educators, familiar with the undesirable effects of repeated
grade retention, such as high drop-out rates, prefer to approach the
problem differently. They favor adopting and monitoring standards
and benchmarks, blurring grade lines (ungrading), grouping students
in mixed-ability groups or at their current level of achievement
(alternative strategies), and focusing on individual progress. In other
words, for young children at least, they would eliminate social
promotion by eliminating the concept of promotion itself.
special education
Educational programs for students who, because they have a
disability of some kind, require special instructional help to reach
their potential. This may include specially trained teachers,
innovative technology or instructional materials, access to a resource
room, or even external placement. The term sometimes (but not
usually) includes programs for those considered gifted.
special-needs students
Students who, because of physical, developmental, behavioral, or
emotional disabilities, require special instructional help to reach their
potential. This may include specially trained teachers, innovative
technology or instructional materials, access to a resource room, or
even external placement. The term sometimes (but not usually)
includes students classified as gifted and talented.
spiral curriculum
An approach to curriculum design that provides for periodic revisiting
of key topics over a period of years, presenting them in greater
depth each time. Contrasts with mastery learning, which assumes
that a topic should be taught thoroughly and mastered before
students move on to something else.
standardized testing
Tests that are administered and scored under uniform (standardized)
conditions. Because most machine-scored, multiple-choice tests are
standardized, the term is sometimes used to refer to such tests, but
other tests may also be standardized.
standards
In current usage, the term usually refers to specific criteria for what
students are expected to learn and be able to do. These standards
usually take two forms in the curriculum:

Content standards (similar to what were formerly called goals
and objectives), which tell what students are expected to know
and be able to do in various subject areas, such as
mathematics and science.

Performance standards, which specify what levels of learning
are expected. Performance standards assess the degree to
which content standards have been met. The term "world-class
standards" refers to the content and performances that are
expected of students in other industrialized countries. In recent
years, standards have also been developed specifying what
teachers should know and be able to do.
standards-based education
Teaching directed toward student mastery of defined standards. Now
that nearly all states have adopted curriculum standards, teachers
are expected to teach in such a way that students achieve the
standards. Experts say this means that teachers must have a clear
idea what each standard means, including how it can and will be
assessed, and that teachers should monitor individual student
achievement of each important standard.
student-led conference
A variation of the usual parent-teacher conference in which the
student plays a major part. The student prepares for the conference
and leads it by showing the parents or family members samples of
her work, often in the form of portfolios, and discussing areas of
strengths and weaknesses.
Proponents believe that having students analyze and explain samples
of their own work makes them feel more responsible. It also provides
an opportunity for them to practice presentation skills. If parents
need a private talk with the teacher, a separate meeting or phone
conversation is usually arranged.
summative test
A test given to evaluate and document what students have learned.
The term is used to distinguish such tests from formative tests, which
are used primarily to diagnose what students have learned in order
to plan further instruction.
supervision
The process by which one person, usually someone with greater
authority, helps another person improve his performance. A
persistent issue in education is the relationship between supervision
and teacher evaluation. In education, supervision is ideally a
nonthreatening and helping relationship, and teacher evaluation is a
formal administrative responsibility. In practice, most supervision is
done by the school principal, who visits the teacher's classroom to
observe and then meets with the teacher to discuss effectiveness of
the lesson. The process of observing and conferring is sometimes
called clinical supervision to distinguish it from the kind of employee
supervision necessary in any organization, such as making sure
people get to work on time.
systemic reform
Improvement of education by coordinating all aspects of the
system—which in various situations may be a state, a local district,
or even a school. Recognizing that regulations and traditions
sometimes interfere with reform, policymakers talk about standardsbased systemic reform, which means establishing performance
standards that students are to meet (usually at the state level) and
then aligning everything else—curriculum, assessment, college
entrance requirements, teacher education, teacher certification,
teacher professional development, and so on—with the expected
standards. If standards call for students to learn content they are not
learning now, all parts of the system must work together: New
instructional materials may be needed, new tests may have to be
created, and teachers may need to learn new approaches.
T
teacher certification
Official recognition, ordinarily by the state, that a person is qualified
to be a teacher. A single certification used to last a lifetime, but
many states now require certificate renewal every few years, with
evidence of the completion of university or district inservice courses.
Many teaching certificates are highly specialized by subject, grade
levels, or specifics such as counseling or the ability to teach students
with disabilities.
Alternative certification is a way for persons without the standard
qualifications to teach while learning on the job (with continuing
education and supervision).
In addition to required state certification, some highly accomplished
teachers now apply for and are granted national certification by the
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.
teacher licensure
More commonly called teacher certification (see definition).
teacher portfolios
Collections of items or exhibits intended to show a teacher's
accomplishments and abilities. The idea comes from student
portfolios, which may supplement or replace tests of student
learning. Similarly, teacher portfolios can be used as a means of
evaluation. The teacher certification program being pioneered by the
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards uses teacher
portfolios.
teaching for understanding
Engaging students in learning activities intended to help them
understand the complexities of a topic. Teaching for understanding is
different from teaching simply for recall, which results in students
being able to answer questions without knowing what their answers
really mean. Specialists advise that a good way to know whether
students understand is to ask them to perform a task that shows
they can apply and make use of what they have learned in a realistic
setting. For example, students might participate in a mock trial to
demonstrate that they have developed their understanding of the
rights of the accused.
teaching to the test
Preparing students for a test by concentrating on the particular
things the test contains rather than on the broader body of
knowledge the test is intended to measure. An extreme example
would be drilling students on the 20 words the teacher knows will
appear on a spelling test rather than teaching the whole set of words
students are supposed to have learned to spell.
team teaching
An arrangement by which two or more teachers teach the same
group of students. Teachers may teach together in many different
ways. They may teach a course, or a combination of courses, for an
entire school year, or they may plan and teach a particular unit of
study. They may present content from the same, or different, subject
areas. And they may keep the students in a single large group or
divide them up for some purposes.
tech prep
Programs of study that prepare students for careers by teaching
them computer skills and other technology skills in both secondary
and postsecondary schools. Most tech-prep plans provide for two
years of training in high school followed by two more years in a
community college. Tech prep is intended to prepare students for
good jobs without a college degree, but many students who enter
these programs continue their education in a four-year college or
university.
tenure
The legal provision that people in certain positions may not be fired
without a good reason, which must be proven in court. Teachers and
professors are often awarded tenure after a specified trial period.
Once they have established their competence to teach and have been
given tenure, they may not be dismissed for improper reasons, such
as teaching an unpopular idea or belonging to the wrong political
party. Opponents of tenure charge that the elaborate procedures
required to dismiss a tenured person, commonly known as "due
process," are so onerous that they prevent school systems from
discharging poor teachers.
thematic instruction
Organizing all or part of the instruction of a particular group of
students around a theme, such as the Dependence and
Independence. Advocates say it makes the curriculum more coherent
and helps students see relationships among things they are learning.
thematic unit
A segment of instruction focused on a given theme. School courses
are frequently divided into units lasting from one to six weeks. For
example, a literature course might include a four-week unit on The
Individual and Society.
Title I
Refers to Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(ESEA) of 1965, which is intended to improve education in highpoverty communities by targeting extra resources to schools and
school districts with the highest concentrations of poverty. These are
areas in which academic performance tends to be low and the
obstacles to raising performance are the greatest.
First enacted as part of the War on Poverty, Title I was known for a
while as Chapter I. ESEA must be periodically reauthorized. The most
recent reauthorized version of the law, named No Child Left Behind,
requires states to administer annual assessments in reading and
math for all students in grades 3–8. Schools will be expected to
demonstrate that all students are making adequate yearly progress
in achieving proficiency on state standards, as measured by test
scores. Schools not making adequate yearly progress will be targeted
for improvement and they will receive additional assistance from the
state. Schools continuing to not achieve adequate yearly progress
will be subject to sanctions, including reconstitution of staff or
conversion to a charter school.
Tracking
The practice of dividing students for instruction according to their
perceived abilities. Students are placed on a particular track (collegebound, general, vocational, and remedial) and given a curriculum
that varies according to their perceived abilities and future positions
in life. At the elementary level, the practice is called grouping.
Advocates argue that it makes instruction more efficient and provides
students with instruction adapted to their abilities and previous
knowledge. Critics argue that it deprives students of equal
opportunity, unfairly and inaccurately labels some students, and
perpetuates racial, ethnic, language, and social inequalities.
trade books
Individual novels and storybooks that are available for purchase at
most retail bookstores. Some teachers incorporate trade books into
their lessons, especially in English and history, to create more varied
and interesting units of study. Some elementary reading programs
depend almost entirely on trade books rather than basal texts.
tuition tax credit
Reduction of income taxes paid by parents for school expenses,
especially for tuition to nonpublic schools. Advocates say parents,
especially low-income parents, should not be required to pay both
school taxes and private school tuition. They also support the right of
parents to choose the kind of school their children will attend and
often contend that having competition improves the public schools.
Opponents argue that using government funds for private religious
schools, even indirectly through tax credits, violates the separation of
church and state. They also charge that, like vouchers, tax credits
reduce the amount of funding available to public schools.
U
ungraded school
A way of organizing schools that uses individual student progress,
rather than age or grade level, to determine when students move
from one stage of schooling to another. In an ungraded (also called
nongraded) primary school, some students take longer than others to
move into 4th grade from a primary-level multi-age classroom
(kindergarten through 3rd grade). Students are not classified by
grade levels and not evaluated using traditional letter grades (A, B,
C, D,F), but their achievement is carefully monitored.
As part of a major school reform in Kentucky, all schools in that state
are expected to have a nongraded primary school. The idea is that
children ages 5–8 can progress at their own pace without fear of
failure, and that they learn best through well-planned activities
appropriate to each child's phase of development.
unit of study
A segment of instruction focused on a particular topic. School courses
are frequently divided into units lasting from one to six weeks. For
example, an American history course might include a four-week unit
on The Westward Movement.
untracking
Reducing or eliminating grouping by ability, resulting in classes with
students from all ability levels. The result of untracking is mixedability grouping, also called heterogeneous rather than homogeneous
(or ability) grouping. Strictly speaking, tracking refers to students
being lumped into groups for all their classes based on their general
ability to learn. Grouping for specific purposes, such as current
knowledge of mathematics, is theoretically not tracking, although
opponents charge that the practice usually has the same results.
Advocates of detracking, also called untracking, point to research
indicating that when students are grouped by ability, those in lower
tracks are usually taught poorly and don't get exposed to "highstatus" knowledge. They see untracking as part of a broader
restructuring of schools in which student differences are provided for
within each class. Opponents say ability grouping is easier for
teachers and better for students—those who are academically able
and should not be held back, and those who are slower and should
have attention to their special needs.
V
validity
In testing, validity means how well a test measures what it is
intended to measure. For example, a test in history may be so
difficult for young students to read that it is more of a reading test
than a test of historical knowledge. That makes it invalid for its
intended purpose.
values education
Teaching children about basic human values including honesty,
kindness, generosity, courage, freedom, equality, and respect. The
goal is to raise children to become morally responsible, selfdisciplined citizens. Because some values are controversial (such as
attitudes toward homosexuality), parent groups have occasionally
insisted that schools should not attempt to teach values at all. Taken
literally, that would be impossible, because for children to live and
work together, some values must be communicated and enforced.
Character education programs frequently focus on a set of values
arrived at by community consensus. These values may be taught
through telling stories, holding discussions, and pointing out
examples when they occur.
Values clarification, a form of values education used in some schools
in the 1960s and '70s, has been strongly criticized as misguided and
irresponsible. Proponents advised that students should discuss
complex value issues (such as who should be thrown from an
overloaded lifeboat) while teachers were to remain neutral. Even
some of the advocates now admit that, without reasonable adult
guidance, values clarification can be harmful. On the other hand,
experienced parents and teachers know that, although it is important
for adults to be clear about where they stand, students also benefit
from opportunities to express their honest views as they think things
out for themselves.
visualization
Consciously creating a picture of something in the mind. Teachers
sometimes encourage students to visualize situations to help them
remember information or to prepare them for creative activities such
as writing stories. For example, a history teacher might ask students
to imagine themselves at Gettysburg on the morning before a day of
heavy fighting, asking them to think about the sights, the sounds,
and the smells around them, and how they would be feeling. Then,
still pretending to be Civil War soldiers, the students might write a
letter to a parent or friend about the battle of Gettysburg.
vocational education
Schooling at the high school level that allows students to spend a
part of the school day attending traditional classes and the rest of the
day learning a trade, such as auto repair or cosmetology. Vocational
classes may be held in the same school building as the other classes
or in a separate vocational-technical school. Students may also train
at real work sites.
voucher
A certificate issued to parents that can be used as full or partial
payment of tuition for any nonpublic school. Advocates of vouchers
say low-income parents should be able to choose the kind of school
their children will attend and that competition will improve the public
schools. They argue that citizens should not be required to pay both
school taxes and private school tuition. Opponents say that using
government funds for private religious schools violates the separation
of church and state, and that vouchers reduce the amount of funding
available to public schools.
W
whole language
A technique for teaching language arts that emphasizes the reading
and writing of whole texts (sometimes beginning with picture books)
before analyzing words and individual letter sounds. Advocates
believe it instills a love of reading more than a strictly phonetic
approach, which begins with drilling and memorizing the basic vowel
and consonant sounds. Although some reading specialists are bitterly
divided over the merits of whole language versus systematic phonics,
most schools offer a combination of both—some putting more
emphasis on reading for meaning, some on component skills. Some
programs differentiate instruction according to individual student
needs. Research studies indicate that whole-language practices work
well with children who are visual, holistic learners.
world-class standards
Content and performance levels that are expected of students in
other industrialized countries. Also refers to the movement in the
United States to bring students' academic achievement and
knowledge on par with students' accomplishments in the other
industrialized countries.
In 1993, New Standards (a joint project of the National Center on
Education and the Economy and the Learning Research and
Development Center) began to collect and analyze tests and
documents from other countries whose students performed well on
international tests and whose citizens perform well economically and
tend to hold skilled jobs. The project was based on the view that
educational systems are successful when they set clear, consistent,
demanding public standards that make sense in the culture of the
school and the country.
Y
year-round schooling
Replacing the conventional school year of 9–10 months and a long
summer break with a continuous school year with breaks at other
times. Advocates say the traditional school calendar reflects a society
that needed children home in the summer to work on farms. In
today's society, children are frequently left home alone in the
summer with little to do.
School systems have devised several different year-round models. In
the single-track approach, the lengthy summer vacation is replaced
by several shorter breaks that are scattered throughout the calendar
year. In one such plan, known as 45-15, the school year consists of
four 45-day sessions separated by breaks of approximately 15 days
each. The advantage is that students retain more information than
they would over a long break and need less review, so can continue
learning more readily. The breaks give both students and teachers
more frequent opportunities to relax. Some schools offer minicourses
and enrichment classes during breaks.
In a multitrack approach, most often used in rapidly growing
communities, school is always in session, but only a portion of the
students attend at any one time so that there is enough room to
accommodate everyone. A school built to accommodate 750 students
can be used to educate 1,000 students if, at any given time, 250 of
them are on vacation. The multitrack method saves money that
would otherwise have to be spent for school construction, although
costs are incurred for the additional salaries, maintenance, and air
conditioning (as needed). Families often resist both single-track and
multitrack year-round schooling plans because they disrupt schedules
and interfere with vacation plans, at least initially. Breaks at
nontraditional times of the year, however, may allow families to
enjoy less expensive, less crowded vacations.
A different version of year-round schooling, seldom used because it is
expensive, extends the school year from the conventional 180 days
to as many as 247 school days.
Z
zero tolerance
Provisions in legislation or official policies that require specified
punishments for given offenses, no matter how slight the offense.
Zero tolerance rules are adopted to send a message about
unacceptable behavior, and adherents support them for that reason.
However, school administrators who are permitted no flexibility in
enforcing such rules are sometimes ridiculed in the press for their
apparent poor judgment.