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Joe Cuseo
INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
THRIVING IN COLLEGE & BEYOND:
RESEARCH-BASED RESOURCES FOR
COURSE DESIGN, DELIVERY, AND ASSESSMENT
CONTENTS
Introduction to the Instructor’s Manual
Rationale & Purpose of the Manual
Organization of the Manual
Section I: Planning, Teaching, & Evaluating the First-Year Experience Course
Section II: Textbook-Related Teaching Strategies
Appendices
Exhibits
Section I. Planning, Teaching, & Evaluating the First-Year Experience
Course
Planning the Course
Identifying & Articulating Course Objectives (Intended Learning Outcomes) in the Syllabus
Academic Outcomes
Personal Development Outcomes
Teaching the Course: Selecting Instructional Methods & Strategies
Strategies for Improving the Quality of Your Course Syllabus
Using Engaging, Student-Centered Pedagogy in the First-Year Seminar
Teaching Strategies for the Critical First Day & Week of Class
Making the Student-Instructor Connection: Initiating Rapport with Your Class
Making the Student-Course (Subject) Connection: Initiating Student Interest & Involvement
Making Student-Student (Peer) Connections: Initiating a Sense of Community among Classmates
Extending the Student-Instructor Connections: Sustaining Rapport with Your Class throughout
the Term
Extending the Student-Course Connection: Sustaining Student Interest & Involvement in the
Course throughout the Term
Promoting Students’ Active Involvement in the Course
Using “Modified Lecture” Formats
The Interactive Lecture
The Punctuated Lecture
Using Reality-Based Learning Tasks
Cases (Case Method)
Role Plays
Scripts
Simulations
Stimulating Students’ Intrinsic Motivation & Interest in the Course’s Subject Matter
Extending the Student-Student Connection: Sustaining Peer Interaction throughout the Term
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Engaging Students in Small-Group Work
When to Use Small-Group Work
Strategies for Improving the Quality of Small-Group Work
Out-of-Class Assignments
Assignments to Promote Immediate Application of Academic-Success Strategies
Assignments to Promote Students’ Self-Assessment and Self-Awareness
Experiential Learning Assignments
Assignments for Connecting Students to Student-Support Services
Future-Planning Assignments
Writing-To-Learn Assignments
Transactional Writing Assignments:
Evaluating & Grading Student Performance
Using Multiple Methods of Student Evaluation
Using Frequent Assessment
Evaluating the Course and Your Course Instruction
Course-Evaluation Surveys (a.k.a., Student Ratings)
How to Administer Course-Evaluation Surveys
When to Administer Course-Evaluation Surveys
Interpreting the Results of Course-Evaluation Surveys
Analysis of Students’ Written Comments
Course-Embedded Assessment
Student Focus Groups
Pre-Test/Post-Test Course Evaluation
Retrospective Assessment by Course Alumni
Section II. Textbook-Specific Instructional Strategies
Selecting & Organizing the Text’s Content to Fit Your FYE Course Type, Focus, or Emphasis
Course Focus on Basic Academic-Success Skills & Strategies
Course Focus on Advanced Academic and Cognitive Skills
Course Focus on Educational & Career Planning
Course Focus on Psychosocial Adjustment, Personal Development, & Wellness
Selecting & Organizing the Book’s Content with a Focus on Practical Application of CollegeSuccess Strategies
Covering Selected Textbook Content in Ways Other than Traditional Reading Assignments
Selecting Textbook Content by Supplying Students with Specific Learning Objectives as Reading
Guides
Strategies for Increasing the Likelihood that Students will Read the Textbook
Setting a Tone for Reading by Sending an Early Message that Regular Reading is Clearly
Expected
Integrating Textbook Reading with Classroom Learning by Having Students Bring the Text in
Class, Refer to the text in class, and Use the Text in Class
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Holding Students Accountable for Reading by Creating Clear Connections between
Textbook Reading and Course Grades
Using Specific Reading Objectives to Guide Student Reading and to Serve as a Study Guide for
Reading-Based Quizzes or Exams
Chapter-Specific Teaching Strategies (Chapters 1-13, Introduction, and Epilogue)
Key Teaching Goals for the Chapter
Key Points/Concepts to Cover in Class
Classroom Learning Activities
Student Assignments
Specific Learning Objectives to Guide Student Reading
Test/Quiz Questions Tied to Specific Reading Objectives (Intended Learning Outcomes)
Appendices
A. Lectures: Why, When, & How?
B. Strategies for Learning & Remembering Students’ Names
C. Timing & Tailoring Your Teaching Strategies to the “Rhythms” of the Academic Term
D. The One-Minute Paper
E. Cooperative Learning: Transforming Group Work into Teamwork
F. A Taxonomy of Specific Cooperative-Learning Structures
G. Specific Reading Objectives: A Strategy for Focusing Student Reading & Preparing Students
for Reading-Based Exams
Exhibits
1. Blueprint for Constructing a Comprehensive Course Syllabus
2. The Student Information Sheet
3. The “Classmate Scavenger Hunt”
4. Sample Calendar of Co-Curricular Experiences
5. Service-Learning Experience: Sample Reflection Paper
6. Co-Curricular Experience: Sample Reflection Paper
7. Prompted Journal Entries Tied to the “Rhythms” of the Academic Term
8. Criteria for Evaluating Group-Project Presentations
9. Directions to Students: Using Reading Objectives as a Study Guide for Exams
10. Sample Syllabi for FYE Courses Using Thriving in College
References
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Introduction to the Instructor’s Manual
Rationale & Purpose of the Manual
This manual is intended to be more than just a chapter-by-chapter “cookbook” guide. It
attempts to provide a coherent and comprehensive plan for teaching the first-year seminar
that “covers all the bases” of effective teaching, ranging from constructing the course
syllabus to evaluating course outcomes. The manual’s plan is deeply grounded in
research on effective college teaching and learning. Not only does the content of the FYE
seminar fail to get sufficient respect from course skeptics, the seminar’s student-centered
teaching methods run the risk of being misjudged as lightweight “activities.” One
purposes of this IM is combat these misperceptions by showcasing the fact that solid
scholarship underlies first-year seminar teaching practices and that they are not fun
activities, but instructional strategies intentionally designed to promote deep learning.
The IM is intended to do provide you with more than a series of superficial teaching
“tips,” which focus exclusively on the how of it—teaching mechanics; it also includes
examination of the why of it—research-based reasons for the effectiveness of the
strategies that are recommended. It is our feeling that including some discussion of the
research and theory that support the manual’s recommended practices serves to highlight
teaching as a form of scholarship, elevates the academic credibility of the FYE course,
and validates the efforts of the student-centered instructors who teach it. Moreover, if you
share the rationale for your teaching strategies with your students, they will gain a better
understanding of the educational purpose behind them, which should increase the
likelihood they will respond to your teaching with greater effort and enthusiasm.
The instructional strategies cited in this manual have been drawn primarily from three
sources: (a) research on instructional improvement reported by in the field of faculty
development, (b) research in the areas of human learning, cognition, and motivation, and
(c) research on the characteristics and behaviors of college instructors that are empirically
associated with student perceptions of effective teaching and self-reported learning.
References supporting the suggested teaching strategies are cited in the body of the
Manual, and complete citation information for the references cited is provided in the
Reference Section at the end of the Manual.
It is our hope that this Manual’s combination of general effective-teaching methods
and textbook-specific teaching strategies will provide you with a balanced blend of
practices that will serve to enhance your effectiveness as an instructor, as well as the
instructional effectiveness of the text.
Unlike traditional courses, where it is assumed that faculty with advanced degrees in
their disciplines already know what and how to teach their subject, instructor training
and development is a critical component of an effective FYE program because none of its
instructors have received graduate training in how to teach such an FYE course. (No one
earn has earned an advanced educational degree in subject of the first-year experience or
the field of student success.) Thus, the Instructor’s Manual for an FYE course takes on
greater significance than it does for discipline-based courses taught by discipline-trained
faculty. It has the potential to be much more than an optional course supplement or an
ancillary to the text; instead, it has the capacity to fill a teacher-preparation void and
serve as the centerpiece of an effective training-and-development program for all FYE
course instructors.
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Organization of the Manual
When constructing this manual, our goal was to be comprehensive, and our operating
assumption was: “Better to have it and not want it, than to want it and not have it.”
Naturally, this “leave no stone unturned” approach has resulted in the production of a
large-sized Instructor’s Manual. Don’t be intimidated by manual’s size, however, because
it has been intentionally organized to allow you to use it selectively and efficiently. Here
is a succinct description of the Manual’s organizational scheme.
Section I: Planning, Teaching, & Evaluating the First-Year Experience Course
The instructional strategies in this part of the manual are organized around making
three key student-centered “connections” that should be made in the first-year seminar:
(1) the student-instructor connection, (2) the student-course (subject) connection, and (3)
the student-student (peer) connection. The many specific strategies cited in this section
are highlighted so they can be readily identified without having to read the research and
scholarship that supports their effectiveness.
The goal of this section is to lay out a comprehensive array of flexible instructional
strategies that can be applied to any chapter or topic in the text. These adaptable teaching
practices should supply you with a well-stocked arsenal of versatile strategies from which
you may choose to deploy where and when you see fit. The sizable number of
transferable teaching strategies in this section, which are not tied down to any particular
textbook chapter topic or specific piece of course content, serves to highlight their crosschapter and cross-disciplinary applicability. This underscores a potentially powerful
feature of the first-year seminar: its capacity to promote effective teaching across the
curriculum.
Section II: Textbook-Related Teaching Strategies
This section of the Manual contains textbook-specific teaching strategies, reading
objectives, and test items for all chapters in the textbook, including the Introduction and
Epilogue. Consult this section to quickly access instructional ideas and student
assessment strategies that are tied directly to each topic or instructional unit of the text.
The presentation of this Manual to you in electronic form should allow you to readily
modify and adapt its content to fit your needs. For example, the chapter-specific
classroom exercises and reading objectives can be easily altered to select any items you
want and arrange them in any order you want.
Appendices
This section includes information that supports or extends ideas presented in the body
of the manual. They are offset from the manual’s central content so that you can access
this supplementary material without interfering with the manual’s central flow of ideas.
Exhibits
This section contains a series of very practical handouts and course supplements that
can be conveniently adopted or adapted for immediate use in your course as teaching
tools, classroom exercises, or out-of-class assignments.
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Conclusion
We encourage you to use this Instructor’s Manual as a multiple-purpose resource for
such purposes as: (a) personal course preparation, (b) instructor training-anddevelopment programming, (c) building campus-wide support for the course, (d) and
stimulating departmental or college-wide dialogue about effective teaching and learning.
As the size of this Manual suggests, effective teaching is a multidimensional and
multi-faceted phenomenon comprised of many specific actions and “little acts” that
collectively add up to make a big difference. We are not implying that you should
immediately implement all, or even most, of these suggestions all at once. Some of the
suggested strategies you may already be practicing; if so, interpret this as reinforcement
and validation of what you already do well. Other recommended strategies involve only
minor changes in teaching behavior that can be implemented with little cost to you in
terms of time, effort, or departure from your existing teaching style. Those strategies or
methods that involve significant investment of time should be viewed more realistically
as long-term projects that you may eventually bring to fruition at a later point in time.
Thus, this manual can serve as a long-term resource for ongoing instructional
improvement and professional development. By selecting a manageable number of new
strategies to implement each time you teach the course, they will gradually accumulate
and begin to exert a multiplicative or synergistic effect on the overall quality of your
teaching. Such an incremental instructional-improvement process should provide you
with a steady source of continuous professional growth and an accumulative feeling of
personal gratification, knowing that each successive cohort of first-year students you
instruct will experience a “new and improved” version of the first-year seminar.
Lastly, we would like to capitalize on the power of technology to create an electronic
List through which FYE instructor using our text can engage in ongoing, asynchronous
discussion of effective teaching practices. Through this medium, FYE teachers from
anywhere in the world may pose questions, share success strategies, and participate in
online instructional development. It is our hope that this Manual may provide the
framework and foundation for launching an instructor-support-and-development network
run by and for FYE instructors. Perhaps this network could serve as a “virtual teachers’
lounge” for dedicated professionals who’ve accepted the challenge of teaching a studentcentered course that no one has been professionally prepared to teach.
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SECTION I.
PLANNING, TEACHING, & EVALUATING
THE FIRST-YEAR EXPERIENCE COURSE
PLANNING THE COURSE:
IDENTIFYING COURSE OBJECTIVES, SELECTING COURSE CONTENT, &
CONSTRUCTING THE COURSE SYLLABUS
Introduction
In a survey of 125 faculty from 15 different institutions in the California State
University system asked them for ideas concerning what specific, concrete teaching
behaviors or practices they found to be most effective in the college classroom. The most
frequently cited practice was “providing a comprehensive, detailed syllabus and
following it throughout the course” (Cooper & Cuseo, 1992). A similar result emerged
from informal interviews conducted with first-year students at the University of Rhode
Island at the end of their first year of college in which these freshmen were asked what
instructors might have been done differently to help them. One of the three most frequent
responses was: “Provide a better syllabus” (Erickson & Strommer, 1991, p. 81).
The need for a comprehensive syllabus is even more imperative for the FYE seminar
because it is a nontraditional course that is likely to undergo careful and continual
scrutiny by the academic community, both before and after its formal approval. Since the
syllabus is often the centerpiece of this course-evaluation process, the quality of its
construction may determine the fate of the FYE course. One way to make the academic
elements of the FYE course very visible to those who are judging its credibility is to
showcase them in the course syllabus. Indeed, the design and presentation of a
comprehensive, well-constructed course syllabus may go a long way in promoting the
course’s initial approval and subsequent endorsement.
See Exhibit 1 for an itemized “checklist” that may be used as a blueprint for
constructing a comprehensive course syllabus. In this section of the Manual, we share
guidelines for improving the design and construction of the FYE course syllabus.
Identifying & Articulating Course Objectives (Intended Learning Outcomes)
in the Syllabus
The syllabus is the place where the course objectives are identified and conveyed to
students. Listed below is a series of specific strategies for formulating course objectives
for the FYE course.
* Include course objectives that are student-centered, i.e., which focus on what
students will experience and learn as a result of participating in the course.
Course objectives cited in the syllabus should be written for and directed toward the
learner rather than centering on course content; they should speak to students in a
personal tone (e.g., “By then end of this course, you will be able to . . .). As Judith
Grunert (1997) points out in her book, The Course Syllabus: A Learning-Centered
Approach, “A learning-centered syllabus requires that you shift from what you, the
instructor, are going to cover in your course to a concern for what information and tools
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you can provide for your student to promote learning and intellectual development” (p.
xi).
The need to heed this advice is now intensified by recent accreditation standards that are
emphasizing the need for inclusion of learning outcomes on course syllabi. Traditional
course objectives identified on most course syllabi can be readily transformed into intended
learning outcomes to accommodate this new emphasis by including specific action-verb
indicators of how the course objective will be realized or demonstrated. For example, the
general and abstract cognitive goal of promoting student “understanding” or
“comprehension” may be transformed into an objective that incorporates any of the
following concrete action verbs: (a) “distinguish between” (b) “explain in one’s own
words,” (c) “predict,” (d) “evaluate,” (e) “list the consequences of”, (f) “classify,” or (g)
“apply to a new situation.” Similarly, the abstract attitudinal or affective goal of
“appreciation” may be transformed into an objective that incorporates any of the
following concrete action verbs: (a) “persists,” (b) “seeks” (c) “chooses,” (d) “consults,”
(e) “explores” (f) “attends,” (g) “volunteers,” (h) “enrolls,” (i) “joins,” or (j) “purchases.”
Moreover, phrasing course objectives in terms of intended learning outcomes can
serve as instructional map to guide or drive instructional decisions about course content,
the teaching process, student assessment, and course assessment. As Meyers and Jones
recommend (1993), “Pose this simple question: ‘What do I want students to know and be
able to do by the end of class?’ Focusing initially on course outcomes, or the ‘to do’ side
of this question, often helps clarify content and appropriate learning strategies” (p. 35).
One strategy for identifying and prioritizing outcomes for the FYE course is by using the
following classification schemes.
Academic Outcomes
1. Academic skill development (e.g., improvement of note-taking, reading, writing, testtaking, and research skills)
2. Academic performance/achievement (e.g., higher student retention/persistence;
improved first-term GPA; fewer Ds, Fs, or Ws in first-term courses; lower
percentage of students subsequently placed on academic probation; higher
percentage of students making the Dean’s List)
Personal Development Outcomes
Since the intended outcomes of FYE courses often develop the whole person, the
following elements of holistic development “wheel” may serve as a useful tool for
specifying personal-development outcomes of your course:
1. Intellectual Development : Acquiring knowledge, learning how to learn and
how to think deeply.
2. Emotional Development : Strengthening skills for coping with, controlling,
and expressing emotions.
3. Social Development : Enhancing the quality and depth of interpersonal
relationships.
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4. Ethical Development : Acquiring a clear value system for guiding life
choices and decisions, and developing consistency between moral convictions
(beliefs) and moral commitments (actions).
5. Physical Development : Applying knowledge about how the human body
functions to prevent disease, maintain wellness, and promote peak performance.
6. Vocational (Occupational) Development : Exploring career options,
making career choices wisely, and developing skills needed for lifelong career
success.
7. Personal Development: Developing positive self-beliefs, personal attitudes,
and practical life skills.
More specific objectives embraced by these general areas or zones of development are
provided in chapter 2 of the text (pp. 52-57).
Focusing on holistic or whole-person outcomes may be an effective way to build
support for the seminar because it will enable you to link your course objectives with
your college’s mission statement and to institutional goals.
Research indicates that most college mission statements tend to embrace institutional
goals that are much broader than subject-specific knowledge acquisition and thinking,
and include holistic development outcomes that are affective, social, and experiential in
nature (Astin, 1991; Kuh, Schuh, & Whitt, 1987). The student-centered outcomes that
typify the FYE course are likely to be strikingly compatible with the majority of goals
cited in college mission statements. You can capitalize on this compatibility when
formulating your intended student outcomes can serve to increase institutional
recognition and support for the FYE course. For example, at Marymount College (CA),
all FYE instructors list the college mission statement on their course syllabi in order to
visibly demonstrate to students, and others who may review course syllabi, that the
course’s goals are clearly aligned with and the college’s goals.
Moreover, identification of course objectives that reflect a balanced or integrated
pursuit of both academic and personal development outcomes is more likely to result in a
course that has comprehensive or synergistic effects on student success. Drawing upon
their national experience with first-year experience courses, Upcraft and Gardner (1989)
maintain that the most effective FYE seminars are those that are designed to facilitate
first-year student success in both academic and non-academic facets of college life.
* Specify how students are expected to change as a result of participating in the
course.
The following “ABC” taxonomy may also be used to help you identify what
particular type of positive student changes are intended to take place with respect to the
aforementioned areas or zones of holistic development:
A = Attitudinal Outcomes (e.g., changes in attitudes toward diversity or general
education).
B = Behavioral Outcomes (e.g., improved academic skills or increased participation in
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campus life).
C = Cognitive Outcomes (e.g., increased knowledge about the liberal arts or more
proficient use of higher-level thinking skills)
* When formulating course objectives or intended student outcomes for the FYE
course strategies, consider how these intended outcomes will be assessed or
measured.
For attitudinal and cognitive outcomes, there are two major ways in which you may
assess whether students experience positive change between course onset and course
completion:
1) Issuing a pre-test before the course begins (e.g., diversity awareness test) and compare
the results to student responses on an identical or similar post-test at the end of the
course.
2) Including the following question in a course-evaluation instrument completed by
students at the end of the course: “Did your _____ increase, decrease, or remain the
same as a result of participating in this course?”
For higher-level thinking outcomes, it is recommended that you compare students’ earlyterm and late-term work on learning activities or class assignments calling for reflective
thinking. Although there are some standardized tests designed to assess student skills in
logical thinking, it is our view that development of higher-level thinking skills in FYE
courses is best assessed by “course-embedded” assessment. For example, examining
students’ written responses to thought-provoking questions posed to them in class or in
course assignments, and comparing the depth or quality of student thinking displayed in
their answers at the end of the term relative to the start of the term. The taxonomy of
higher-level thinking questions provided in chapter 6 of the text (pp. 201-202) may be
used as prompts to generate thought-provoking questions. You can have students respond
to similar prompts at different junctures during the term, and their responses may be
compared to detect patterns of positive change in the depth or quality of their thinking.
Behavioral outcomes may be measured by including questions on end-of-class
surveys that ask students to report how frequently they engaged in certain behaviors
during their first term; for example, “How frequently did you participate in co-curricular
activities this term: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 or more?” Or, instead of using students’ self-reports,
behavioral logs may be kept by student development or student service professionals that
track FYE students’ use of specific campus services and their participation in particular
campus activities. Measuring behavioral outcomes of the seminar in this way can reap
dividends in securing administrative support for the course, because behavioral outcomes
demonstrate the impact the course is having on students’ actual behavior, which
represents a very concrete outcome of the course that’s difficult to dispute or dismiss.
* State course objectives positively—phrase them in terms of acquisition of
desirable student outcomes, rather than negatively—as in the diminution of
undesirable or unproductive student behaviors.
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This recommendation is particularly pertinent for the FYE seminar because the
course often focuses heavily on issues of individual responsibility and making productive
personal changes in behavior to accommodate the challenges of college-level learning.
Care must be taken to state these course objectives in a way that is non-accusatory and
does not put students on the defensive. As Forsyth and McMillan put it, “You should try
to help students develop goals that are positive. Students should be encouraged to study
more, rather than procrastinate less; take clearer notes, rather than not daydream during
lectures” (1991, pp. 60-61).
Strategies for Improving the Quality of Your Course Syllabus
* Use the syllabus to organize course time (in addition to course content) by giving
students a time frame or time range for (a) coverage of topics in class and
completion of corresponding reading assignments (e.g., chapters and page
numbers), (b) quiz and test dates, and (c) due dates for assignments, reports, and
projects.
New students’ time-management skills have often found to be inadequate for meeting
the academic demands of college, and this includes the time-management skills of
academically well-prepared students (Eison & Holtschlag, 1989). By providing explicit
temporal guidelines in your course syllabus that’s presented to students at the very
beginning of the course, you can provide new students with the opportunity to engage in
effective long-range planning and goal-directed behavior. As Erickson and Strommer
remind us in their book, Teaching College Freshmen, “We sometimes forget that students
are taking several courses and that exams fall at similar periods. Students need this
information at the outset if they are to manage their time and be able to meet four or five
sets of requirements” (1991, p. 85).
* State course policies and procedures in your syllabus as requests rather than
commands or demands (e.g., “I would like . . .” versus “You must . . .”).
As Erickson and Strommer note, “A syllabus that talks about what students should do,
must do, and will do—and what will happen if they do not do it—sets a different tone
than one that talks about what students may do or might want to do” (1991, pp. 85-86).
* Include an explicit statement in the syllabus indicating that you respect student
viewpoints and value their input.
Since the syllabus may be the student’s first impression of the course and of you, it
can represent a golden opportunity for you to set an early positive tone for the course by
sending students the message that you welcome their ideas and are open to their
perspectives.
* Encourage student involvement proactively by including a written statement in
your course syllabus that explicitly indicates what you mean by “active
involvement” (e.g., participation in class via questions, comments and
suggestions), and that you value such involvement.
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In addition to writing this statement on your syllabus, you can then reinforce orally on
the first day of class. Your “live” statement should serve to translate the formal, printed
policy into a personal invitation for student involvement. Since first impressions can
often be lasting impressions, the early delivery of a welcoming statement on the very first
day of class could serve to set an invitational tone that will help promote student
involvement throughout the term.
* Incorporate an explicit statement into the syllabus that indicates your
availability and willingness to see students outside of class.
On the first day of class, direct student attention to the office hours you have listed in
the syllabus and mention that individual appointments can be arranged at other times if
the listed hours conflict with a student's work or family responsibilities
This strategy can be taken one step further by asking students to provide you with
times during the week when they would be most available to see you, so that you might
use this information to establish or modify your office hours to better accommodate their
schedules. Even if you make just a slight modification in your planned office hours, this
effort is likely to be much appreciated by students and should enhance your rapport with
them.
TEACHING THE COURSE:
SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS & STRATEGIES
Introduction
The effectiveness of a first-year seminar depends not only on its content, but also on its
pedagogy—the instructional methods used to deliver the course. As much thought should
be given to how the course will be taught as to what material will be covered; in other
words, the process is as important as the content.
In the mid-1990s, clarion calls were sounded for a “paradigm shift” in undergraduate
education to a “new learning paradigm” to shift the focus of attention from the teacher
and teaching content to the learners and the learning process (American College
Personnel Association, 1994; Angelo, 1997; Barr & Tagg, 1995). This new learning
paradigm calls for a new starting point for improving undergraduate education that
centers on the learner and what the learner is doing, rather the instructor is doing (and
covering) in the class. In the learner-centered paradigm, the definition and goal of
effective teaching is facilitating student learning and, ultimately, promoting positive
student-learning outcomes.
In one national survey of nearly 25,000 first-year students at 110 institutions conducted
by the Higher Education Research Institute, it was found that the pedagogical practices
most strongly associated with first-year students’ satisfaction with the overall quality of
instruction at their college were teaching practices that emphasized involvement with
peers, faculty, and the course itself (Keup & Sax, 2002). These results are consistent with
those generated by the Policy Center on the First Year of College, based on survey data
collected from more than 60 postsecondary institutions and over 30,000 students. This
national survey revealed that use of “engaging pedagogy” (for example, class discussions
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and group work) was positively associated with student satisfaction and self-reported
learning outcomes in first year seminars (Swing, 2002).
Lest we forget, the lecture method—a teacher-centered form of pedagogy— still
remains the dominant pedagogical strategy used in higher education, showing remarkably
little change in its frequency of use over several decades (Bligh, 2000; Bowles, 1982;
Costin, 1972; Marris, 1964; Nance & Nance, 1990). Arguably, the major force propelling
the movement toward learner-centered pedagogy in higher education is the welldocumented ineffectiveness of the lecture method for promoting higher learning
outcomes.
In studies of student behavior in undergraduate classrooms, it has been found that
about half of the time during lectures, students are thinking about things unrelated to the
lecture content (and up to 15% of their class time is spent “fantasizing”) (Milton, Polio,
& Eison, 1986). Student attention and concentration tend to drop off dramatically after
10-15 minutes of continuous instructor discourse (Penner, 1984; Verner and Dickinson,
1967). It is important to note that this attention “drift” during lectures also occurs among
students in graduate and professional school (Stuart and Rutheford, 1978) and among
learning-oriented (vs. grade-oriented) undergraduate students (Milton, Pollio, & Eison,
1986). Thus, attention loss during lectures cannot be simply dismissed as a student
problem, such as lack of motivation, lack of effort, or a recent outbreak of attention
deficit disorder among today’s youth; instead, the problem seems to lie with the lecture
method itself. Bligh (2000) concluded his extensive research review with this
recommendation: “Use lectures to teach information. Do not rely on them to promote
thought, change attitudes, or develop behavioral skills if you can help it” (p. 20).
Our motive for informing you of this research is not to imply that lecturing (instructordelivered information) should be totally or completely abandoned. There will always be a
place in higher education for knowledgeable, learned professionals to share their
knowledge and to model thinking processes that their students can emulate, and this
includes the first-year seminar. (See Appendix A for strategies for determining when to
lecture and how to deliver lectures effectively.) However, the research strongly suggests
that lectures needs to alternate with and be augmented by learner-centered strategies that
empower students to take a more active and responsible role in the learning process.
The need for us to use more engaging forms of pedagogy than the straight lecture is
compounded by the fact that students are entering college today with substantially higher
self-reported levels of academic disengagement in high school—they more frequently
report “feeling bored” in class, missing class, and spending less time on their studies
outside of class (Astin, et al., 1997; Sax, et al., 2005). Indeed, research indicates that
boredom with courses is a major reason why students miss classes (Van Blerkom, 1990)
and withdraw from college (Astin, 1975).
Use Engaging, Student-Centered Pedagogy in the First-Year Seminar
When planning your selection of instructional methods for the FYE seminar, it may be
useful to conceive of classroom teaching techniques as ranging along a continuum from
instructor-centered to student-centered. Extreme, instructor-centered teaching is best
illustrated by the uninterrupted, formal lecture whereby the instructor does all the talking
and is in complete control of the class agenda. In contrast, student-centered or learnercentered instruction involves less instructor domination and shifts more communication,
14
control, and responsibility to the students. “Learner-centered” education means
instructional practices that place students at the center of the learning process (as opposed
to content-driven, teacher-centered lecturing).
Probably the best general rule to follow when planning the teaching process for the
FYE course is to maximize the use of student-centered learning strategies as much as
possible. This type of pedagogy would be consistent with the student-centered goals of
the FYE course. It is also a pedagogy that is most consistent with goals of liberal learning
and general education. Gary Miller (1988) makes this point in his book, The Meaning of
General Education: “General education is intimately concerned with democratic
processes and with the needs of a democratic society and always has been . . . . [It] is
designed to enable individuals to perform the basic democratic function within their
communities. An education for and by democracy is, by definition, student-centered”
(1988, pp. 188, 189). Student-centered pedagogy takes the instructor (the authority
figure) off “center stage,” liberating the students (the people) to “share the stage” and
share the power. We must keep in mind that general education is more than just exposing
students to a liberal-arts curriculum (a collection of courses covering particular content),
it is also involves a liberal-learning process.
All engaging, student-centered pedagogy teaching strategies implement one or more of
the following well-supported, research-based principles that serve to promote student
learning, student motivation, and student retention (Cuseo, 2007).
1. Active Involvement: learning becomes deeper and more durable when students become
actively involved in the learning process, i.e., when they spend more time “on task”
(on the task of learning) and when they invest higher levels mental energy while
learning (Astin, 1984, 1985a, 1985b, 1993; Kuh, 1991, 2001a, 2001b; National
Institute of Education, 1984; Pace, 1984, 1990; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005).
2. Social Integration: learning is strengthened through student-instructor and studentstudent (peer) interaction and collaboration (Astin, 1993; Bruffee, 1993; Johnson,
Johnson, & Smith, 1998; Slavin, 1996; Tinto, 1987, 1993).
3. Personal Reflection: learning is deepened when students:
(a) “step back” and reflect on how they are learning—i.e., when they engage in “metacognition,” and
(b) transform what they are learning into a form that makes sense or has personal
meaning to them—i.e., engage in “elaboration”, which enabling them to
personally “construct” knowledge by building conceptual connections between
what they’re attempt to learn and what they already know (i.e., knowledge is
personally “constructed”) (Flavell, 1985; Joint Task Force on Student Learning,
1998; Piaget, 1972; Vygotsky, 1978; Weinstein & Meyer, 1991).
4. Personal Motivation: find meaning or purpose in their college experience—i.e., when
students see the relevance of what they’re learning for their current and future life
(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wlodkowski, 1998).
5. Personal Validation: student success is more likely to be realized when students:
15
(a) feel personally significant—i.e., when students feel recognized as individuals and
that they matter to the institution (Rendón, 1994; Schlossberg, Lynch, &
Chickering, 1989), and
(b) believe that their individual effort matters—when they believe they can exert
significant influence or control over their personal success (Bandura, 1997;
Solberg, et al., 1993)
For at teaching strategy to be deemed effective or a “best practice,” it should implement
one or more of the foregoing five principles. If a teaching strategy implements more than
one of these principles simultaneously, it can be expected to exert synergistic effects on
student learning, student motivation, and student retention.
We feel that the most parsimonious and pragmatic way to develop a comprehensive
plan for teaching the FYE seminar is in an engaging, student-centered fashion that
implements these effective learning principles, is to organize effective teaching strategies
around three key student-centered connections:
(1) the student-instructor connection,
(2) the student-course connection, and
(3) the student-student (peer) connection.
We will discuss how to initially establish these three key connections early during the
critical first days or week of class, and then how to extend and sustain these connections
throughout the term.
TEACHING STRATEGIES for the CRITICAL FIRST DAY & WEEK OF CLASS
The first few class sessions represent a critical period that can shape students’ first
impression of the course, which in turn, can shape their subsequent perceptions and
behavior in class. As the old saying goes, “You never get a second chance to make a first
impression.” One way to differentiate the FYE course from other courses in the
curriculum is to move away from the common teaching practice of using the first class
session to deliver a perfunctory review of the syllabus, including a laundry list of course
requirements, policies, and expectations (which can immediately produce “syllabus
anxiety” in some students). Adding insult to injury, this common first-day practice of
syllabus review is sometimes followed by early class dismissal, which sends students the
tacit message that the first day of class is not important or, worse yet, that class time is
not important and can be readily sacrificed. This traditional opening-class practice is
often followed by the instructor launching into full-blown coverage of course content
during the next class session. Instead of replicating this uninspiring routine during the
first days of class, first-year seminar instructors should take the approach that building
class community and course enthusiasm are the most important “topics” to address first in
class. Allowing students early opportunity to get to know their instructor, to know the
purpose and value of the course, and to know their classmates serve to lay the
foundational cornerstones for a successful learning experience in any course, particularly
the FYE course. Said in another way, before we begin to dive in and cover course
content, we should focus on the process of establishing the following student
connections: (1) student-instructor connection, (2) student-course (subject) connection,
and (3) student-student (peer) connection.
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MAKING THE STUDENT-INSTRUCTOR CONNECTION:
Initiating Rapport with Your Class
Instructor-student rapport may be viewed as a precondition or prerequisite for student
engagement in the learning process and for meaningful student-instructor interaction. If
students feel comfortable relating to you, they will be more responsive to your attempts
to interact with them, and to actively involve them in the learning process. As Tom
Angelo (1993) states it, “Most students have to believe teachers know and care about
them before they can benefit from interactions—or even interact” (p. 13). Described
below are some strategies for connecting with students and establishing early rapport
with your class.
* Use the first day of class to make an intentional effort to learn your students’ names
and to learn something about them.
Taking some time to get to know your students and allowing them some time to get
them to know you, should take precedence over reviewing the details of the syllabus.
(People are more important than paper.) College research indicates that “addressing
students by name” is a classroom teaching behavior that correlates positively and
significantly with students’ overall evaluation of the instructor (Murray, 1985). In
contrast, research on “uncomfortable courses” (i.e., courses most likely to cause
“classroom communication apprehension” among students) reveals that such courses are
more likely to be taught by instructors who are perceived by their students as being
unfriendly and who did not address students by name (Bowers, 1986). It has been my
personal experience that learning the names of students as quickly as possible is the most
effective way to create a positive first impression of the course and to establish early
rapport with your class. This can lay the foundation for a classroom environment in
which students feel comfortable interacting with the instructor and becoming actively
involved in the course. As Forsyth and McMillan point out: “High expectations are
communicated as instructors learn students’ names and call on them by name” (1991, p.
58). (See Appendix B for a “top-ten” list of strategies for learning student names
effectively and expeditiously.)
* Learn and remember personal information about your students.
I have found that the most effective way to learn relevant personal information about
my students (as well as help me learn their names and help them learn about me) is by
means of a student-information sheet. In short, this practice involves having students
respond to questions about themselves on a sheet of paper in class while I record
information about myself on the board. See Exhibit 2 for specific, step-by-step directions
on how to conveniently construct and make use of a student-information sheet.
In addition to learning students’ names and personal information, here are some
additional strategies for establishing early rapport with your class.
* If you can access the e-mail addresses of student who have registered for your
class, consider sending them a personal welcome note before the course begins.
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One first-year seminar instructor sends personal letters to all his students before the
course begins, in which he comes them to his class and shares some of the exciting things
they will be experiencing in the course (Paul Lorton, University of San Francisco,
personal communication).
* When verbally previewing the course, explicitly encourage students to connect with
you by emphasizing your availability outside the classroom and inviting them to
visit you in your office.
Make specific mention of your office hours and office phone number and make it
clear that individual appointments can be arranged if listed office hours conflict with a
student’s out-of-class responsibilities (e.g., work; child care). Taking time early in the
term to clearly state that you welcome interaction with students outside of class may
serve as an explicit signal to them that you genuinely value such interactions. This sends
a much stronger and more sincere message than simply listing office hours on the
syllabus, which students may see merely as a perfunctory fulfillment of departmental or
institutional requirements. Furthermore, it makes it clear to new students that interacting
with instructors outside the classroom is a desirable practice in college, perhaps unlike
high school, where this contact might have only occurred if students had to stay after
school because they were in dire
Student-faculty contact outside the classroom has been strongly linked to such
positive outcomes as student retention, academic achievement, and educational
aspirations (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). One strategy for promoting such
contact is to make specific mention of your office hours and office phone number on the
first day of class, and make it clear that individual appointments can be arranged if listed
office hours conflict with a student’s out-of-class responsibilities (e.g., work; child care).
Taking time during the very first class session to state that you welcome interaction with
students outside of class may serve as an explicit signal to them that you genuinely value
such interactions. This sends a much stronger and more sincere message than simply
listing office hours on the syllabus—which students may see merely as a perfunctory
fulfillment of departmental or institutional requirements.
* During the early stages of the course, make appointments with students for an
office visit or personal conference.
Inviting students to make an office visit is one thing, but formally scheduling office
an office visit with them is a much more intrusive and effective way to promote out-ofclass contact with students. Scheduling such office visits or personal conferences can
serve as an early icebreaker that “warms up” students to you and allows them to feel
more comfortable about interacting with you outside of class. (It is also an effective way
to learn student names.)At the very least, requiring this initial conference at least ensures
that each student will discover where your office is located on campus, and guarantees
that all students—not only the most socially assertive ones—will make at least one office
visit during the term.
* On the course syllabus, consider sharing your home phone number and home email address with students.
18
This sends a strong signal to students that you are genuinely interested in being
available and accessible to them. It also conveys the message that you are willing to share
something personal with your students. It has been my experience, and the experience of
virtually all other instructors I have spoken with who share their home phone number,
that students do not abuse this privilege. However, if to further minimize the risk of
student abuse or overuse of this privilege, you can suggest specific parameters or
boundaries (e.g., “No calls after 11 PM, please.”). I have found that less then 10% of
students in class will actually call me at home, yet 100% of them know that I have
offered them the opportunity to do so. Thus, this appears to be a strategy that has a low
cost/high benefit ratio; it does not cost you much time, yet its benefits are offered to all
students.
MAKING THE STUDENT-COURSE (SUBJECT) CONNECTION:
Initiating Student Interest and Involvement in the Course
The first week of class may also be the time to motivate students by providing them with
a preview of some of the more exciting and interesting issues to be covered in the course.
This preview can create a positive first impression of the course, which can initiate
motivational momentum and help build a foundation of enthusiasm for the course. Listed
below is a series of specific strategies for initiating student interest in the subject matter
of the FYE course
* Use the syllabus to create a sense of positive anticipation for the course.
The syllabus could be said to be the first message that instructors send their students
about the course. Since first impressions can carry great weight, the content and tone of
the syllabus may have a significant impact on students’ perceptions of the course and the
instructor. As such, the syllabus may represent a unique opportunity for you to shape
students’ first impression of the FYE course in a way that stimulates their initial interest
and motivation. As Erickson and Strommer (1991) argue, “A good syllabus is more than
a list of topics to be covered and assignments to be completed. At its best, a syllabus
introduces the subject matter, gives a rationale for learning what is to be taught, and
motivates students to do their best work” (p. 86).
* Highlight the fact the relevance of course goals to students’ current and future life.
Verbally remind students of the personal benefits they’re likely to experience in the
seminar because of its applied, student-centered content. For example, specify what
particular skills students should expect to acquire or develop by course completion—for
example, learning more effectively and efficiently, thinking more deeply, and developing
a clearer connection between their current college experience and future life goals.
* Include a statement in your syllabus that explains the reasoning behind your
selection and sequencing of course topics.
If you are using the textbook’s organization and order of topics, you can quickly
construct this statement by adapting or adopting it from the textbook’s Preface section
titled, “Sequencing of Course Topics” (pp. xviii).
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Similarly, point out the relevance of and rationale for your course content, teaching
methods, course assignments, and evaluation procedures. “Students are ready to learn
when they receive good reasons to learn. Sound college teaching attempts to demonstrate
these reasons” (Morrill & Spees, 1982, p. 46).
* Give students a promotional “sneak preview” of some of the interesting topics to be
discussed during the term.
This may be quickly accomplished by having students glance at the textbook’s table
of contents because the chapter titles have been intentionally titled to convey their
personal relevance and pique student interest. For instance, each chapter title includes a
colon as a syntactical strategy for adding to its descriptive interest (e.g., “The Value of
Liberal Arts & General Education: How the College Experience Develops You as a
Whole Person and Improves Your Total Quality of Life”). Lest we fear that this smacks
of salesmanship or gimmickry, keep in mind that one of the common teacher
characteristics identified by research on “outstanding” or “high impact” college
instructors is that they “strive to make courses interesting” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson,
1983).
* Ask students for their input on course topics they feel would most interest or
benefit them, and then use that input to help shape and finalize the course
syllabus.
For example, ask students to rank their interest in or need for different topics. You
can first construct a “skeleton syllabus” before the class begins, which identifies
important, but general content areas, and then let your students flesh it out by ranking
specific topics and subtopics. Instructors at the University of South Carolina who use this
practice report that the final syllabus does not differ drastically from one section to
another, so course standardization should not be unduly compromised by allowing
students the opportunity to shape the course content in a way that best fits their interests
and needs (Hunter, 1996).
* Entitle course topics in a way that highlights their relevance and piques student
interest.
Consider listing topics in your course syllabus in the form of questions, issues,
dilemmas, or problems to be solved. You can also use the colon as a syntactical strategy
for adding descriptive interest to topic titles (e.g., “Memory: How We Remember, Why
We Forget, and What We Can Do About It”). All chapters in the text have been titled in
this descriptive fashion, so you can conveniently adopt or adapt these chapter headings
and use them as course topic headings in your syllabus. Lest we fear that this smacks of
salesmanship or gimmickry, keep in mind that research on “outstanding” or “high
impact” college instructors indicates that one of their common teaching characteristics is
that they “strive to make courses interesting” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983).
Just as the syllabus can be used to initiate interest and spark motivation, it can also
serve a humanizing function by establishing an initial foundation for developing teacherstudent rapport. Listed below are some strategies for crafting the syllabus to serve this
rapport-building purpose.
* Point out features of the textbook that are likely to capture student attention and
20
stimulate interest, such as:
1) powerful classic quotes
2) insightful student perspectives
3) authors’ personal stories
4) poignant pictures or images, and
5) content-relevant cartoons.
These textbook features can serve as evocative stimuli to elevate student motivation and
create positive anticipation about the course’s content.
* Highlight the fact that the course has emerged from an international movement
(the “first-year experience”) and that it is intentionally designed to promote
the success of first-year students around the world.
* Point out the fact that there are many research studies supporting the value of
first-year seminars or student success courses.
For example, mention that there is empirical evidence indicates that the course has a
positive impact on student retention (persistence to college graduation) and academic
performance (college GPA). In particular, note that this is not a “remedial” course;
students attending selective colleges also take courses similar to like this, and research
shows that the seminar benefits students all students, regardless of their level of academic
success prior to college (Cuseo, 1991).
* Remind students that the seminar is much more than just a student-success
course: it is a life- success course.
Point out that virtually all of the topics covered in the course are relevant to life after
college. To confirm this argument, suggest to them that if they browse through the selfimprovement section of any popular bookstore they will find best-selling books (e.g.,
Seven Habits of Highly Effective People) that deal with the very same topics as those in
the first-year seminar. Also, point out to students that the course focuses on the
development of skills, strategies, habits, and attitudes, which are (a) transferable—that
have the versatility and flexibility to be applied to different academic subjects and
professional careers, and (b) durable—that are likely to endure the test of time and be
retained long after the course ends (unlike courses that emphasize memorization of
factual information).
* Inform students that the seminar is unique in that it is likely to be the only course
they’ll ever take whose content focuses directly on the persons in the class—the
students.
Other college courses draw their ideas from an external body of knowledge that
reflects the academic interests and priorities of scholars and researchers in a particular
field of study. In contrast, the FYE seminar is based on the student experience and
research on the student experience. As one former student anonymously wrote in an
evaluation of the seminar, “This was the only course that I’ve ever had that was about
me” (Cuseo, 1991).
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* Share comments that former students made on their course evaluations in
previous classes, which serve as testimony to the course’s value.
* Invite former students to class who you know enjoyed the seminar and profited
from the course experience (e.g., a course alumni panel).
MAKING STUDENT-STUDENT (PEER) CONNECTIONS:
Initiating a Sense of Community among Classmates
Erickson and Strommer (1991) point out that students come to the first sessions of a class
with a “hidden agenda,” which includes determining “what the professor is like, who the
other students are, how instructors and students will behave, and what climate will
prevail” (p. 87). Creating a warm social climate in the FYE class can foster the formation
of interpersonal bonds that promote student retention by enhancing students’ social
integration; it can also help meet a basic student need at start of their first term, which
research indicates is a stage of the college experience when new students are most
concerned about “fitting in” and establishing social ties (Simpson, Baker & Mellinger,
1980; Brower, 1997). It may be helpful to view students’ needs during their first-term
college in terms of Abraham Maslow’s classic need hierarchy model, which posits that
human needs for social acceptance and self-esteem are among the most basic human
needs, and they must be met before higher needs for personal growth and selfactualization can be realized (Maslow, 1954).
There are numerous icebreaker activities that could be used to “warm up” students to
each other and foster an early sense of class community. One that we’ve developed and
had success with is the “Classmate Scavenger Hunt,” which involves using information
gathered from a student-information sheet fill out on the first day of class to construct a
list of student statements, each of which relates to a particular student in class. Students
are then asked to mill around the room and find the person in class who “matches” (is
associated with) each statement. A key advantage of this exercise it that it enables each
student to meet and interact with every other student in class, and it does so in a nonthreatening fashion. See Exhibit 3 for specific, step-by-step directions on how to use the
Classmate Scavenger Hunt.
In addition to the use of icebreakers like the “classmate scavenger hunt” to initially
warm-up students to each other, the following strategies may be used to promote early
connections among classmates in the FYE course.
* Schedule students to make an office-hour visit in small groups.
Scheduling office visits with students is a way to interact with them on a more
personal basis. Scheduling office visits by small groups (e.g., 3-4 students) is more time
efficient than scheduling individual appointments, while simultaneously creating an
opportunity for students to interact with some of their classmates outside of class time.
This strategy may not only facilitate student-student interaction, it may also increase the
likelihood that individual students will become comfortable coming to you in the future
for personal advice or assistance, because they’ve broken the ice and made the first visit
to the authority figure’s office with the “safety of numbers” (a group of their peers).
22
* Intentionally facilitate the formation of student-learning teams.
For example:
1) Offer to construct a “class directory” consisting of the e-mail addresses of students
who are interested in working with other students, or in forming learning groups
outside of class. To implement this strategy, circulate a sign-up sheet early in the
term, asking for any students who are willing to be contacted by other classmates to
work together on course assignments or projects.
2) Ask students for their class schedule for the current term and place students who
happen to be enrolled in the same course(s) in the same groups when forming
discussion groups in class or when assigning group projects. This may increase the
likelihood that these same students will get together out of class to work on the other
courses they have in common.
Once you have established student-instructor, student-course, and student-student
connections during the formative stage of the course, the next step is to sustain these
connections throughout the remaining stages of the academic term. The following
strategies are designed to extend and maintain these early connections throughout the
term. Also, see Appendix C for additional ideas on timing and tailoring your teaching
strategies to the “rhythms” of the academic term.
EXTENDING THE STUDENT-INSTRUCTOR CONNECTION:
Sustaining Rapport with Your Class Throughout the Term
Student perceptions of instructor competence depend not only on technical teaching
skills, such as organization and communication, but also on personal characteristics of the
instructor that serve to humanize the classroom and help students achieve a feeling of
self-worth (Jones, 1989). Instructors are more likely to be a role model for promoting
students’ thinking, attitudes and motivation are when they are perceived by students as a
“person” rather than just a subject matter “expert” (McKeachie, et al., 1978). Although
organization and communication skills are the two teacher qualities most highly
correlated with overall ratings of teaching effectiveness, instructor rapport tends is also
positively correlated and is more frequently cited by students than organization and
communication skills when they describe their “ideal” or “best” teacher, and when they
are asked to identify “characteristics that are important to good teaching” (Feldman,
1976, 1988).
Said in another way, effective educators are not only well organized and effective
communicators, they also are effective in providing students with a sense of personal
validation. When students feel personally validated, they feel valued as a human being,
are recognized as a unique individual, and sense their instructor cares about them and
their success (Rendón, 1994). For instance, students feel validated when the instructor
knows them by name and remembers personal information about them, such as their
educational plans or personal interests. When students feel validated, they relate more
easily and openly to the instructor, feel more comfortable about asking questions, and are
23
more likely to seek advice or assistance from the instructor on personal issues relating to
the college experience.
Student validation may be viewed as a necessary precondition prerequisite for active
student involvement and student-instructor interaction in the classroom. If students feel
comfortable relating to you, they will be more likely to respond positively to your
attempts to engage them in the learning process. As Tom Angelo (1993) states it, “Most
students have to believe teachers know and care about them before they can benefit from
interactions—or even interact” (p. 13). Furthermore, if students feel validated by you,
they are likely to respond less defensively to your attempts to provide them with
constructive criticism or corrective feedback.
The following practices are suggested as teaching practices for validating your
students and promoting your rapport with them inside and outside the classroom.
* Once you’ve learned your students’ names, continue to refer to them by name.
It’s important to learn your students’ names, but it may be even more important to
show them that you know them by regularly addressing students by name. In their
comprehensive review of the research literature, Bonwell and Eison (1991) reached the
following conclusion: “Perhaps the single most important act that faculty can do to
improve the climate in the classroom is to learn students’ names. Among many other
benefits, doing so acknowledges the decentralization of authority in the classroom and
recognizes the increased responsibility of students for their learning and the learning of
others” (pp. 22-23).
* Personalize the classroom experience by learning and remembering information
about your individual students.
Instructors who make a genuine effort to know their students and learn something
about each of them individually, demonstrates in a very visible way that they care about
students as unique human beings. Carl Rogers, renowned humanistic psychologist,
artfully expresses the value of knowing your students: “I think of it as prizing the learner,
prizing his [her] feelings, his opinions, his person. It is a caring for the learner. It is an
acceptance of this other individual as a separate person, a respect for him as having worth
in his own right” (Rogers, 1975, p. 107).
* Try to arrange your teaching schedule to allow yourself to be available to students
immediately after class.
This can often be a critical time for student-faculty interaction because it comes right
after student interest, curiosity, or confusion may have been sparked by course material
just covered in class that day. It is at this time that students are likely to seek clarification
on concepts covered in class, or want to engage in extended discussion of some
provocative issue raised during class. Course-related, student-instructor interaction
immediately after class may also lead to greater willingness on the part of students to
seek further contact with you outside the classroom at other times (e.g., office visits).
To take advantage of this “teachable moment” you can try to make yourself available
immediately after class and remind students of your availability after class as your class
sessions’ end.
24
* During the early stages of the course, schedule an office meeting or personal
conference with students.
This conference or meeting could be assigned for some specific academic purpose
(e.g., to discuss an upcoming course assignment), or students could simply be told that
it’s for the purpose of getting to them. Whatever the reason, the most important outcome
of such an early visit is that it can serve to “break the ice” by giving student the
opportunity to interact with you outside the more formal and impersonal constraints of a
classroom session. If anything, requiring this initial conference at least insures that each
student will discover where your office is located on campus and guarantees that all
students, not only the most socially assertive ones, get to your office at least once during
the term.
John Gardner has noted that new students may need to be given a reason to make office
visits and explicitly learn how to use faculty office hours because, in high school,
teachers usually do not have office hours, if they are available to students outside of class
time, they generally have less time and privacy to confer with students on a one-to-one
basis. Moreover, in high school, visits to an “office” are often associated with
disciplinary action, rather than as an opportunity for positive out-of-class interaction with
faculty (Gardner, 1994). This observation suggests that college instructors may need to
implement highly intrusive strategies, such as required student assignments, which are
intentionally designed to bring students to their offices. (Rather than waiting and hoping
that new students will initiate these important out-of-class contacts on their own.)
* Create in-class opportunities to interact personally with students before and after
class.
These are times at which students may be most likely to seek you out for professional
and personal advice because these are the times they are most likely to be on campus and
not in class. This is particularly true for commuter students who are more likely to be on
campus only at times when their classes are scheduled. One instructor we know
consistently comes to class early, stands by the classroom door, and greets all of his
students individually as they enter class (Michael Semenoff, personal communication,
2006). Another professor reports, he goes to class early “to chat with a few individuals
about basketball, their weekend etc. It allows me to make contact with a few individuals
and as the other students come into the classroom, they see that I am human and
interested in them” (Shea, 1988, p. 9). Empirical support for this recommendation is
provided by a case study involving classroom observations of five faculty who had
histories of high student-retention rates in their courses. It was found that one common
characteristic shared by all of these instructors was that “they talked to students before,
during, and after class” (Coad, 1995, p. 8).
Such in-class practices may also have a positive ripple effect on your student’s
willingness to initiate interaction with you outside the classroom because research has
shown that instructors who have frequent out-of-class contact with students often give
signals about their out-of-class accessibility and approachability through their in-class
behaviors (Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Thus, being open to student interaction with
you at the end of class may lead to greater student willingness to seek additional contact
with you outside the classroom (e.g., office visits).

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* Provide students with personal recognition and reinforcement for their efforts.
For instance, thank students for their questions and participation in class, be on the
lookout for opportunities to recognize or compliment students’ efforts, achievements, or
improvements. Students of color and students from disadvantaged socioeconomic
backgrounds, in particular, have been found to profit from (a) warmth and support, (b)
encouragement for their efforts, and (c) praise for their successes (Brophy & Good,
1986). Such recognition and reinforcement serves to provide students, particularly
underrepresented students, with a strong sense of personal validation (Rendón & Garza,
1996).
* Provide personalized performance feedback to students.
Feedback is more likely to be attended to and responded to in a non-defensive manner
if it is delivered in a personalized fashion. Personalized feedback may be delivered by
such practices as (a) addressing the student by name in your written remarks, (b)
comparing students’ present performance with their previous work and noting areas of
personal improvement or decline, and (c) signing your name at the end of your comments
so your feedback approximates the form of a personal letter.
Though it may be may be too time-consuming to write a personal note to all students
on every returned assignment or exam, you can write personal notes to a smaller subset of
students when you return particular sets of exams or assignments (e.g., students with last
names A-M in your grade book). On the next assignment or exam, you can select a
different subgroup of students to receive personal notes and continue to employ this
alternating strategy throughout the term, so by the end of the term, each student in class
will have received at least some returned tests or assignments with a personal note from
you.
* For students who are struggling in class, write a personal note on returned
assignments or exams that invites, requests, or requires them to see you outside of
class.
This written note could be reinforced by a private verbal comment before or after
class. The importance of taking such an assertive or intrusive approach to stimulating outof-class interaction with low-achieving students is underscored by research indicating
that those students who are in most need of learning assistance are often the least likely to
seek it out on their own (Knapp & Karabenick, 1988).
* Consider refraining from the ritualistic use of red ink to correct student errors on
exams and assignments.
We can offer no scholarly support for this suggestion, other than my vague intuition
that humans seem to associate this color with fear and apprehension (“red flag” or “red
alert”), or embarrassment and humiliation (“red-faced”). These are the sorts of feelings
that we don’t want new students to be experiencing while they processing our
performance feedback, because they may cause them to react emotionally and
defensively to our specific suggestions for improvement, rather than rationally and
constructively. Perhaps delivering written feedback to students in a color that has a less
inflammatory history than the corrective color, red, may partially reduce the risk that the
feedback will be perceived as self-threatening.
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* Communicate personally with students via e-mail.
Electronic communication may provide an outlet for students who lack the
confidence to speak up during classroom discussions—where they are in full view of a
large number of people, or who lack the assertiveness to walk into your office for a faceto-face conversation. 

* Invite students to help you research answers to questions they have raised during
class or after class.
This practice serves not only to provide an opportunity for student-faculty contact
outside the classroom, it also enhances the quality of such contact because it involves
interaction related to a substantive course-related issue and a possible student-learning
outcome (learning how to conduct information research).
* Engage in some self-disclosure by sharing your personal experiences and feelings.
Use of personal anecdotes to illustrate an academic point is an instructional practice
that not only serves to illustrate ideas with concrete, real-life experiences, it also shows
students that the illustrious instructor is human—a person with whom they can identify.
Concepts covered in the first-year seminar lend themselves naturally to sharing of our
college personal experiences, both as former first-year students and as current
professionals working with first-year students.
Sharing relevant personal experiences in class serves to humanize the classroom
experience and capitalize on the attention-grabbing power of self-disclosure.
Furthermore, by sharing our experiences, we are modeling the very behavior that we
hope students will engage in during the course. This should serve to increase the
likelihood that students will emulate and reciprocate by engaging in the same honest selfdisclosure that we’ve modeled. Lastly, personal anecdotes effectively promote student
learning because they provide students with real, “human” examples that concretely
illustrate course concepts and bring them to life (literally). The late Kenneth Eble, a wellregarded scholar on the process of teaching, eloquently captures the educational value of
the anecdote:
The personal anecdote that illuminates an idea or clarifies a concept is neither egoindulgence nor more wandering from truth. The personal is a way of gaining the kind
of interest absolutely necessary to learning. Moreover, an anecdotal account of how
some aspect of the subject matter itself came to have value for the teacher exerts a
powerful force upon the student to grant that subject matter personal worth (Eble,
1976, The Craft of Teaching, p. 13).
Strong empirical support for this assertion is provided by Wilson (1975) who conducted a
four-year longitudinal study involving eight different types of higher educational
institutions, 4815 students, and 1472 faculty. One classroom behavior typical of
“outstanding” teachers (as nominated by both students and faculty colleagues) was that
they were more likely to share examples from their own experience than teachers who
were not so highly rated.
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Another element of self-disclosure is being honest and forthright in sharing our
instructional self-doubts, shortcomings and mistakes. For instance, do not hold back
sharing your enthusiasm and your uncertainties about any new teaching techniques you
may be implementing for the first time in the seminar, and admit to any errors you may
make in the teaching process. Peter Elbow eloquently articulates the advantages of such
practices, “We should reveal our own position, particularly our doubts, ambivalences,
and biases. We should show we are still learning, still willing to look at things in new
ways, still sometimes uncertain or even stuck . . . We can increase the chances of our
students being willing to undergo the necessary anxiety involved in change if they see we
are willing to undergo it” (1986, p. 150).
* Maintain and display your sense of humor.
Fear of being perceived as “unprofessional” or “losing control” of the class may
inhibit some instructors from incorporating content-relevant and socially appropriate
humor in the classroom. Remember, something funny is not necessarily something
frivolous. If you have a humorous personal anecdote that is related to, or illustrative of,
the concept under discussion, don’t hesitate to share it. Since humor is so rarely found in
the “serious” realm of academic textbooks and lectures, the sheer element of incongruity
or surprise alone is often enough to ensure at least a modicum of student laughter.
Also, using concept-relevant cartoons can command immediate student attention to the
concept being taught, as well as provide an effective (and affective) visual illustration of
the concept, which should serve to enhance its retention (memory). Numerous cartoons
about the college experience in general and the first-year experience in particular, can be
found in the text. They can be easily transformed into visible, overhead projections or
Power-point slides. Projected cartoons may be used in the following educationally
effective ways:
(a) To “punctuate” lectures or class presentations with concept-relevant humor that
maintains or regains student attention;
(b) To serve as an attention-grabbing prompt as students enter the classroom, serving to
create a positive first impression of the class session, as well as inducing a pleasant
mood and some anticipatory interest.
Be ready to cut-out your favorites and use them in class, as tension-cutters on quizzes or
exams, or in class handouts. These small gestures serve to build rapport with the class,
promote retention of course concepts illustrated by the cartoon and, most importantly,
show students that you are human.
One instructor, identified as “outstanding” by both students and professional
colleagues, encourages his students to bring him course-related jokes that he can use in
class. He reports that this practice fosters active student involvement in class and protects
his ego in case the illustration proves not to be particularly humorous. As he puts it:
“‘Bad’ jokes are their ‘bad’ jokes as well” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983, p. 113).
Adorning your office door with educationally relevant cartoons and witty saying may
also reduce student trepidation about seeking contact with you outside the classroom.
* Interact with students in a personable and empathic manner.
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Specific recommendations for behaving personably toward students include the
following practices:
- Greet students when you enter class and when you see them on campus.
- Welcome back students back after a weekend or semester break.
- Acknowledge the return of an absent student (e.g., “Glad to see you’re back, we missed
you last class”).
- Wish students good luck on a forthcoming exam.
- Express concern to students who are not doing well or to those students who have been
excessively absent (e.g., “Everything okay?” “Anything I can do to help?”).
- Acknowledge emotions expressed by students in class (e.g., “You seem excited about
this topic.” “I sense that you’re feeling tired, so let’s take a short break.”).
This recommendation is supported by an observational study of 25 professors who
were identified as “superb” classroom instructors. These instructors were found to have:
(a) strong interest in students as individuals, (b) display high sensitivity to subtle
messages from students about the way they feel, (c) acknowledge student feelings about
matters of class assignments or course policies, and (d) encourage students to express
their feelings about the course (Lowman, 1984).
* Consider reserving some class time for open forums—class sessions devoted to free
and open discussion of any college life or college-adjustment issue that students
would like to bring up.
This practice allows students an opportunity to set their own agenda by raising any
questions or concerns they have about their first experiences in college. Your doing so
may be the only time a representative of your institution actually encourages students to
openly express their feelings about their college experience and the college they’ve
chosen to attend. Naturally, parameters or ground rules may have to be set for such
sessions (e.g., focusing on issues that involve college processes, practices, or policies
rather than citing and criticizing individuals system; complaints cited must be followed
by suggested solutions or remedies before another complaint is raised). Student
anonymity may also be secured by having students anonymously use a suggestion box to
submit college-adjustment issues for open-forum discussion.
Reserving at least one class period for an open forum not only serves to validate
students by allowing them the rare opportunity to set their own agenda for a class session,
it can also serve to educate you and your college about recurrent patterns or pockets of
student dissatisfaction. When students are encouraged to openly express their feelings of
dissatisfaction, discuss their sources or causes, and suggest potential strategies for dealing
with them, this may be used as feedback and qualitative data to diagnose institutional
weaknesses and promote institutional improvement. For example, if numerous students
cite a particular experience as dissatisfying, this might be viewed as a “critical incident”
and used as a focal point to stimulate institution-wide discussion and intervention. Also,
the issues that students raise in open-forum discussions could be used to help design
relevant questions for inclusion on any student-satisfaction survey administered by the
college.
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Lastly, if the open forum is conducted in a fashion akin to a “town meeting,” whereby
student “citizens” come together to discuss collective concerns and improvement
strategies for their community, it may provide students with a relevant context within
which to practice skills to prepare them for active citizenship in a democratic society—an
oft-cited the goal of liberal education (Miller, 1988).
* Occasionally, make yourself available to students on their “turf” or territory (e.g.,
student cafeteria, union, or lounge).
Your willingness to go where students go sends them a message that it is not below
your dignity to associate with first-year students. In fact, it signals you may actually
enjoy being with them because you’re freely choosing to spend some of your
discretionary time with them, above and beyond the required time you must spend with
them in class.
* Participate in co-curricular experiences with students (e.g., campus workshops,
intramural sports, student elections, campus pep rallies), and if you intend to
attend an event, announce to your class that you will be there.
This practice should serve to stimulate student participation in co-curricular
experiences, and it enables students to see you in a different light. Participating with
students in such informal, non-threatening activities allows them so see you as a “regular
person.” Seeing you in this light may make students feel less intimidated about
interacting with you outside of class on issues that are course-related or personal in
nature.
* Consider inviting students to your home (e.g., for a class session or group
conferences).
This is an effective strategy for promoting contact with students outside the
classroom, and perhaps more importantly, it can be a powerful way in which to provide
new students with a sense of personal importance and validation. As a first-year student,
the noted author, E. B. White, was once invited to an instructor’s home and eloquently
recalls the powerful impact it had on him: “When I was an undergraduate, there were a
few professors who went out of their way to befriend students. At the house of one of
these men I felt more at home than I did in my own home with my own father and
mother. I felt excited, instructed, accepted, [and] influential” (quoted in Bailey, 1994, p.
72).
EXTENDING THE STUDENT-COURSE CONNECTION:
Sustaining Student Interest & Involvement in the Course
Throughout the Term
Promoting Students’ Active Involvement in the Course
Optimal learning occurs when learners become psychologically involved or engaged in
the learning process, i.e., when students invest time, energy, and effort in their learning
experiences. Active involvement probably qualifies as the most fundamental and
powerful principle of human learning. The bottom line is this: For deep learning to occur,
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the learner needs to be an active agent in the learning process, not a passive sponge or
spectator. Listed below is a series of strategies designed to increasing students’ level of
active involvement in the classroom.
Use “Modified Lecture” formats.
When you need to lecture or make instructional presentations to students, you can
modify them in ways that transform them from “straight” lectures into more active,
student-centered learning experiences, such as the following:
* The “Interactive Lecture”—embedding periodic questions into your class
presentations hat elicit student reaction to the information presented and student
interaction with you.
Effective questions serve to create temporary states of doubt that can motivate interest
to resolve the doubt and obtain closure. Infusing thought-provoking questions into your
instructional presentations also serves to create a climate of intellectual inquiry that may
encourage students to ask their own questions in class. Research indicates that the types
of questions that are most likely to elicit student involvement are open-ended questions,
which call for more than one correct or acceptable answer. Such questions invite multiple
responses, encourage divergent thinking, i.e., expansive thinking that does not
“converge” on one (and only one) correct answer, and welcomes a diversity of
perspectives (Cuseo, 2005). Other features of questions that are more likely to trigger
student involvement include the following:
1) Higher-Order questions that ask for thinking at a level that is higher than rote recall of
factual information (e.g., questions that call for application or evaluation)
2) Focused questions that are tied to or focused on a specific concept or issue. For
example, “What do you think might account for some of these male-female
differences in communication style?” is a focused question (in contrast to a query
such as: “Does anybody have any questions or comments?”).
3) Personalized questions, which “situate” students in a relevant, real-life context and
ask them how they would respond in this situation by inviting them to apply the
concept under discussion to their personal lives. Such questions implement the
effective principle of “situated learning,” i.e., learning that is placed or situated in a
relevant situation or meaningful context. For instance, in an FYE course, if the topic
under discussion is test-taking skills, students could be asked the following question:
“Suppose you were just about to take a major exam and you started to experience
some symptoms of test anxiety. What could you do right then and there to reduce
your tension and regain self-control?”
4) Conditional phrased questions (e.g., “What might be . . . .” “What could be . . . ?”
“What may be . . . ?”). Such conditional phrasing sends students a clear verbal signal
that a diversity of answers is possible and acceptable, which reduces their fear or
anticipated embarrassment about not providing “the” correct answer that the teacher
(authority figure) is “looking for.” This is a very reasonable student fear because if
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the instructor conveys the message that there is one and only one acceptable answer,
the odds are clearly against the student responding with an acceptable answer; there
is an almost limitless number of unacceptable responses, but one and only one of
them is the correct one.
The upshot of all these question-framing recommendations is that we need to stop and
give careful forethought to the type of questions we ask in class because all questions are
not created equally and not all are equally effective in promoting active student
involvement. Some questions are much more likely to trigger engagement by the way
they are framed and phrased. As one instructional development specialist suggests: “You
must highlight them [questions] in your outline. You should know exactly what
questions, word for word, you are going to ask” (Welty, 1989, p. 42).
* Involve all students in class by posing questions that call for a nonverbal response.
All your students can have an equal and simultaneous opportunity to become actively
involved by occasionally asking questions that call for a simple show of hands; for
example: “How many of you agree with the following statement . . . ?” or “How many of
you had an experience similar to . . . ?”
Other ways in which students can become involved nonverbally in class are by (a)
having students vote with their feet by taking a position represented by one of four
corners in the room—with each corner representing one of four choices: strongly agree,
agree, disagree, strongly disagree; or (b) asking students to move to either side of the
room, depending on their position with respect to an issue or debate, using the center
aisle as a dividing line—e.g., Where do you stand (literally) on the issue of whether or
not colleges should abolishing student grades?
Such nonverbal exercises serve to involving all students in class at the same time; not
just the most verbally assertive or impulsive students who manage to raise their hand or
blurt out an answer faster than any of their classmates. Nonverbal exercises can also
serve as a prelude to provoke subsequent verbal discussion; for example, students could
be asked why they ended up occupying a particular place or space, or students could be
allowed to change their places after a class discussion and then asked why they decided
to change.
* The “Punctuated Lecture”—interspersing active learning exercises before, during,
and after lectures. You can punctuate or intercept straight lectures by using the
following time-sensitive strategies.
1) Pre-Lecture Strategies: actively involve your students before beginning to lecture by
activating their pre-existing knowledge, feelings, and/or misconceptions about the
to-be-presented information.
Any of the following practices may be used for this purpose:
* “Verbal Whips”: in rapid succession, have students take turns verbalizing the first
thought that comes to mind in response to the topic about to be covered.
* Pre-Tests: give students a short, non-graded assessment of their knowledge or
32
skills with respect to the upcoming topic (e.g., a short series of true-false
questions).
* “Flashbacks”: ask students how they think the upcoming topic relates to, or
connects with the previous unit(s) of instruction.
* Background Interest Probes: ask students what they would like to know—or what
questions they would like answered—about an upcoming topic (Cross &
Angelo, 1989).
* Background Knowledge Probes: have students jot down what they already know—
or think they know—about an upcoming topic, and how they got to know it
(i.e., the source of their knowledge).
* “Shared lecture”: have students first share what they think they know about the
lecture topic and record them on the blackboard. After students have shared their
ideas, share your ideas by first noting those that your students have already
mentioned—e.g., by underlining (and validating) them on the blackboard; then
add any unmentioned ideas from your lecture notes to create a jointly produced
composite or “master list,” which represents the shared efforts of both students
and their instructor.
This practice may be particularly effective in the FYE course because students
often do have some familiarity or prior experience with many of the topics
covered in the course. This familiarity can be capitalized on by drawing on
students’ prior experiences to draw them into the learning process, and to draw
out their prior knowledge and misconceptions about the topic to be covered (e.g.,
their knowledge and misconceptions about how best to learn, remember, manage
time or manage money).
2) Within-Lecture Strategies: after you’ve presented information for 10-15 minutes,
stop talking, and have students engage in an active-learning exercise with respect
to the information you’ve presented thus far.
This strategy serves to intercept the mounting “attention drift” that normally
occurs among learners after listening to a lecture for more than 10 minutes. Any of
the following strategies may be used for this purpose.
* Pauses for Reflection: have students write a short, reflective response to a focused
question you pose that’s intended to promote thinking about the material
presented. (Note: Any of the higher-level thinking questions contained in chapter
6, pp. 201-202, may be used adapted for this purpose.)
* “Writing-to-Discuss” Exercises: have students engage in a short, thought-provoking
writing exercise, and then use their responses as a springboard for class
discussion.
This strategy should serve to enhance the quality of class discussions because
their pre-discussion writing serves to both stimulate and focus student thinking
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prior to their being asked to express their ideas orally during class discussions.
This practice would be especially effective for promoting the involvement of
verbally reticent or shy students because research indicates that students with
high “classroom communication apprehension” prefer to know what they will be
discussing in advance of the discussion (Neer, 1987).

* Problem-Solving “Lecturettes”: a series of short lecture presentations (e.g., 5-10
minutes) that introduce student to a succession of focused problems, each of
which is followed by student discussion of possible solutions to the problem
presented (Bonwell & Eison, 1991).
This strategy can be continued throughout the entire class period, alternating
between your delivery of “mini-lectures” that present a though-provoking
problems or issues, followed by class discussion on how best to solve or resolve
them. For example, any of the case studies found at the end of each chapter of the
text could be used as a series of problems or dilemmas to be discussed in this
fashion.

3) Post-Lecture Strategies: activities designed to actively involve students in
retrospection (reflective review) and consolidation (“locking in”) of information
after completion of a lecture topic or unit of instruction.
* One-Minute Paper: a short, writing activity (taking one minute or less to complete)
that students engaged in after completing a learning experience, which is designed
to encourage students to reflect on the meaning or personal significance of the
experience.
For example, any of the following questions may serve as prompts of a one-minute
paper:
> What do you think was the major purpose or objective of today’s presentation?
> What do you think was the most important point or central concept communicated
in today’s presentation?
> Without looking at your highlighting or notes, what stands out in your mind or
what do you recall most vividly about today’s class?
> Looking back at your notes, what would you say was the most interesting idea or
most useful strategy discussed in today’s class?
> What was the most enlightening example or most powerful image you experienced
in today’s class?
> What was the most convincing argument (or counterargument) that you heard in
today’s class?
> During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as things you could or should
immediately put into practice?
> Have you personally experienced any of the events that were discussed in today’s
class?
> Did you see any connections between what was discussed in today’s class and
what is being covered in any of your other course(s)?
> What was the most surprising and/or unexpected idea expressed in this class
session?
34
> What do you think was the most puzzling, confusing, or disturbing idea that
surfaced in today’s class?
> What helped and/or hindered your understanding of today’s presentation?
> What questions remain unanswered about the content of covered in today’s class?
See Appendix D for additional questions that may be used for one-minute papers and
a discussion of the multiple ways in which these short papers may be used
advantageously.
In summary, whenever you’re presenting information in class, it may be best to create a
learning sequence that has an identifiable beginning, middle, and end. In this learning
sequence, you would intentionally plan to actively involve students at three key points:
(1) prior to the lecture—to activate their pre-existing ideas about the topic;
(2) during the lecture—to punctuate it with activities that intercepts attention drift; and
(3) after the lecture—to consolidate the information presented and promote closure.
Using Reality-Based Learning Tasks to Promote Active Student Involvement.
Reality-based learning tasks involve “real-life” or life-like problems and scenarios that
actively engage students in decision-making with respect to their solution or resolution.
What all different types of reality-based tasks have in common is that they contain some
degree of ambiguity or uncertainty, which triggers divergent thinking and diverse
perspectives. Such learning tasks include realistic (a) problems with a variety of possible
solutions, (b) issues or dilemmas that are not easily resolved, and (c) decisions to be
made among a number of equally appealing alternatives.
Listed below are four key reality-centered learning tasks that could be used to promote
active student involvement in the first-year seminar.
* Cases (Case Method): stories, actual events, or fictitious events approximating reality
that require decision-making and encourage critical thinking with respect to an
ambiguous situation or problem, for which there is no single correct answer or
solution (Christensen & Hansen, 1987).
What cases demonstrate to students is that real-life problems and decision-making is
often ambiguous, and one right answer or correct solution is rarely apparent. What
qualifies the case method an active-learning method is that they require students to take
some action—to make a decision—with respect to the real-life event. Cases are typically
presented to students in narrative form; students read them individually and typically join
teams to react to, and work through, the dilemma that comprises the case. Or, if your
class size is small enough, cases may be discussed in a seminar fashion.
You will find a case at the end of each chapter of the text, and additional cases are
provided for some topics in the chapter-specific section of this manual. Cases relevant to
the first-year seminar and the first-year experience can be drawn from a wide variety of
sources, including the following:
(a) real-life incidents experienced by yourself or your professional colleagues (e.g., a
student submitting a paper after its due date, but asking the instructor to accept it because
of extenuating circumstances.);
35
(b) experiences solicited from students in class (e.g., roommate conflicts, ethical issues
involved in sexual relations, or substance use/abuse);
(c) incidents drawn from popular media (e.g., TV, movies, newspaper articles);
(d) case histories relating to controversial events that have taken place on campus in the
past (e.g., drawn from current or past issue of the campus newspaper; and
(e) educational videos which poignantly capture the personal experience of first-year
students.
The level of student involvement with cases can be stimulated by posing open-ended
questions that focus on:
(a) possible cause(s) of the incident,
(b) if and how the incident could have been prevented,
(c) whether students can identify with the characters in the incident, or
(d) whether students have had personal experiences similar to those being depicted in the
case.
Meyers & Jones (1993) suggest that the following types of questions, based on
approaches taken by prominent case-study teachers, can be used to promote higher-level
thinking in response to problem-based or issue-centered tasks.
(a) Discussion Starters (e.g., “What dilemma does the situation pose?")
(b) Implication Questions (e.g., “What does the problem in this situation imply for your
career?”)
(c) Predictive/Hypothetical Questions (e.g., “If the roles of the main characters were
switched, what would have happened?”)
(d) Analytical/Evaluative Questions (e.g., “What particular action is at the root of this
problem? Which action played the most pivotal role?”)
(e) Summary/Synthesis Questions (e.g., “What are the main points that have emerged in
our discussion thus far?”).
* Role Plays: dramatic enactments of scenarios involving characters with whom
students can identify.
For example, dramatizations may include roommate conflicts, peer pressure at a
college party, student behavior or misbehavior in the classroom (active, passive, and
“rude”), or student-faculty scenarios outside the classroom (e.g., during an office visit).
You can use such dramatic illustrations as a stimulus to provoke active student
involvement in class, both by having students serve as actors in the skit or as reactors to
the skit. Students can play the role of other people or play themselves. They could also
engage in “role-reversals” in which they play opposite or different roles than they do in
real life (e.g., a student plays the role of professor or parent, or a majority student plays
the role of an under-represented student); or, student actors could also reverse roles
during the skit.
One strategy for getting the entire class involved in the role play is to have all students
assume the same role—that of an advisory committee or group of experts who interact
with the instructor—who adopts the role of novice (Erickson & Strommer, 1991). For
example, the instructor could play the role of a shy first-year student who has just arrived
36
on campus and the class serves as a social advisory committee whose role is to suggest
specific strategies for meeting new people and getting involved in campus life.
While we tend to think of drama as something that takes place in theatrical settings
under the auspices of a director, in some ways, the classroom and classroom teaching
approximate a dramatic performance. You write the script (your lesson plan), you are a
performer (your on center stage and you can share that stage with students), and you are a
director (you orchestrate the performance of other actors—your students). Also, the
classroom environment itself can be modified to simulate a theatrical set by arranging the
seating and by adding props that relate to the particular topic under study (e.g., posters,
artifacts, background music).
Admittedly, incorporating theatre into the classroom may be a labor intensive endeavor.
However, it may well be worth attempting to do so at least occasionally because the
educational impact of learning through and from drama is well supported by research on
the human brain:
Effective learning always involves the alternation of several states of arousal. The
comparative importance of states of arousal can be seen in the power of entertainment
and the arts. The power of great theater lies to a large extent in the way in which it
uses this tension. Intelligent orchestration in teaching includes an understanding of
these states of arousal and borrows from the theater such elements as timing and the
ability to create anticipation, drama, and excitement (Caine & Caine, 1991, pp. 31-32).
* Scripts: similar to role plays, with the only difference being that characters’ read their
parts, rather than enact them from memory. Students take on different characters in a
script, or they may be asked to improvise and complete an unfinished script as if
they were one of characters.
* Simulations: learning tasks that immerse students in a physical or social environment
that simulates or approximates the reality of an actual life experience.
For instance, BaFa’-BaFa’ is a popular intercultural simulation, whereby students
assume membership in either the Alpha or Beta culture (each with its own set of
cultural values, expectations, customs and communication styles). Members of each
“culture” visit, observe, and interact with the other “foreign” culture, thereby
simulating the experience of what it’s like to function effectively in a culture that
differs radically from one’s own, which, in turn, may reduce ethnocentrism.
Strategies Stimulating Students Intrinsic Motivation & Interest in the
Course’s Subject Matter
Effective teachers strive to make their classes interesting because they realize that
student attention is a necessary pre-condition for learning. As Ericksen states in The
Essence of Good Teaching, “In whatever instructional setting, the first charge of the
teacher is to get and to hold the attention of students because interest (motivation) is a
prerequisite condition for effective learning” (1984, p. 39). Indeed, research indicates that
boredom with courses (Astin, 1975) is one reason why students miss classes (Van
Blerkom, 1990) and withdraw from courses.
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Studies show that a large majority of first-year college students wish their classes were
more interesting (Aldridge & DeLucia, 1989) and that the percentage of students entering
college reporting that were frequently “bored in class” has reached an all-time high (Sax,
et al., 1997). In a national survey of first-year educators who were asked to rank 18
different factors in terms of their “level of impact” on first-year students’ academic
performance. These educators ranked “lack of [student] motivation” as the number-one
factor (Policy Center on the First Year of College, 2003).
Taken together, these findings point strongly to the importance of stimulating student
interest in learning is an essential element of effective teaching in the first-year seminar.
The following practices are recommended as strategies for realizing this element of
effective instruction.
* To help create a positive motivational “first impression” of the course, when you
review your course syllabus, provide a sneak preview of the course’s most relevant
and stimulating topics.
For instance, it’s likely that students will be initially interested in hearing that you
will be covering such topics as majors and careers, interpersonal relationships, and
mental health. (More so than study skills and time management)
* Maintain instructional flexibility and a willingness to “go with the flow” when
students appear to be captured by or excited about a course issue.
For instance, if an animated class discussion happens to emerge on an unplanned
topic that still relates to the goals of the course, then take advantage of it rather than
short-circuit it in order to stick rigidly to the scheduled lesson for the day.
* Whenever possible, allow students’ opportunities to make personal choices about
what they’ll learn.
The following strategies may be used to implement this recommendation:
1) During the first week of class, have students rank topics in terms of personal interest m
or relevance, and attempt to spend more class time on students’ highly-ranked
topics.
2) When course topics are encountered during the term, have students rate or rank
subtopics they would be most interested in, and attempt to accommodate their
preferences.
3) When assigning projects or papers, try to provide students with a topic “menu”
from which they may choose one that most interests or excites them. Students who
pick a similar topic could be teamed together to complete a group project on their
topic of common interest.
* At the start of class sessions, use a visual prompt to engage student attention and
promote anticipatory interest.
Evocative visual stimuli may be used to capture attention, stimulate interest, and
promote motivation to learn. They may be especially effective if used at the start of class
or a new unit of instruction to create a sense of positive anticipation or a positive
“anticipatory set”—a state of heightened curiosity or favorable expectation about an
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upcoming learning experience. The following visual prompts may be used for this
purpose:
thought-provoking quote (e.g., a “classic quote” chosen from the text)
2) provocative passage (e.g., paragraph, short poem)
3) poignant picture or image (e.g., successful people)
 engaging video vignette (e.g., from a popular movie)
5) intriguing artifact (e.g., relevant historical, cultural, or biological object—such as a
model of the human brain when discussing learning strategies)
6) topic-relevant cartoon (e.g., depicting an element of college life under discussion).
The student perspectives and the authors’ personal stories cited throughout the text may
be used as prompts to stimulate student interest and involvement because they are “real”
voices and often provocative in nature.
* Build positive anticipation with respect to upcoming class sessions by ending class
with an unresolved issue, dilemma, or unanswered question that will be addressed
in the next class session.
This strategy may serve to whet student interest in the same way that a TV sequel
ends an episode with an uncertain outcome that viewers can only see resolved by
witnessing the next episode.)
* Highlight the contemporary relevance of course concepts by relating them to
current events.
The following practices are recommended as strategies for implementing this
recommendation.
1) Use examples from popular media (TV, movies, etc.) to illustrate course concepts
and principles.
You might ask students at the beginning of the course (e.g., via the studentinformation card) about what they read regularly, and what programs or movies are
their favorites. This can give you a better sense of their personal interests and enable
you to acquire additional ideas for illustrating course concepts in ways that are relevant
to your students’ experiences.
Also, a quick tour of any major bookstore in your geographical area should reveal
many best-selling books relating to the same life-adjustment issues that you are
covering in the first-year seminar, which may be referred to in the FYE course to build
student interest and motivation.
2) Be alert to course-relevant events that are occurring on campus and in the local
community (e.g. events reported in the college and local newspaper).
Using late-breaking, news-making information in class may also encourage students
to get in the habit of keeping up with current events and relating course concepts to
“real life.”
3) Use recent research developments in your academic or professional field that may
relate to or illustrate course concepts.
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Many of the ideas and concepts discussed in the first-year seminar are truly crossdisciplinary in nature, so there may be times when something you’re talking about in
the seminar dovetails with something that relates to your area academic discipline or
area of professional expertise.
* Accompany all exercises and assignments with a clear rationale indicating why
you’re asking students to perform the task,.
By taking just a little time to justify assignments and articulate their value, students
will be less likely to perceive them as mere “busy work.” Relevant to this
recommendation is research indicating that writer’s block is more likely to occur on
tasks that writers perceive to be trivial or insignificant (Rennie & Brewer, 1987).
* Attempt to induce a sense of surprise or incredulity among your students by
confronting them with paradoxes, incongruities, or counterintuitive and
controversial ideas.
For example, start class with a statement that contradicts logic or common belief,
such as: (a) Women have lower average SAT scores than men, but higher college grades.
(b) Women are the “stronger sex.” (c) Memorizing information is not the best way to
remember it. (d) Humans don’t work better under pressure!
“More interesting lectures open with a problem, question, quandary, or dilemma. Or
they start with something students take for granted and confront them with information or
observations indicating things are not so obvious or certain as they initially appear. Or
they present a list of incongruous facts or statistics and ask, ‘How can this be’?”
(Erickson & Strommer, 1991, p. 98).
* Intentionally attempt to increase the personal relevance of course material for your
students.
Perceived irrelevance of the college curriculum is one major source of student
attrition (Noel, 1985; Levitz & Noel, 1989). In contrast, positive associations have been
found between students’ perceived usefulness of the subject and their academic
achievement in that subject (Jones, cited in Jones & Watson, 1990). It has also been
found that the more relevant the academic content is to students, the more likely they are
to engage in higher-level thinking with respect to it (Roueche & Comstock, 1981).
The following practices are suggested for enhancing the personal and practical
relevance of information presented and discussed in the FYE course.
1) Refer to your course syllabus throughout the term.
Bring it to class and show students that what they are doing in individual class
sessions relates to your overall course plan and is relevant to the positive learning
outcomes you’ve identified in the syllabus.
2) When introducing a topic, share with students why you thought they might find it
personally interesting or relevant to their lives.
3) Use examples from your own life experiences or personal research.
In a large-scale study of faculty rated as “outstanding” by both students and
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colleagues, these faculty received significantly higher ratings on items referring
to whether the instructor makes connections with events and realities outside the
classroom, such as: “using examples from their own experience or research” (Wilson,
et al., 1975).
4) Use ideas, comments, and questions that your students elect to bring up in class or
write about in papers and journals, to help guide your selection of course examples and
illustrations.
Consider keeping a teaching journal and review it to identify trends or patterns in
topics that trigger the most interest from your students. For example, if you find there
are certain questions that students frequently ask, incorporated these questions into
your class notes and used them in future class presentations or as focal points for
future class discussions.
4) Ask students to provide their own examples of course concepts, based on experiences
drawn from their personal lives.
5) Have students apply course concepts by placing them in a situation or context that is
relevant to their life (e.g., “How would you apply these stress-management strategies
to a stressful situation that you are currently experiencing in your own life?”).
6) Seek student feedback from students on how relevant or useful they find particular
course topics and experiences (e.g., by asking for a one-minute paper at the end of
class).
* Vary your instructional delivery by using:
(a) different instructional formats (e.g., lectures, large-group discussions, smallgroup discussions, paired peer interactions, self-reflection exercises, cases, role
plays, simulations, panels, guest speakers); and
(b) different instructional media (e.g., overhead projections, slide presentations,
DVDs, CDs).
The changes in routine produced by such variations in information-delivery formats serve
to sustain attention and maintain interest by providing novel sources of sensory and
psychomotor stimulation. Such variations in stimuli and movements tend to induce a
heightened state of arousal that combats attention loss which normally takes place when
humans experience repeated exposure to the same stimulus (McGuinness & Pribram,
1980).
Diversifying your instructional methods in this fashion not only helps stimulate student
attention and motivation, it also helps you to accommodate the diversity of learning styles
that exist among students in your class.
* Vary the social environment in the classroom by periodically bringing in new faces
as guest speakers.
Guest speakers may be brought to class individually or as members of a guest
panels. This strategy serves to bring social and instructional variety to the class, allow
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students to meet other members of the college community, and takes some of the
teaching load off you—particularly on topics that may not be your strong suit or your
area of expertise. Academic-support professionals could also be invited to class to
prepare students for assignments that require them to use certain academic skills. For
example, invite a library-science professional to conduct a micro-session on information
search-and-retrieval strategies for your class, or a speech professor to help prepare
students for oral presentations.
To actively involve and prepare students for guest speakers, ask each student in class
to construct at least one question in advance of the presentation. For instance, students
could construct questions on relationships to be addressed by the college counselor,
health-related questions for the student nurse, or questions about student rights and
restrictions for the Dean of Student Affairs. These questions could be submitted to the
guest speaker before the visit and used by the speaker to make the presentation more
relevant to your students’ needs and interests. Your speaker might also construct their
presentation around these questions, or set aside time at the end of the presentation for
students to ask their questions.
To ensure that the speaker’s presentation is interactive, students could ask their
questions during the visit, either individually or in groups—for example, a panel of
students could collate and prioritize the interview questions and pose them to the guest
speaker. Also, to encourage subsequent interaction between your students and guest who
may represent key student-support services, have a sign-up sheet available to students so
that they may immediately schedule an appointment.
If you do use guest speakers, consider having them videotaped by an A-V specialist
worker or a student in your class. This may enable students in other sections of the course
to “see” your guest speaker without burdening that person with the redundant task of
making multiple visits to different classes.
* Use popular games to stimulate student interest and motivation for learning
factual material.
Games can be an engaging method for delivering factual information to students in a
way that is more engaging and exciting than stand-and-deliver presentations (lectures).
You first-year seminar students could learn course-related information via formats similar
to those used in TV game shows—such as “Jeopardy”; or board games—such as “Trivial
Pursuits” or “Scrupples.” Learning teams can be created to add further excitement by
generating inter-group competition and intra-group collaboration.
For example, the “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” game format is ideal for
delivering factual information in a way that involves the entire class. Students may
volunteer to be contestants, or they may compete to be a contestant by being the first to
respond accurately a “toss up” question. Incentives to be a contestant can be created by
awarding a prize to participating students that vary in value, depending on the number or
nature of the questions they answer correctly (chocolate bar; gift certificates of varying
value for the campus bookstore). The participating student can use the game’s “lifeline”
supports that involve other members of the class, such as “poll the audience” (show of
hands) or “phone a friend” (ask another student in class). As game-show moderator or
host, one educational function you could perform is to quickly add a few informative
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comments after a contestant provides a correct or incorrect answer, thus enabling some
collateral learning to take place as the game proceeds.
Questions for the game show could be created dealing with knowledge of academic
issues, including:
(a) classroom expectations (e.g., questions about what professors really like and dislike);
(b) academic strategies (e.g., questions relating to note-taking and test-taking strategies);
(c) academic planning (e.g., questions about majors, minors, and the relationship between
majors and careers); or
(d) academic awards and honors (e.g., questions about what it takes to get on the Dean’s
List).
Questions could also be created that deal with knowledge about campus life, including
co-curricular opportunities on campus, college clubs and organizations, student support
services, and leadership opportunities. Other questions could be created that relate to
knowledge of the college curriculum and history (e.g., the meaning and value of “liberal”
education, the college mission, and college traditions). Additional questions could be
obtained from key offices on campus, which could be polled for information they think
every new student should know. Similarly, college faculty and student support
professionals may also be asked for information that they think new students should
know early in their first term of college in order to be successful.
EXTENDING THE STUDENT-STUDENT CONNECTION:
Sustaining Peer Interaction Throughout the Term
Introduction
Although first-year seminars may vary with regard to what specific content is covered,
“they share the common goal of creating close interactions between students and faculty
and between students themselves during the critical freshman year” (Barefoot & Fidler
1992, p. 54). As one instructional development specialist puts it: “In terms of content,
there is little a lecturer can say [that] she or he cannot write more concisely. What makes
a course more than the sum of the readings on which it is based is the social experience:
the sets of relationships between teacher and students and students with one another”
(Eisenberg, 1987, p. 18).
Allowing opportunities for student-student interaction in the FYE course serves to
foster peer networking, bonding, and social integration, which are known to play a potent
role in promoting student retention and academic achievement (Tinto, 1993; Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005). Opportunities for regular peer interaction in class may be especially
critical to the retention of commuter and re-entry students who often have little time or
opportunity for social interaction and integration outside the classroom. In fact, the term
“PCPs” (Parking lot-Classroom-Parking lot) has been coined to characterize commuter
students’ lack of campus involvement outside the classroom (Gardner, 1993).
Consequently, we may need to intentionally offset this lack of campus involvement
among commuters with instructional practices that promote peer interaction and social
integration within the classroom. Such “intra-curricular” experiences may serve as an
43
antidote to commuter and part-time students’ lack of involvement in co-curricular
activities beyond the classroom, thereby reducing their risk for attrition.
Keep in mind that student-student interaction is a process that can take place at the
same time we cover course content that isn’t necessarily social in nature. For example,
lecture note-taking strategies, textbook-reading strategies, and time management are
academically related topics that can be covered through small-group work in class and
through interactive or collaborative assignments completed outside of class. Thus, you
shouldn’t feel you have to sacrifice or trade-off coverage of academic content to facilitate
peer interaction; instead, you can provide simultaneous “double coverage” by covering
academic topics via instructional content and social integration via instructional process.
Engaging Students in Small-Group Work
Students can become actively involved by engaging in the learning process
individually, or by interacting and collaborating with peers. There are two types of social
contexts for promoting peer interaction in the classroom: large groups (e.g., whole-class
discussions) or small groups (e.g., 2-4 students). We have already discussed strategies for
promoting whole-class discussions under the heading of promoting active involvement
(pp. 27). This section of the manual will focus on small-group work.
The importance of conducting small-group work discussion in addition to whole-class
discussions is strongly supported by research indicating that students that in classes of
less than 40 students, 4-5 students account for 75% of all class discussions. Students
themselves are acutely aware of this phenomenon because when students are surveyed,
94% of them agreed with the statement: “In most of my classes, there are a small number
of students who do most of the talking” (Karp and Yoels (1976).
Small-group interaction may provide an antidote to these disturbing findings by
enabling all students—not just the most assertive or most verbal—to become more
involved with the course material, and with each other, as they actively work together in
small groups. Small discussion groups also provide opportunities for the development of
oral communication skills which are rarely developed in introductory, general education
courses taken by first-year students (Gardner, 1993).
When to Use Small-Group Work
* To start a class session.
For example, you can kick-off a class session by using a group activity known as
“active knowledge sharing.” This involves providing students with a list of questions
relating to the subject matter to be covered (e.g., words to define, people to identify, or a
pretest). Students then pair-up to answer the questions as best as they can, after which
they dialogue with other pairs who may have answers to questions they were unable to
answer.
* At the midpoint of a class.
For example, small-group work may be introduced at some point during a class
session, such as stopping at a critical point during a lecture to ask small groups to
compare notes or generate specific examples of concepts that have been covered in class.
44
* At the end of class.
For example, you can end a class by having students work in pairs to “share and
compare” their class notes to check for completeness and create a sense of class closure.
* Before or after whole-class discussions.
Small-group group may be introduced before a class discussion—for example, small
groups develop questions that they would like to see addressed in the upcoming class
discussion; or group work could take place after a class discussion—for example, group
members identify positions or issues that were overlooked in the discussion, or share their
thoughts about whether their pre-discussion opinions were changed or strengthened as a
result of the class discussion.
Strategies for Improving the Quality of Small-Group Work
* Allowing students some time to gather their thoughts individually, prior to
discussing them in small groups.
For example, think-pair-share groups may be formed, whereby students pair up with
a partner and share their initial ideas on the topic for 2-3 minutes prior to discussion in 4member groups.
Individual reflection time prior to verbal interaction can enrich the quality and depth of
the ideas exchanged. It should also increase the likelihood that shy or verbally
apprehensive students contribute their ideas because there is evidence that such students
are more likely to do so if they have thought about the topic in advance (Neer, 1987).
2) Have groups keep a visible record of the ideas they generate. If possible, provide each
group with a flip chart or transparency on which their ideas can be recorded and
displayed. This serves to help keep group members “on task” by holding them
accountable for creating a final product that documents their group work.
3) Notify students that any member of the group may be called on to report their group’s
ideas. This serves as an incentive for all members to listen actively to the ideas shared by
their teammates.
* Allow small groups to come to the front of class to report their work (e.g., as a
student panel).
This practice should serve to hold students more accountable for their work because
they may be asked to present it to the entire class. It may also reduce students’ fear of
public speaking by allowing them share “center stage” by speaking in the context of a
small, supportive group. This may serve as a baby step or “scaffold” to help desensitize
their fear of speaking alone when making an individual presentation.
* At an early point in the course, take a moment to emphasize the value of peer
learning, and remind students of the many ways they can form learning
teams.
Many students are not aware of the power of peer learning and may think that it
consists only of forming late-night study groups before major exams. Point out to your
45
class how they may collaborate with their peers on a more regular basis to tackle
academic tasks other than test-review sessions. You can select information from chapter
1 of the text (pp. 19-24) to make a case for the power of peer learning and to provide
students with a list of academic tasks they can complete collaboratively, rather than
individually.
* Facilitate the formation of student learning teams that work together outside
the classroom.
You can do this in a couple of ways:
1) Offer to construct a “class directory” containing the e-mail addresses of students
who are interested in working collaboratively with their classmates outside of class. For
instance, circulate a sheet of paper 2-3 weeks into the term, asking for any students who
are willing to contact or be contacted by other students to collaborate on course
assignments or exam preparation.
2) Request students’ class schedule for term and place students who happen to be
enrolled in the same course(s) in the same groups when forming discussion groups in
class or when assigning group projects. This may increase the likelihood that these same
students will get together out of class to work on the other courses they have in common,
particularly if you explicitly encourage them to do so.
3) Assign group projects/reports that require students to work together outside of class.
The group’s final project can be presented in the form of a written report or oral report
(e.g., panel presentation), or some combination thereof.
If you assign a group project, allow students some time in-class time to work together
on it. This can serve as a “warm up” for out-of-class collaboration, while at the same time
providing you with the opportunity to observe how they work together and to provide
them with constructive feedback.
* Occasionally structure small-group work so that it moves beyond discussion to
collaboration.
The key feature that differentiates a discussion group from a collaborative group is
that the latter doesn’t simply generate ideas; instead, they attempt to reach some
consensus or unified group decision with respect to the ideas that they generate. For
example, rather than simply listing or aggregating their ideas, a collaborative group will
take it further by attempting to reach agreement on how best to categorize or prioritize
their ideas. The key to converting a discussion group into a collaborative group is to
choose an action verb for the group task that signals to students that they are to make a
group decision with respect the ideas they generated, rather than just list them.
* Consider incorporating the key features of cooperative learning into students’
group work in order to transform it into teamwork.
Cooperative learning (CL) may be defined as a structured form of collaborative
learning that includes specific, well-defined procedures for converting group work into
teamwork. Succinctly described, CL is a collaborative learning procedure whereby small,
intentionally selected groups of students work interdependently on a focused well-defined
learning task, and are held individually accountable for their own performance; during
46
the learning process, the instructor typically serves as an in obtrusive facilitator, coach,
or consultant to the learning teams (Cuseo, 1992).
The primary objective of CL is to structure and “fine tune” group work in a fashion that
maximizes its strengths and minimizes its weaknesses (Cooper, et al., 1990; Johnson,
Johnson, & Smith, 1992). More specifically, CL attempts to strengthen the effectiveness
of small-group work by means of the following seven procedural features, which when
implemented together, distinguish it from other forms of group work:
1) Positive Interdependence among Group Members (Collective Responsibility)
2) Individual Accountability (Personal Responsibility)
3) Intentional Group Formation
4) Intentional Team Building
5) Explicit Attention Paid to the Development of Students’ Social Skills
6) Instructor Assumes the Role as Facilitator and Consultant during the Group
Learning Process
7) Attention to Inter-Group Interaction and the Integration of Work Generated by
Separate Groups.
When small-group work is conducted in a way that implements the majority of these
seven procedural elements, research provides overwhelming empirical documentation for
the cognitive, social, and affective benefits of CL— (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin,
1990) at the pre-college level. Research on CL in higher education is less extensive, but
results reported thus far are very consistent with those gathered in pre-college settings
(Cooper & Mueck, 1990; Cuseo, 1996; Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1992). For example,
a meta-analysis of the effects of CL on college students’ academic performance in
science, math, engineering and technology conducted by the National Institute for
Science Education revealed that CL had a “robust” positive effect on multiple educational
outcomes, such as: (a) academic achievement, (b) student retention, and (c) attitude
(liking) of the subject matter (Cooper, 1997). Thus, it’s reasonable to expect that
application of the key features of CL to small-group work in the FYE seminar should
promote positive course outcomes.
Detailed description of the seven key features of CL, accompanied by strategies for
implementing each of them, is provided in Appendix E. For a taxonomy of multiple CL
structures or formats, see Appendix F.
* To facilitate student-student connections in the first-year seminar, intentionally
choose a classroom space and a class timeframe that are logistically conducive
to peer interaction and sustained group work.
One logistical factor to consider if you’re planning to promote peer interaction in the
FYE course is the spatial and temporal context within the course is delivered. One
contextual factor that may either stimulate or sabotage peer interaction is the physical
characteristics of the classroom itself. You don’t want to teach the seminar in a classroom
setting that approximates a large lecture hall, with riveted seats arranged in rigid rows.
“Such rooms have been designed for the pronouncements of experts, not for the
conversations of learners. They discourage students from looking at one another, let alone
learning from one another. In fact, they pressure professors to deliver lectures, because
they clearly signal who is to do all the talking” (McCauley, 1984, p. 58).
47
Another contextual factor to consider if you’re planning to foster peer interaction in
your FYE course is the length of time of class sessions. If you have any choice with
respect to this scheduling issue, it may be advantageous to select a class period that is
longer than the typical 50-minute session. A longer class period may allow you more
time and greater flexibility for accommodating the logistical demands of small-group
work, such as preparing students for the group task, rearranging seats and students to
form groups, and reconvening the whole class following completion of small-group tasks.
Naturally, selecting longer class periods carries with it the disadvantages of less frequent
class meetings per week and longer time gaps between successive class sessions.
However, if you’re planning to devote a significant amount of class time to small-group
learning, then the benefits of longer sessions may outweigh its costs.
Out-of-Class Assignments
Introduction
An old rule of thumb for college courses is that students should spend two hours
working on the course outside of class for every one hour they spend in class. If we
adhere to this rule of thumb in the FYE course, it means that we actually have more time
to promote student learning outside of class than in class. We can to take advantage of
this double dose of out-of-class learning time by crafting powerful success-promoting
assignments that students complete on their own time outside of class.
This section is devoted to several key student success-promoting assignments that are
particularly relevant to the first-year seminar and may be completed outside of class time.
Assignments to Promote Immediate Application of Academic-Success Strategies
FYE course assignments may be intentionally designed to have students immediately
apply strategies they’ve learned in the seminar to promote academic success during their
first term of college. For example, students may be given an assignment that requires
them to implement a time-management plan for the first term, such as constructing a
schedule for the academic term that includes due dates for tests and assignments in all
courses, as well as designated times for study, recreation, and employment.
Students can also be asked to immediately apply effective learning strategies to other
courses they’re currently enrolled in; for example, they could be asked to construct a
learning strategies plan for the most difficult course they’re are currently enrolled in; or.
They could be assigned to keep a “learning log” of academic-success strategies discussed
in the seminar that they are using in their other first-term courses.
Think about what the most important things your students need to do right away to be
academically successful at your institution and be intrusive—ensure they actually do it by
requiring them to do it as a course assignment.
Assignments to Promote Students’ Self-Assessment and Self-Awareness
Assignments that could be used for this purpose include the following: (a) selfawareness instruments designed to increase self-knowledge and self-insight with respect
to personal values, traits, or wellness; (b) checklists and inventories designed to promote
self-diagnosis and self-evaluation of academic skills, career interests, learning styles or
48
study habits; and (c) personal time diaries or activity logs in which students estimate the
number of hours per week they spend on different activities.
Assignments designed to promote self-assessment and self-awareness are highly
consistent with the student-centered focus of the first-year seminar and provide students
with information about themselves that they can use proactively to guide future decisions
about their education, profession, and other personal choices they will make in college
and beyond. These types of assignments also encourage students to engage students in
two important lifelong learning habits: personal reflection and self-examination.
* Provide students with a comparative perspective to help them interpret the results
of their individual self-assessments.
Self-assessments often become more meaningful to students if they are able to view
their individual results in relation to national norms (if available), class averages, or the
averages of student subgroups in class (e.g., males and females; adults and traditional-age
students). Having students compare results obtained from self-assessment instruments,
such as the results of learning-style or career-interest inventories, may also be an
effective way to expose students to diverse perspectives and to gain comparative
reference points, which can further sharpen their self-awareness and self-insight.
To make this comparative assessment process more involving and interactive, you can
employ score lines, whereby students line up in the order of the scores the obtained on a
self-assessment instrument or inventory. We also recommend you complete the same
self-assessment inventories that you ask your students to complete. It is our experience
that doing these exercises with students tends to increase their interest and motivation in
completing them, perhaps because seeing their instructor do them serves to validate their
participation and conveys the message to them that the task is important enough for their
illustrious instructor to perform as well. (Furthermore, you are likely to find you’re your
students are often extremely curious to see how your results compare with theirs.)
* As a final, cumulative self-assessment assignment, students may be asked to write a
personal essay or autobiography that contains a synthesis of, and personal
reaction to, the results of all the individual self-assessments completed throughout
the term.
To lend some definition an structure to this assignment, you could include questions
that ask student to reflect on the results of their self-assessments in terms of: (a) their
personal strengths and weakness, (b) consistencies and discrepancies between their stated
or espoused values versus their enacted values, (c) their intentions and goals, (d) assets
and resources they have for realizing their goals, and (e) potential blocks and barriers
that must be avoided or overcome to achieve their intended goals.
Experiential Learning Assignments
These types of assignments enable students to learn through direct, first-hand personal
experience and self-discovery, rather than learning by vicariously through classroombased instruction or assigned reading. Listed below are assignments that can be used to
promote experiential learning in the FYE seminar.
* Students are assigned to conduct an interview with:
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1) a faculty member in their intended major or in a field they are considering as a
possible major;
2) a professional in a career that they may be interested in pursuing;
3) upper-division students in the their intended major or field of possible interest;
4) graduate students in the same or similar academic specialization they may pursue; or
5) students from diverse backgrounds (e.g., international students or students from
under-represented ethnic/racial groups). This practice can ensure student contact
among first-year students who may otherwise never come in contact with each other.
This contact can also occur via Internet discussions, or by having “virtually” visit
foreign countries and chat with citizens of those countries (Batson & Bass, 1996).
* Students are assigned to engage in campus research by:
1) becoming “participant observers” who conduct observational “field studies” of
student behavior on campus (e.g., in student residences, classrooms, or the library).
2) conducting “historical research” on the college by interviewing administrators, or by
searching campus archives for information the college’s origin and traditions.
At Ohio University, first-year students participate in “historical research projects”
whereby they create oral histories by interviewing alumni and search campus archives for
biographical information on persons for whom campus buildings have been named
(Freshman Seminar Resource Seminar, 1993). Likewise, Wheelock College (Boston) has
involved first-year seminar students in qualitative research on its campus organizations
(Barefoot & Fidler, 1996).
If students are given this type of assignment with the added stipulation that their
completed reports are to be submitted to those in charge of the campus organizations or
functions being researched, then the report can be written for a “real world” client or
audience. One college instructor, identified as an outstanding professor by both students
and administrators at his college, does this by having his students meet with top-level
administrators to ask them about current evaluation or information needs on campus.
Students then conduct small-scale evaluation projects that they submit as a research
report to the course instructor and the administrator (client) for whom it was intended.
This instructor reports that “you get better results from students if they feel there is a real
audience for their ideas” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983, p. 215).
Assignments for Connecting Students to Student-Support Services
The first-year seminar has the capacity to serve as a linchpin for connecting new
students with key campus-support agents, thereby promoting students’ social integration
into the broader college community. As previously mentioned, connections with these
professional and paraprofessional support agents can made by inviting them to class as
guest speakers. Conversely, an alternative strategy for promoting these important
connections is to bring students to the support agents via course assignments. These
assignments can serve as an intrusive conduit for connecting new students with key
support agents on campus who can play a pivotal and proactive role in promoting their
success.
Unfortunately, research indicates that students fail take advantage of campus support
services. For example, academic-support services tend to be under-utilized (Friedlander,
1980), particularly by students who are in most need of academic support (Knapp &
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Karabenick, 1988). Such findings strongly suggest that course assignments which bring
first-year students in contact with support professionals should be an integral component
of any course designed to promote student success.
Effective student-support programs are those that initiate supportive action by reaching
out to students and bringing or delivering support to them, rather than passively waiting
and hoping that students take advantages of these services on their own. Ender, Winston,
& Miller (1984) captured the gist of this principle almost 20 years ago when they
forcefully stated that “it is totally unrealistic to expect students to take full advantage of
the intellectual and personal development opportunities [on campus] without some
assistance from the institution” (p. 12). Their words are even more relevant today because
of the growing number of under-prepared, under-represented, and first-generation
students entering college campuses. Recent research indicates that the retention and
academic success of underrepresented and first-generation students, in particular, is
seriously undercut by institutional over-reliance on student-initiated involvement in
campus-support programs (Rendón & Garza, 1996).
One way to address and redress this problem of “passive programming” is to
“intrusively” require student involvement in campus support programs via student
assignments in the first-year seminar. When constructing assignments for the course,
think about what services or service professionals would be most important for all your
students to connect with, and intentionally craft assignment to ensure that that these
connections are made. The assignments could connect your class to the same services, or
the assignment could be individualized to connect particular students with particular
services that best meet their personal needs.
Here is a menu of support services that students could be connected to via course
assignments in the first-year seminar:
* Academic Advisement— to develop a tentative, long-range educational plan;
* Learning Assistance (learning resource) professionals—to assess learning styles;
* Career Counseling—to explore career interests;
* Personal Counseling—to gain self-insight or psychosocial adjustment strategies;
* Financial Aid Counseling—for long-range financial planning and money management;
* Technology Services—for orientation to campus-technology tools and programs;
* Student Activities—to explore campus-involvement and student-leadership options;
* Health Services—to develop a personal wellness plan;
* Campus Ministry—to explore spiritual issues and social justice opportunities;
* Service-Learning & Volunteer Experiences—to identify opportunities in the local
community for service-learning experience and career-related volunteer work
* Incorporate assignments that stimulate students’ involvement in the co-curriculum.
Research in higher education has revealed that the connection between co-curricular
experiences and classroom learning is very weak (Heller, 1988). This is a particularly
disturbing finding when viewed in light of the wealth of research indicating that student
involvement in campus life has a powerful impact on student retention and the
development of students’ interpersonal skills and leadership qualities (Astin, 1993;
Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005). The role of the first-year seminar can play in
reducing this schism between in-class and out-of-class learning is noted by Barefoot and
Fidler: “Many freshman seminars exist to bridge the gap between the curriculum and co-
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curriculum and to facilitate student involvement in all aspects of campus life” (Barefoot
& Fidler, 1992, p. 8).
One way that first-year seminars can bridge this gap is by engaging students in cocurricular experiences via course assignments. Students may be assigned to attend a
designated number of co-curricular events during their first term on campus (e.g., two per
month) and be provided with a monthly calendar of co-curricular activities from which
they may choose particular events they’d like to attend. (See Exhibit 4 for a sample.)
* Assignments encouraging students’ off-campus involvement and volunteerism
in the local community.
Consider providing students with a menu of possible volunteer opportunities, and
encourage (them via extra credit) or require them (as a course assignment) to participate
in service experiences that are most relevant to their potential vocational plans. In this
fashion, students can gain career-relevant experience or engage in an “exploratory
internship” while simultaneously contributing to the local community.
Similar to co-curricular experiences, students can write reflection papers in response to
their volunteer work, which can help transform from a volunteer service into a servicelearning experience. See Exhibit 5 for a sample reflection paper that students could be
asked to may write in response to a service-learning experience.
Future-Planning Assignments
Students may be given assignments in the FYE course that actively engage them in the
process of designing tentative long-range plans, which connect their current college
experience with their future educational and life goals. Surveys of first-year seminars
offered across the country indicate “that academic planning and goal setting” is one of the
seminar’s major course objectives (Barefoot & Fidler, 1996). One way to realize this
objective is to craft assignments that actively involve first-year students in planning their
future, which include assignments such as those listed below.
* Educational Planning Assignments
For example, students could be given an assignment to create a tentative
undergraduate plan that includes courses in general education and the student’s intended
academic specialization (major field of study); or, two-year students could create a
tentative transfer plan.
Norwich University (Vermont) uses its first-year seminar in this fashion to engage
students in long-range educational planning and promote student dialogue with their
academic advisors about their educational plans. The first-year seminar syllabus at
Norwich calls for students to meet with their advisor on three occasions during the first
term, in addition to their meeting for course scheduling. The second meeting occurs at
about the midpoint in the term, at which time students bring a self-assessment report that
they have completed as a first-year seminar assignment. Advisors use this report to focus
discussion with students about their present academic progress and future educational
plans (Catone, 1996).
* Career-Planning Assignments
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You may ask your students to develop a tentative career plan that encourages them
students to identify potential career positions and construct a model resume that would
prepare them for entry into such positions. Students could also be asked to and identify
and initiate the development of a professional portfolio—a collection of materials that
would best illustrate their skills or achievements, and demonstrate their educational or
personal development (e.g., best written work, art work, research projects, letters of
recommendation, co-curricular accomplishments, personal awards, and certificates of
achievement).
This may be particularly true for the current generation of students because they are
likely to cite career success as their major reason for attending college (Sax, 1998). If
contemporary students are confused about the relationship between their present college
experience and their future career(s), they may see no reason to stay in college.
Research also suggests that the retention of under-represented students, in particular, may
be enhanced by institutional efforts designed to clarify their current academic experience
with future career goals. Richardson (1989) conducted on-site investigations of
predominantly white institutions with impressive minority graduation rates. He found that
one common element present in all these institutions was early provision of “career
guidance to translate nonspecific educational goals into programs of study where
coursework and desired outcomes are clearly linked” (p. A48).
* Life-Planning Assignments
Students could be asked to devise plans that move beyond educational and vocational
goals to include goals involving personal growth and holistic (whole-person)
development that embrace social, emotional, ethical, physical, and/or spiritual dimensions
of the self. For example, students can use self-assessment exercises they complete in the
seminar to develop a long-range “personal growth plan” or a future “life-success
portfolio.”
Though these assignments may appear to be a bit premature for first-term students to
undertake, they still serve the important purpose of getting students to think ahead and to
look for connections between their present experiences with their future life plans. This
serves to increase their goal awareness and promotes goal-orientated behavior, which is
important for promoting student persistence to program and degree completion (Noel &
Levitz, 1989).
Writing-To-Learn Assignments
The first-year seminar is an ideal course for students to engage in short writing
assignments designed to actively involve them in learning and promote reflective
thinking. The importance writing as a tool for nurturing deep thinking has been
underscored by writing scholars (Connolly, 1989) and the importance of writing for
promoting learning is emphasized by many discipline-based faculty (Smit, 1991). Thus,
requiring student writing in the first-year seminar is strongly recommended for promoting
students’ depth of thinking with respect to course content, as well as for promoting the
academic credibility of the FYE course in eyes of discipline-based faculty.
However, requiring student writing is not synonymous with requiring a term paper.
Writing can also take the form of a variety of “writing-to-learn” assignments. In contrast
to traditional writing assignments, such as essays or term papers, writing-to-learn
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assignments differ in three major ways: (a) they are shorter, requiring less amount of
student time to complete. (b) they are written primarily for the benefit of the writer—as
an aid to thinking and learning; and (c) they do not require extensive instructor
commentary, correction, or grading (Tchudi, 1986). These characteristics of writing-tolearn exercises allow them to be used not only as out-of-class assignments, but also as inclass activities; for example, a small portion of class time can be allotted for students to
write a one-minute paper in response to a class presentation or group discussion.
Writing-to-learn exercises are strongly recommended first-year seminar students
because they may be better suited for first-year students than formal term papers or
research reports that require more writing experience and familiarity with the use of
scholarly information resources (Erickson & Strommer, 1991). Potential writing-to-learn
assignments for the first-seminar are described below. 
* Short reflection papers in response to co-curricular experiences.
When students are asked to write about their co-curricular experiences, they are more
likely to reflect upon and internalize them, serving to transform them from “extracurricular” activities into bona fide co-curricular learning experiences. (See Exhibit 6 for
a sample of a co-curricular reflection paper.)
* Freewriting: having student quickly recorded thoughts, feelings, or free associations
on a topic or subject which are generated with little regard for mechanics.
For example, students quickly record their initial thoughts or feelings about an
upcoming course topic.
* Microthemes: students write brief, focused writing assignments (short enough to fit on a
5X8 card), which require students to take a personal position or offer a personal
interpretation with respect to a debatable issue or controversial topic.
For example, students may be assigned “thesis-support” microthemes that require
them choose between one of two opposing positions or theses and write a short (micro)
theme defending that position.
* Learning Logs: extended reflective-writing assignments in which students record their
personal learning experiences over an extended period of time.
For instance, students could make ongoing entries in learning logs about (a) what they
they’re learning in a course, (b) how they’re learning it, or (c) their feelings about the
course and their course progress.
* Journals: written reflections on, or reactions to, personal experiences over an extended
period of time, which provide the writer with a chronological record of thoughts and
feelings that can be later reviewed to detect patterns of personal continuity or change.
Journals may be assigned as:
1) “Free” Journals, whereby students have complete freedom to write about any personal
issue they’d like, or
2) “Prompted” journals, which ask students to write in response to a specific, instructorposed prompt (e.g., “My first impression of college is . . .). Students could also be
54
given a prompt that asks them to review their previous journal entries to detect
patterns of personal consistency or variation that may have occurred across time.
For samples of journal prompt tied to the “rhythms” (stages) of the academic
term, see Exhibit 7.
At the Coast Guard Academy, a primary goal of the first-year seminar is to teach students
how to effectively monitor their study skills and the major vehicle used to achieve this
goals is a course assignment that requires students to keep journals in which they respond
to questions, make written comments on their course progress, and construct a plan for
academic success (“Academy Teaches Students to Monitor Their Own Study Habits,”
1995).
Journals can also be used as an incentive to stimulate student use of effective learning
strategies, such as weekly journals kept by students in which they describe how they have
applied learning strategies discussed in the seminar. One learning skills specialist who
uses journals in this fashion reports: “When the students know they have to write about
how they used the strategies, they are more motivated to use them” (Van Blerkom, 1995,
p. 3).
If you regularly or periodically respond to student journals, you can carry on a written
dialogue or conversation with individual students, which can help build your rapport with
the class. This student-instructor dialogue could take place on paper or online—in the
form of an electronic journal.
Transactional Writing Assignments:
In addition to writing-to-learn exercises whose audience is the writer, writing
assignments in the first-year seminar may take the forms of “transactional writing,”
which is aimed at an audience beyond the writer (Britton, et al., 1975; Tchudi, 1986).
Listed below is a sample of transactional writing assignments that may be relevant for the
first-year seminar.
* Summaries (e.g., summarizing a lecture for a student who missed it and wants to know
what was covered).
* Questions (e.g., writing questions that are submitted to guest speakers).
* Explanations (e.g., explaining the thought process used in solving a problem, or
explaining why a statement is true or false).
* Persuasive Letters (e.g., letters to a newspaper editor, elected official, college
administrator; or letters to high school seniors offering persuasive advice about what
to do and not to do in order to have a successful first-year experience).
* Critical Reviews (e.g., reviews of books, films, TV programs, or theatrical productions)
* Editorials or Feature Articles (e.g., editorials or articles written for the college
newspaper)
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* Scripts (e.g., written dialogue to be used in role plays enacted in class, or for dramatic
vignettes videotaped outside of class and used in group-project presentations).
* Directions or “How to” Guides (e.g., college-survival manuals; guides on how to
improve personal performance on college-related tasks).
EVALUATING & GRADING STUDENT PERFORMANCE
Course examinations and course grades are ways to ensure the seminar’s academic
legitimacy and credibility, and they serve to elevate the FYE course to the same level as
any other college course. Course grades also can serve as motivational incentives for
students to take the course seriously, which in turn, should increase the level of effort and
depth of involvement they expend on the course. Furthermore, testing and grading can
serve to increase instructors’ expectations of the amount of time and effort students
should devote to the course, thus increasing the course’s potential power for producing
positive effects on student learning and student success. The following practices are
offered for the purpose of improving the reliability, validity, and equity of studentevaluation and grading practices in the first-year seminar.
Use Multiple Methods of Student Evaluation
Using multiple methods for evaluating student performance results in more balanced
assessment that has greater: (a) validity—because the disadvantages of one evaluation
format are offset by the advantages of another, and (b) equity—because it allows for
more inclusive evaluation by not subjecting all students to a single evaluation format that
may not be the one that may not embrace the variety of learning styles or academic skill
sets possessed by different students in class. For example, students whose writing skills
are not yet well developed may be unduly penalized by a course in which all exams are
comprised entirely of essay questions. Research indicates that students vary appreciably
in terms of what evaluation procedures they feel most comfortable with (Lowman, 1984;
McKeachie, 1986), so by using multiple evaluation methods, you’re likely to more
effectively accommodate the variety of individual differences that exist among students
in your class.
The following practices are recommended for providing multiple and varied evaluations
of student performance in the first-year seminar.
* Use evaluation methods that assess students’ in-class performance (e.g., quizzes or
exams) and out-of-class performance (e.g., take-home tests, assignments, or
projects).
* Include assignments that require students to work both independently
(individually) and interdependently (in groups or teams).
* Include assignments that require students to express or communicate their
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knowledge in different modes or modalities (e.g., written reports, oral reports,
multi-media presentations).
One English professor, identified as “outstanding” by both students and faculty
colleagues, requires every student in class to write two essays on assigned topics. His
third assignment, however, allows five or six options from which students choose the one
that most interests them or the one on which they feel they will perform the best.
Examples of the options he offers include a creative writing piece, a dramatic
presentation to be performed in front of class (alone or as part of a team project), an
original videotape to be shown to the class (developed individually or in teams), or a third
written essay. Also, students can create and submit additional options for instructor
approval (Wilson, 1987).
* Draw test questions from a variety of informational sources (class lectures,
discussions, assigned readings, etc.).
* Construct exams that include both subjective test questions (e.g., short answers or
essays) and objective test questions (e.g., multiple-choice or true-false items).
Using both types of questions results in a more balanced assessment of different
cognitive skills. For instance, essays require students to recall information by producing
or supplying answers on their own, while multiple-choice items require students to
recognize information by selecting discriminately from already-supplied answers.
The position taken here is that essay questions are not necessarily superior to, or more
“authentic” than multiple-choice questions. Both in college and life beyond college,
students are required to make careful choices from among already supplied alternatives,
and the process involved in making these choices often involve critical thinking and other
forms of higher-level reasoning. As one educational measurement scholar concludes,
“Producing an answer is not necessarily a more complex or difficult task, or one more
indicative of achievement than choosing the best of the available alternatives” (Ebel,
1972, pp. 124-125).
Anyone who has reviewed or taken standardized tests for admission to college,
graduate school or professional school can attest to how multiple-choice questions are
capable of assessing higher-level cognitive skills. If multiple-choice questions test only
factual knowledge or rote memory, it is, as Clegg and Cashin point out, “the result of
poor test craftsmanship and not an inherent limitation of the item type; a well-designed
multiple-choice item can test higher levels of student learning” (1986, p. 1). Conversely,
as Erickson and Strommer observe, “Many essay questions masquerade as tests of
complex thinking skills when, in fact, they can be answered on the basis of
memorization” (1991, p. 137).
Thus, we recommend that test construction in the first-year seminar should not
automatically exclude any particular types of test question. In fact, tests are more likely to
inclusive and equitable if it they include a variety of test-question formats. Such variety
also encourages students to exercise and develop different types of test-taking skills that
they’ll need to use throughout their college experience and beyond. For instance,
multiple-choice questions are more likely to encourage the development of critical
reading and analytical reasoning skills, while essay questions more effectively promote
the development of writing skills and thinking skills involving synthesis.
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Moreover, it may be possible to combine both formats in a single test question. For
example, writing can be incorporated into multiple-choice questions by giving students
the option of clarifying their choices in writing, or by requiring them to write a
justification for their answer to selected multiple-choice or true-false questions. One
college instructor has adopted the practice of awarding students full credit on several
multiple-choice questions only if they choose the correct answer and provide a written
explanation why it is correct (Zinsser, 1988).
* Rely on more frequent assessment than at midterm and finals.
More frequent assessments of student learning tend to result in an overall evaluation
(e.g., final course grade), that is more reliable. As Erickson and Strommer argue in
Teaching College Freshmen, “How often should I evaluate student performance? Our
answer to faculty who teach freshmen is: ‘The more, the better.’ Grades based on several
observations will generally be more reliable than grades based on fewer observations”
(1991, p. 153).
Each assessment of student performance represents only an estimate of what that
student has learned or achieved. Thus, it can be expected that some assessments will
overestimate student learning or achievement while others will underestimate it. These
positive or negative errors in measurement tend to be distributed randomly across
different assessments given at different times. So, the best way to reduce the magnitude
of measurement errors associated with assessing student performance is to base that
student’s final grade on multiple measures of achievement because, in this fashion,
random errors will tend to balance out or cancel out each other (Gage & Berliner, 1984;
Gronlund, 1985).
In addition to improving the reliability of students’ final grades by providing a larger
sample of student performances on which to base grades, there are three other key
advantages associated with frequent assessment:
1) Frequent assessment encourages students to “stay on top things” and work more
consistently.
More frequent assessment typically requires students to distribute their study time
evenly throughout the term, rather than cramming the bulk of their work into two
large sessions—one at midterm and one before the final. As Erickson and Strommer
suggest, “Frequent evaluations provide the structure many freshmen need to keep up
with their work [and are] more likely to get students to attend class and do their
homework than is counting attendance and homework in the grading scheme” (1991, p.
153).
2) Frequent assessments tend to result in lesser amounts of material to be learned and
retained for each assessment, thus enabling students to focus on depth rather than
breadth.
It is probably safe to say that students are likely to learn small amounts of material
more deeply and large amounts of material more superficially. Some college
instructors equate length or size of exams and assignments with more rigorous
academic standards. However, as Loehr reminds us, “Length doesn’t ensure quality.
Focus work processes and products on quality, rather than arbitrary length. Seek total
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quality, rather than products that ‘look long’” (1993, p. 6).
3) More frequent assessment is likely to result in students receiving earlier feedback that
they can use to improve their subsequent performance..
If assessments are given more frequently, it’s more likely to results assessments
being given earlier in the term and students receiving earlier feedback in the course.
This allows students to use early feedback proactively to improve their subsequent
performance throughout the term. Furthermore, earlier feedback is likely to increase
student motivation to actually process and use the feedback for performanceimprovement purposes they know there will be plenty of future opportunities to
improve their first performance and raise their course grade.
Having acknowledged that there are multiple advantages of frequent assessment, it
must also be acknowledged that frequent assessment has one major drawback: loss of
class time on assessment that might otherwise be spent on content coverage or class
discussion. To minimize this disadvantage of frequent assessment, keep the assessment
shorts (e.g., 5-10 minutes to complete) and do not rely on in-class quizzes or
exams as your only source of frequent assessment; instead, complement them with
other forms of student assessment that can be completed outside the classroom (e.g.,
take-home tests, short assignments, or mini-projects).
* Provide students with models of excellent (grade “A”) work.
Save and showcase high-quality work completed by students in your previous courses
and use it to illustrate high-quality work for students in your current course. Sometimes it
can be difficult to articulate verbally what constitutes “excellence” or “A” work. (As in
the expression, “I can't tell you what it is, but I know it when I see it.”) Thus, it may be
more effective to demonstrate or illustrate excellence to students in the form of a model
answer or through selected samples of previous students’ work. This should reduce the
likelihood that your students will express the same frustration expressed by the following
first-year student: “I’m not really sure how my essay answers can be improved to give
her what she wants” (Erickson & Strommer, 1991, p. 49).
* Use exams or quizzes as a vehicle for improving students’ test-taking skills and
reducing students’ test anxiety.
The following practices are offered as intentional strategies for improving students’
test performance and reducing their test anxiety.
1) Before exams, share successful test-taking strategies with your students, or invite a
specialist from academic support services to provide a timely session on testpreparation and test-taking strategies.
2) Consider using part of a class session to allows your students to take a non-graded
sample test or pre-test so that they can become familiar with your testing style,
and reduce some of their test anxiety.
3) Prior to distributing exams, particularly the first exam of the term, suggest to
students how they could most effectively budget or distribute their test time on
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different test sections so as to alleviate test anxiety associated with “running out of
time.”
* Use tests to help students learn how to use test results as feedback for improving
future test performance.
For example, after you return exams or quizzes, invite feedback from students
concerning the relationship between the study strategies they used and the test results
they received, as well as their perceptions of the fairness of the exam. One way to obtain
such feedback is to have students complete a brief, post-exam evaluation form that could
include such questions as: (a) Was the content of the exam what you expected it to be?
(b) Were there any questions that seemed unclear? (c) Did you learn anything during the
process of taking the exam? (d) Which parts of the exam were most and least
challenging? (e) Did you do as well on this exam as you thought you did after turning in
the exam? (f) How would you grade the overall quality of this exam—e.g., A, B, C, etc.?
(McMullen-Pastrick & Gleason, 1986).
Such feedback can be used as a springboard for launching students’ discussion of their
test-preparation and test-taking strategies, and may also be used to help you improve the
clarity and quality of your exams.
* Invite students to your office to discuss exam results and how they may improve
their future performance.
One instructor uses a an even more intrusive version of this procedure, whereby
students must come to his office to find out their test grade, at which time he verbally
praises them if they did well; if they performed poorly, he discusses study strategies and
offers to provide them with future assistance (Fink, 1989).
* Use long-range assignments or projects (due toward the end of the term) as a
vehicle for developing students’ time-management and task-management skills.
Giving an assignment that’s due at the end of the term can help student develop longrange work plans. However, instead of leaving students entirely to their own devices to
complete the assignment and deliver it as a final product on its due date, have them
submit early, graded installments of their work at interim points during the term. This can
help them practice working proactively and incrementally. For instance, if the long-range
assignment involves a group project that is to be presented at the end of the term, students
could submit early installments of their work in the following sequence: (a) Topic
selection and a tentative list of research sources within the first month, (b) outline at the
second month, (c) first draft by the third month, and (d) final draft by the week before the
presentation is due.
Such stepwise submissions should encourage and reinforce students for working
consistently and making steady progress toward completion of a long-term goal. It can
also help students learn how to combat procrastination and avert the anxiety associated
with it.
* For course assignments, provide students with a checklist of criteria you intend to
use to evaluate the quality of their work, and clarify the meaning of each criterion
with a specific description or illustration.
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For example, on students’ written assignments, the following criteria and illustrative
descriptions might be used.
1) Organization: Does the paper have (a) an introduction, (b) conclusion, (c) clear
transitions between paragraphs, and (d) section headings?
2) Documentation: Does the paper include (a) a number of different sources cited that are
used in a balanced fashion (as opposed to over-reliance on one or two), (b) use of
some primary sources been included (as opposed to relying exclusively on
secondary references such as textbooks), and (c) a balanced blend of historical
sources and current publications?
3) Presentation: Is the paper presented in a manner that is consistent with specific
guidelines given for such formatting features as (a) margins (b) spacing, (c) length,
and (d) referencing of sources in the text and reference section?
* Instruct students how to keep track of their course grade while the course is in
progress.
When students are uncertain about “where they stand” in the course, it can produce
grade anxiety, which can interfere with their course performance and satisfaction. One
way to combat grade anxiety and empower students to self-monitor their progress is by
encouraging them to save and track their grades for completed tests and assignments.
After successive assignments or exams, have students add their points to their cumulative
total, so that they can readily determine their total point total and overall course grade at
all times throughout the term. Modeling this strategy for students in the FYE course and
encouraging new students to use this strategy in their other courses may help them
develop self-monitoring skills, which research indicates is a distinguishing characteristic
of successful students (Pintrich, 1995).
* For group projects, do not assign the same “group grade” to all group members.
Grades for group projects should include reflect at lease some recognition for the
quality of individual performance. For example, students could receive separate grades
for their individual performance and their group’s performance by combining or
averaging these two grades to generate the student’s final grade for a group project.
Giving all group members the same “group grade” should be avoided because research
clearly indicates that high-achieving students report great dissatisfaction with group
projects in which all members of their group receive the same, undifferentiated grade
(Fiechtner & Davis, 1991) regardless of how much they contribute to the group’s final
product or performance. High-achieving students often report that their individual effort
and contribution to the group’s final product far exceeded the efforts of less motivated
teammates, yet these “free riders” or “sandbaggers” inequitably receive the same grade.
These findings suggest that instructors should build-in at least some assessment of
individual accountability or personal responsibility into the evaluation of students’ group
work. One way to ensure that the individual responsibility of each group member can be
readily identified and evaluated is by having each member assume responsibility for
contributing a distinct or unique component to the group’s final product (e.g., a particular
content area, cultural perspective, or dimension of holistic development). To ensure that
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each member also assumes collective responsibility, hold each member responsible for
integrating his or her individual contribution with contributions made by other group
members.
For grading criteria that may be used to evaluate group-project presentations, see
Exhibit 8.
* Provide students with specific learning objectives to serve as study guides for course
exams.
Providing students with learning objectives prior to exams can help them focus their
study time on what you expect them to know (key content areas or concepts) and how
you expect them to know it, i.e., how they are expected to demonstrate their knowledge
(e.g., generate it on an essay or recognize it on a multiple-choice question). You can
adopt the same strategy for developing learning objectives relating to information you
cover in class as we have used to create reading objectives for information covered in the
text. (See Appendix G. “Specific Reading Objectives: A Strategy for Focusing Student
Reading & Preparing Students for Reading-Based Exams.”)
Providing students with specific learning objective prior to exams also can help promote
rapport with your class because it reduces the risk that they will perceive you as an
adversary who’s trying to “fool them” by intentionally withholding information about the
test or ambush them with “trick questions.” Pertinent to this point are the results of one
major survey of students that asked them to list teacher behaviors that inhibit positive
teacher-student relationships. The survey results revealed the following three rapportdamaging teacher behaviors among the top ten cited: (a) “Are not specific on what the
test will cover,” (b) “Create ‘trick’ questions,” and (c) “Give tests that don't correspond to
lectures” (Ludweig, 1993).
* During exams, invite feedback from students regarding the clarity or ambiguity of
test questions.
Students could write this feedback on the test itself, or deliver it to you verbally
during the exam. The latter strategy has the advantage of providing you with feedback in
time to make a clarifying statement to all students in class before the exam is completed
and submitted.
* Use students’ test-performance patterns as a vehicle for assessing the quality of
your exams and the clarity of your teaching.
This recommendation can be most effectively implemented by performing an item
analysis on student answers to tests questions. For example, by computing what
percentage of students missed each multiple-choice question on an exam, or by
calculating the average grade on each essay question, you can check to see if some test
items are answered incorrectly by a large majority of students. Such a result may indicate
that the test item is ambiguous or your instruction pertaining to the tested concept was
unclear.
In addition to using item analysis to improve the clarity of your future exams, it can be
used to adjust students’ scores on just-completed exams for any test questions that your
analysis indicates may have been ambiguous or unfair, allowing you to make this
adjustment before grades are assigned to students’ tests and returned to them in class.
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* Adopt a learning-for-mastery model of assessment whereby students are given
the opportunity to retake exams or re-submit assignments in order to improve the
quality of their work and their course grade.
College students are usually not permitted to repeat an exam or assignment to
demonstrate that they have learned from the feedback they received. Yet research has
shown that allowing students to repeat and improve their performance is an instructional
practice that significantly enhances student learning (Bloom, 1984; Fitzgerald, 1987). In
two independent studies of this practice, college instructors were asked to list brief
references to the textbook pages and/or class notes after every test question when they
returned exams to students. On test questions that were answered incorrectly, students
were required to write a short paragraph that identified the correct answer and to explain
why it was correct. The results of these studies revealed that, relative to students in other
sections of the same course who did not receive such feedback, students who did receive
and respond to the feedback: (a) scored higher on the same final exam, (b) liked the
course more, and (c) felt more confident of their abilities in the course subject (Clark,
Guskey, & Benninga, 1983; Guskey, Benninga, & Clark, 1984).
One alternative to requiring or forcing students to correct their mistakes is to simply
provide them with an incentive for doing so. For instance, students who elect to correct
and resubmit their answers could be allowed to redeem some of their lost points and
improve their grade.
Providing students with such opportunities to repeat and improve is consistent with the
“mastery” model of human learning, which takes the position that initial differences in
levels of subject-level mastery displayed by students do not reflect immutable differences
in student aptitude or learning potential, but reflect differences in the time needed for
learning to occur. In other words, some students take longer and require more
performance feedback before becoming proficient learners, and if given this extended
opportunity, they will eventually display a high level of mastery with respect to the
content or skill being learned (Carroll, 1963; Bloom, 1968, 1978).
If you are fearful that giving students an extra opportunity to improve their
performance will result in “grade inflation,” simply average the student’s first and second
grades on the test or assignment rather than replacing their first score with their
improved, second score. Since the course objectives of the first-year seminar are
different than traditional, discipline-based courses, it might be reasonable to expect that
grade distributions in the FYE course will be somewhat skewed toward the higher end of
the grade continuum. However, if students still need to work for good grades and make
the effort to correct their mistakes, then you should not feel guilty about watering down
your academic standards. Don’t let concerns about creating a “grade distribution” that
“spreads out” students distract you from using assessment methods that are known to
most effectively promote student learning and success. It should be noted that existing
grading practices used by many college instructors’ have come under sharp attack for (a)
testing trivial information for the purpose of ensuring that students can be “distributed”
into grade categories (Milton, Pollio, & Eison, 1988), and for (b) using “curve” grading
procedures to guarantee that their final grades approximate the ideal “bell-shaped curve”
(Tobias, 1990). Such grading practices make it inevitable that at least some students in
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class will receive low grades, which some instructors (mis)interpret as evidence that they
are “rigorous graders” with “high academic standards” (Ewell, 1991).
Grades should reflect how much students actually learn and be based on absolute
standards or criteria (e.g., percentage of questions answered correctly), rather than being
determined by how many of their fellow students they happen to beat out. Grading
according to absolute standards is more likely to promote student collaboration with
respect to course work, rather than invidious social comparisons. Grading according to
absolute standards is also more likely to promote improvement in the quality of
instructor’s teaching and test construction. As Erickson and Strommer point out in
Teaching College Freshmen:
Grading according to standards is more likely to point up problems and lead to
improvements in teaching and test-taking practices. If several students do poorly on an
exam, the low grades usually prompt some serious soul searching. Was instruction
adequate? Was the exam poorly constructed? Or did students simply not study
enough? We can correct such problems, but only if we detect them. Grading on a
curve too often hides ineffective teaching, poor testing, and inadequate learning. So
long as we give a reasonable number of A’s and B’s and not too many D’s or F’s, no
one makes a fuss (1991, pp. 154-55).
Let the first-year seminar be the course in the college curriculum where sound
assessment-for-learning practices drive the grading scheme, and not vice-versa. Just as
the seminar has the potential to serve as a model course for effective college teaching, it
can serve as a model course for effective student-centered assessment that promotes
student learning and student success, rather than student-evaluation practices that simply
serve to conveniently classify and sort students into grade categories.
Evaluating the Course and Your Course Instruction
There are two major goals of any program evaluation: (a) to obtain evaluative
information on the program’s overall effectiveness or impact for use in bottom-line
decisions about whether it should be adopted, continued, or expanded, and (b) to obtain
evaluative information on the program for the purpose of improving or fine-tuning its
quality. In assessment terminology, the first purpose is referred to as summative
evaluation, i.e., assessment designed to “sum up” a program’s overall value; and the
second purpose is referred to as formative evaluation, i.e., assessment that helps to
“form,” shape up, or further improve the program’s effectiveness (Scriven, 1967).
Since the purpose of this Instructor’s Manual is to improve the quality of course
instruction, we will focus on formative evaluation strategies designed to improve the
quality of the FYE course and the quality of its instruction. Six major sources of
formative evaluation will be discussed in this section:
1. Course-Evaluation Surveys (a.k.a., Student Ratings)
2. Analysis of Students’ Written Comments
3. Student Focus-Group Assessment
4. Course-Embedded Assessment
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5. Pre-Test/Post-Test Assessment
6. Retrospective Assessment by Course Alumni
Course-Evaluation Surveys (a.k.a., Student Ratings)
National research indicates that student ratings are the most widely used source of
information for assessing teaching effectiveness in college (Seldin, 1993). Student
course-evaluation ratings are also the most commonly used strategy for assessing the
first-year seminar (Barefoot & Fidler, 1996).
One major strength of student evaluations is that their reliability and validity have
probably received more empirical support than any other method of course assessment;
there have been over 1300 articles and books published that contain research on the topic
of student ratings (Cashin, 1988). Despite perennial criticisms of student evaluations by
some faculty and the publication of some isolated studies that purportedly refute the
validity of student evaluations, when the results of all studies are viewed collectively and
synthesized, they provide strong support for the reliability and validity of student
evaluations (Theall, Abrami, & Mets, 2001).
Since students’ course evaluations represent the most frequently used strategy for
evaluating teaching effectiveness in general, and for evaluating the first-year seminar in
particular, an extensive discussion of this assessment strategy will be provided in this
section of the Manual. Listed below is a series of strategies for improving the validity and
utility of students’ FYE course-evaluation surveys
How to Administer Course-Evaluation Surveys
* Carefully word your instructions to students prior to they complete their
evaluation surveys so as to prepare or prime students for their role as course
evaluators.
Since first-term college students have never before evaluated a college course or
college instructor, consider including the following information in the instructions read
to students prior to their evaluation of the FYE seminar in order to help prepare them
for this task.
1) Remind students that evaluating the course is an opportunity for them to provide
meaningful input that could improve the quality of the course for many future
generations of first-year students.
2) Explain to students why the evaluations are being conducted—for example, to help
instructors improve their teaching and to improve the quality of the course).
3) Assure students that their evaluations will be read carefully and taken seriously by
the program director as well as the course instructor.
4) Acknowledge to students that, although they may be completing a number of
evaluations for different courses they are currently taking, you would appreciate their
earnest attempt to take the time and effort to complete the FYE course-evaluation
form thoughtfully, because it is a non-traditional course in terms of both its content
and method of instruction.
5) Remind students that they should avoid the temptation to give uniformly high or
uniformly low ratings on every item, depending on whether they generally liked or
disliked the course or the course instructor. Instead, remind them to respond to each
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item independently and honestly.
6) Encourage students to provide written comments in order to clarify or justify their
numerical ratings, and emphasize that specific comments are especially welcome
because instructors often find that they provide the most valuable feedback on course
strengths and the useful ideas for overcoming course weaknesses.
7) Inform students what will be done with their evaluations once they have completed
them, assuring them that their evaluations will not be seen by the instructor before
grades have been turned submitted (Ory, 1990).
When to Administer Course-Evaluation Surveys
One factor to consider when administering FYE course-evaluation surveys is the
optimal time during the academic term when students should evaluate the course. If you
give a final exam that’s completed in class, one option is to administer the evaluations
immediately after students turn in their final exam. This strategy has two advantages: (a)
It allows students to truly assess the entire course because the final exam represents the
last key component of the course. (b) Students are not likely to be absent on the day of
the final exam, so a larger and more representative sample of students would be present
to complete the course evaluation than if it were administered on a routine day of class.
However, a major disadvantage of administering evaluations immediately after students
complete the final exam is that students are more likely to be preoccupied, anxious, or
fatigued by their just-completed exam. This may result in evaluations that are filled out
more hurriedly, with fewer written comments, and less overall validity.
Perhaps the best approach is for seminar instructors to administer the evaluation
instrument as close to the end of the course as possible (e.g., during the last week of the
term), but not immediately after completion of a final exam. This approach would also
better accommodate those instructors who elect not to administer a final examination in
the first-year seminar.
One other consideration factor to consider about the timing of course evaluations is the
burnout or fatigue factor that may come into play when students are repeatedly required
to fill out course evaluations in all their classes at the end of the term. To minimize the
adverse impact of fatigue or boredom that may accompany completion of multiple course
evaluations, it might be advisable to try to administer the course-evaluation instrument to
your students at a time that does not coincide with administration of the college's
standard course evaluation forms.
* Create opportunities for students to evaluate the course and provide feedback for
instructional improvements while the course is still in progress.
For example:
1) Administer a course-evaluation survey at midterm to obtain early student feedback.
In one meta-analysis of 17 studies on the effectiveness of student-rating feedback for
improving course instruction, it was found that receiving course-evaluation feedback
from students during the first half of the term promoted instructional improvement, as
measured by the difference in student ratings received at midterms—before feedback
was received, versus ratings received at the end of the semester—after midterm
feedback had been received (Cohen, 1980). These findings are consistent with those
reported by Murray and Smith (1989), who found that graduate teaching assistants in
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three different disciplines who received instructional feedback at midterms displayed
higher pre-to post-test gains in student ratings than a control group of teaching
assistants who did not receive midterm feedback.
You can take advantage of this early-feedback procedure by administering student
evaluations at midterms and compare the results from these midterm evaluations with
those you receive at the end of the course—after you’ve made some instructional
changes made in response to students’ midterm feedback. This is the type of
“classroom research” that has been strongly endorsed as a legitimate form of faculty
scholarship (Boyer, 1991), and which serves integrates educational research with
instructional practice (Cross & Angelo, 1988).
2) Create small, student course-assessment groups in your class and ask them to provide
you with verbal feedback on specific course components or experiences as they
experience them throughout the term.
One variation on this theme is to form a group of “student managers” or a “student
advisory committee,” whose role is to periodically solicit evaluative course comments
from their classmates and share them with you via regularly held meetings throughout
the term. (Haug, 1992).
3) Invite your students to deposit written comments about the course in an anonymous
suggestion box hung near your classroom or office door.
* Consider adding some questions of your own at the end of the standardized courseevaluation form.
This practice will allow you to get feedback on specific instructional practices that are
uniquely yours (Seldin, 1993). Also, this option should give you some sense of personal
control or ownership of the evaluation instrument, which may increase your motivation to
use its results in a constructive fashion.
* Give students the opportunity to suggest questions that they think should be
included on the evaluation form.
You could do this by including a prompt at the end of the evaluation form, such as,
“Suggested Questions for Future Evaluations.” This practice has three major advantages:
(a) It may identify student perspectives and concerns that the evaluation form failed to
address; (b) it shows respect for student input; and (c) it gives students some sense of
control or ownership of the evaluation instrument, which may increase their motivation
and to complete it carefully and thoroughly.
Interpreting the Results of Course-Evaluation Surveys
* To gain a reference point for interpreting the results of students’ course
evaluations of the FYE seminar, compare them with student evaluations of
comparable courses that are taken by new students during their first term in
college.
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To ensure a fair basis of comparison and a valid reference point, compare student
evaluations of the seminar with other courses of comparable class size (e.g., a first-year
course in English composition). There is some evidence that class size can influence
student ratings, with smaller classes tending to receive slightly higher average ratings
than larger classes (Cashin, 1988; Feldman, 1984). Also, depending on whether the
seminar is a required or an elective course, you should compare your evaluations with
other first-term courses that have the same required or elective status. Research suggests
that required courses tend to receive lower student ratings than elective courses
(Braskamp & Ory, 1994; Marsh & Dunkin, 1992).
One college that employed this course-comparison procedure discovered that 75% or
more of their first-year students placed a higher value on the freshman seminar than they
did for any other course in the college’s core curriculum (Marietta College, cited in
Barefoot, 1993).
* Conduct an analysis of students’ written comments.
College instructors frequently report that students’ written comments are more useful
for course-improvement purposes than are numerical ratings (Seldin, 1992). Written
comments made on student surveys may be viewed as a rich resource for qualitative data.
Although these comments may be less conveniently summarized and manipulated
statistically than quantitative data, they have the major advantage of providing poignant,
in-depth information on the course’s strengths and weaknesses.
Historically, course-evaluation surveys and questionnaires have not been considered to
be qualitative research instruments because they generate quantitative data (numerical
ratings). However, written comments made by respondents to clarify their ratings
represent legitimate sources of qualitative data, the content of which may be analyzed and
classified systematically. For example, you can do a “category analysis,” on students’
written comments, in which you identify recurrent themes among the comments as you
read them and organize these comments into response categories (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). You can also tally the number of written comments per category, and use these
category-specific frequency counts to get a sense of their frequency or commonality.
Such blending of both quantitative and qualitative methods in the evaluation of narrative
comments is referred to as “content analysis,” (Holsti, 1969) and it is a practice that has
already been used to assess of first-year seminars (Marymount College in Barefoot,
1993).
To increase your access to students’ written comments, we recommend the following
strategies:
1) Beneath each rating item or question, print the phrase, “Reason(s) for this rating,” and
leave a space for any written remarks that students would like to make with respect to
that particular item.
Written comments often serve to clarify or elucidate numerical ratings, and
instructors frequently report that written comments are most useful for courseimprovement purposes, especially if such comments are specific (Seldin, 1992).
Allowing students to write comments with respect to each individual item, rather than
restricting them to the usual “general comments” section at the very end of the evaluation
form, should increase the interpretability of the numerical rating; it should also increase
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the specificity of students’ written remarks, which, in turn, should increase their
usefulness for course or program improvement. As Jacobi (1991) points out, “The typical
survey consists of a majority of closed-ended items, with limited opportunities for openended responses. This format does not encourage students to explore their attitudes,
feelings, or experiences in depth and therefore may provide incomplete information about
why students think, feel, or behave in a particular manner” (p. 196).
The sheer number of positive or negative written responses students make beneath a
specific item on a rating survey may itself serve as a measure of the intensity of student
feelings about the issue measured by that item. The National Orientation Directors
Association (NODA) suggests that surveys of orientation programs should: “Request
individual written comments and provide space on the evaluation for these remarks.
Participants with strong opinions about certain activities will state them if adequate space
is provided. Summarize written comments in detail [and] consider indicating the number
of times the same negative or positive comments were made” (Mullendore & Abraham,
1992, pp. 39-40).
2) Include an open-ended question at the beginning of the evaluation form that asks for
students’ written comments about the course’s strengths and weaknesses, and how the
latter may be rectified or improved.
Such questions can often provide very useful qualitative information about students’
general reaction to the course as well as general suggestions for course improvement.
Unfortunately, however, such questions are typically listed at the very end of courseevaluation surveys, so in students answer a time when they may be growing tired of
answering questions and getting eager to turn in their evaluations. If these written
comments are requested at the start of the course-evaluation process, it’s likely they
would generate more student comments, and comments that are richer and more detailed.
It might be possible to capitalize on students’ initial energy by crafting a question at
the beginning of the survey that asks for whatever information about the course you think
is most important to obtain. For instance, the first question may ask students to “describe
a major change (if any) in their approach to the college experience that resulted from
their participation in the first-year seminar.” Or, students might be asked: “What would
you have liked to learn about being a successful student that was not addressed in this
course?” Written responses to these questions provided by students in separate class
sections could be aggregated and their content analyzed to identify recurrent patterns or
common themes across course sections.
Course-Embedded Assessment
Another potential source of course-evaluation data be found embedded within work
completed by students during the. For example, student journals used in the seminar may
be reviewed to gain insight into student feelings about the course and their first-term
experience. The one-minute paper also may be an effective and efficient form of courseembedded assessment. For instance, at the end of a class session or learning activity,
students could be simply asked: “What was the most memorable or useful thing you
learned today?” Such focused forms of assessment can provide you with direct and
immediate student feedback on particular course components or experiences that may
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otherwise be masked or “averaged out” when students report their perceptions of the
entire course, well after these specific learning experiences have taken place.
Since course-embedded assessment takes place immediately after or during specific
course work, they tends to be provide more clearly focused feedback particular topics or
units of instruction than do end-of-course evaluations. One college has taken courseembedded assessment to the point where students assess the course on a class-by-class
basis throughout the entire term (Zerger, 1993).
Course-embedded assessments may also provide course-evaluation data that has
greater reliability and validity because the assessment closer in time to when students
actually particular experience course topics, classroom-learning exercises, and course
assignments. Thus, details of these particular learning experiences may be more vivid and
accurately recalled by students. In contrast, the standard, end-of-course evaluation tends
to ask more global questions about general course characteristics that require long-term
memory for experiences that may date back to the beginning of the term.
Student Focus Groups
Simply defined, a focus group is a small (6-12 person) group that meets with a trained
moderator in a relaxed environment to discuss a selected topic or issue; the goal is to
elicit participants’ perceptions, attitudes, and ideas (Bers, 1989). In contrast to surveys or
questionnaires that solicit individual students’ written comments, focus-group interviews
solicit students’ verbal responses in a discussion-group setting. The participants’
responses to questions often turn out to be more elaborate and extensive than written
comments, and they may reveal underlying beliefs or assumptions that are not amenable
to behavioral observation or quantitative evaluation (Reinharz, 1993).
Focus-group interviews with students may be used in conjunction with courseevaluation surveys. For example, they may be used as a follow-up to course-evaluation
surveys in order to gain greater insight into the meaning of the survey’s quantitative
results. Interview questions may be posed to focus groups that ask them to offer their
interpretation or explanation of student ratings given to particular course dimensions and
outcomes. Or, the order can be reversed, whereby you use focus groups first to collect
ideas that may later used to construct specific questions for inclusion on courseevaluation surveys or questionnaires. Such combined use of qualitative and quantitative
methods reinforces the fact that these are complementary rather than contradictory
evaluation methods.
Another, more tacit advantage of focus groups is that they serve to validate students’
personal experiences by sending them the message that someone at the institution is
genuinely interested in their feelings, opinions, and concerns. This advantage of focus
groups is well illustrated by William Perry’s classic interviews with Harvard students, in
which he asked graduating seniors to identify the best features of their educational
experience at the university. To his surprise, the feature most frequently cited by students
as the best feature of their college experience was the interviews he conducted with them
(Wrenn, 1988). Indeed, qualitative researchers have argued that engaging in dialogue
with student participants—particularly those who have been marginalized in some way—
serves to empower them and encourages them to gain control of their experience (Roman
& Apple, 1990).
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Pre-Test/Post-Test Course Evaluation
This pre/post design involves administering evaluation to students on the first day of
class so these responses can be used as a baseline (pre-test) against which their postcourse (post-test) responses can be compared. It allows you to assess the amount of
change in students’ attitudes, reported behaviors, or academic-skill performance between
the onset and completion of the FYE course. For example, this pre-test/post-test design
was used at the University of Colorado (Colorado Springs) to assess the development of
students’ communication skills from beginning to end of the first-year seminar. The
research design includes both student self-assessment of their communication skills and
performance measures of their actual communication skills. Intriguingly, the results
design revealed that underrepresented students who participated in the first-year seminar
reported greater gains in their communication skills via pre- to post-test self-assessments;
however, in terms of actual performance measures, majority students evidenced greater
pre- to post-test gains in communication skills (Tregarthen, Staley, & Staley, 1994).
To ensure that pre- to post-course changes can be attributed to the FYE course in
particular, rather than to personal maturation during the first-term of college in general,
you can compare your students’ pre- and post-course responses with the responses
provided by other first-year students at the beginning and the end of the term who did not
participate in the seminar. For example, the University of South Carolina used this
strategy to assess the impact of the sexuality education component of its seminar. Sexual
awareness surveys were administered to students prior to their participation in the
seminar and these surveys were re-administered upon course completion. The same
surveys were also administered to new students at the beginning of the term, and readministered to them at the end of their first term. Students who participated in the
seminar reported higher rates of abstinence and greater use of condoms at the end of the
course than they did at the start of the course, whereas first-year students who did not
take the seminar reported no decline in either their abstinence rates or condom use from
beginning to end of their first term in college (Turner, et al., 1994).
Retrospective Assessment by Course Alumni
Since many of the goals of the FYE course involve use of transferable skills and
strategies that continue to be relevant to student success after completion of the course
(e.g., effective learning strategies, money and time management, selecting a major and
career), it seems likely that at least some of the information and skills acquired in the
seminar will be applied and perhaps better appreciated by students at later times in their
college experience. It is noteworthy that the only two reported studies of alumni
perspectives on the first-year seminar have both revealed that former students’
retrospective evaluations of the course are very positive (Hartman, et al., 1991;
University of Prince Edward, cited in Barefoot, 1993).
Since the course emphasizes lifelong-learning and life-adjustment skills, it might be
useful to assess how alumni, looking back on the seminar, would respond to the
following questions posed to them (e.g., via phone interviews or alumni surveys): (a) Do
you view the seminar differently now than you did when you were a first-year student?
(b) What aspect of the seminar is most memorable or has had the most long-lasting
impact on you? (c) Do you still use any ideas or skills acquired during the seminar in
your personal life?
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A possible vehicle for collecting the retrospective assessments of course graduates is
through an FYE “class reunion.” One college has used this strategy to reunite first-year
seminar classes during the sophomore and junior years to reflect on the FYE course and
re-establish social networks among former classmates (“CUNY-Baruch College
Capitalizes on Freshman Seminar Reunions,” 1995).
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Section II.
Textbook-Specific Instructional Strategies
Selecting & Organizing the Text’s Content to Fit Your FYE Course
Type, Focus, or Emphasis
The issue of selecting and prioritizing course content is particularly important for FYE
courses because they often carry less than the traditional three units of academic credit.
Furthermore, there is a tendency for FYE courses to become the “spare room” in the
college curriculum, i.e., the place where it is expected that any and all emerging campus
concerns or new-student issues are to be addressed (Barefoot, 1998). Thus, decisions
about what content to include in the FYE course should include careful examination and
prioritization of course topics to prevent the course from losing its focus or purpose and
succumbing to the temptation to cover “all things for all people.”
Final decisions about the nature and number of topics covered in the FYE seminar, and
their relative degree of emphasis, should in large part be governed by the particular
characteristics and special needs of your institution’s first-year class. Listed below are
some strategies for tailoring the textbook’s content to the specialized needs of your
students and the particular focus of your course.
Course Focus on Basic Academic-Success Skills & Strategies
- Chapter 1. Touching All the Bases
- Chapter 4. Sections on Lectures, Reading, & Studying (pp. 115-139)
- Chapter 5. Improving Memory and Test Performance
- Chapter 10. Section on Time Management (pp. 320-332)
- Epilogue: Thriving in College and Beyond—A Matter of Principles and Character
Course Focus on Advanced Academic and Cognitive Skills
- Chapter 2. The Value of Liberal Arts and General Education
- Chapter 4. Sections on Brain-Based Learning and Deep Learning (pp. 106-114)
- Chapter 6. Higher-Level Thinking
- Chapter 7. Three Key Academic Skills: Research, Writing, and Speaking
- Chapter 8. Diversity
- Epilogue. Section on Personal Character (pp. 458-462)
Course Focus on Educational & Career Planning
- Chapter 2. The Value of Liberal Arts and General Education
- Chapter 3. Educational Planning and Decision-Making
- Chapter 9. Finding a Path to Your Future Profession
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Course Focus on Psychosocial Adjustment, Personal Development, &
Wellness
- Chapter 8. Sections on Advantages of Experiencing Diversity (pp. 258-262) &
Strategies for Making the Most of Diversity (pp. 269-278)
- Chapter 10. Life-Management Skills: Managing Time and Managing Money
- Chapter 11. Interpersonal Relationships
- Chapter 12. Health & Wellness: The Physical Dimension
- Chapter 13. Health & Wellness: Mental & Spiritual Dimensions
- Epilogue: Section on Personal Character (pp. 458-462)
* Note: If class time still is available after covering chapters most relevant to your
course focus, consider allowing students to select remaining chapters they would like
to cover. Student teams could present their selected chapters, or sections thereof, to
their classmates as a group project.
Selecting & Organizing the Book’s Content with a Focus on
Practical Application of College-Success Strategies
Chapter 1.
- Total chapter
Chapter 2.
- Box 2.1: Exercising Personal Freedom Responsibly (pp. 39-40)
- Box 2.2: Working Independently Outside the Classroom (p. 58)
Chapter 3.
- Strategies for Discovering a Compatible Major (pp. 91-96)
- Box 3.2: Top-Ten Suggestions for Making the Most of Your College Electives (p. 93)
Chapter 4.
- Box 4.4: Adjusting Your Academic Work to Your Biological Rhythms (p. 134)
- Lecture Listening & Note-Taking Tips (pp. 115-121)
Chapter 5.
- Memory & Learning (pp. 146-155)
- Test-Taking Strategies (pp. 155-172)
Chapter 6.
- Strategies for Developing and Applying Higher-Level Thinking Skills to Improve
Academic Performance (pp.199-207)
Chapter 7.
- Total chapter
Chapter 8.
- Strategies for Making the Most of Diversity (pp. 269-278)
Chapter 9.
- Total chapter
Chapter 10.
- Total chapter
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Chapter 11.
- All sections except Dating and Romantic Relations (pp. 372-376)
Chapter 12.
- Nutritional Management Strategies (pp. 392-397)
- Developing a Fitness Plan (pp. 401-404)
- Strategies for Improving Sleep Quality (pp. 407-410)
- Strategies for Minimizing or Eliminating the Negative Effects of Alcohol, Dugs, and
Risky Behavior (pp. 417-420)
Chapter 13.
- Research-Based Techniques for Stress Management (pp. 431-434)
- Strategies for Coping with Depression (pp. 435-438)
- Strategies for Replacing Negative Thinking with Positive Thinking (pp. 441-443)
- Strategies for Developing and Promoting the Spiritual Dimension of Wellness (pp. 446448).
Covering Selected Textbook Content in Ways Other than
Traditional Reading Assignments
* Cover some chapters (or sections thereof) in class via mini lectures or short
instructional presentations, rather than assigning them as required reading.
For instance, if you think that some chapters are useful but too demanding for your
students, consider rephrasing or simplifying content and presenting it yourself during
class time.
* Allow different groups of students to select different chapters, or chapter sections,
and have them present that information to the entire class.
This could be done in a variety of ways, such as the following:
- Have student teams (e.g. pairs, triads, or quartets) create tip sheets, checklists, or ads
for information contained in the assigned reading. The checklist at the end of the
first chapter could be used as a model for this assignment, or you could present a
model in class to illustrate this type of presentation, then let student teams take over
that role for subsequent presentations.
- Use the “jigsaw” format for team learning, whereby students in learning teams read
different chapters or chapter sections as members of “expert” groups, then they
reconvene in their “home team” to integrate the information they gathered
individually while working in their different expert groups.
- Hold a class review session for an upcoming exam, whereby student groups present
key ideas from the text, which you then include on course exams.
- Require a culminating group project in which student teams make presentations on
different chapters in the text. Students could also be asked to use the web resources
cited at the end of the chapter to locate additional information for inclusion in their
team presentations. This practice would encourage students to go beyond the textbook
and engage in some independent research.
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Since final decisions about the nature and number of course topics covered in the FYE
seminar should be influenced by student needs, it is reasonable to allow students to play a
role in helping you determine what course topics will be covered.
Selecting Textbook Content by Supplying Students with
Specific Learning Objectives as Reading Guides
The textbook may also be used selectively by providing students with specific reading
objectives (intended learning outcomes) that guide or direct them to read those portions
of the text that are most relevant to your course goals.
Strategies for Increasing the Likelihood that Students will
Read the Textbook
While college students do need to accept the challenge of independent reading, firstterm college students also need support for meeting this challenge, because they may
have neither engaged in, nor been held accountable for independent reading in high
school. To support students’ capacity for independent reading and to maximize the
instructional impact of the text, the following three key practices are recommended
1. Set a tone for reading by sending an early message that regular reading is clearly
expected.
2. Integrate textbook reading with classroom learning by bringing the text to class,
referring to it in class, and having students use it in class.
3. Hold students accountable for their reading by creating clear connections between
textbook reading and course grades.
What follows is a detailed discussion of each of these three key strategies for encouraging
students to read the textbook.
Setting a Tone for Reading by Sending an Early Message to Students that
Regular Reading is Clearly Expected
* Include an explicit statement in the course syllabus about why you chose the text
and why you think that reading it is critical for student success in the course, in
college, and in life beyond college.
It’s noteworthy that one major characteristic of courses in which students do not
complete assigned reading is failure of the instructor to explain or justify why reading is
required in the course syllabus (Gruner, 1997). The Preface to the text provides a
convenient summary of the text’s plan, purpose, core content areas, and key studentsuccess features, which may be rephrases slightly or restated directly in your course
syllabus.
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* On the first day of class, make a statement in person to reinforce the statement
you made in print (in the syllabus) about your reasons for adopting the text.
* Assign a short reading on the first day of class to be completed before the next class
meeting.
This practice should serve to help establish early development of good reading habits;
it should also help prevent students from beginning to develop the bad habit of
procrastination.
Integrating Textbook Reading with Classroom Learning by Having Students
Bring the Text to Class, Refer to the Text in Class, and Use the Text in Class
* When conducting a class session before a reading assignment is due, remind
students of the assignment, reinforce its importance, and preview its highlights
to pique student interest and curiosity.
Studies suggest that students do not understand why college instructors place such
great emphasis on independent reading, so they are likely to be curious about learning
why instructors have assigned a particular reading, or why it is important or pertinent to
the goals of the course (Hobson, 2004). While the traditional practice of having all
reading assignments laid out in advance in the course syllabus may be a good way to
provide students with an advanced overview of the reading workload for the entire term,
research indicates that if these assignments are merely listed in the syllabus and not
expressly articulated (or reiterated) near the date when they are to be completed, students
are less likely to do the assigned reading (Davis, 1993; Lowman, 1995; Marshall, 1974).
* When covering specific points in class or introducing classroom activities,
explicitly indicate how and where they relate to concepts covered in the text.
* If there is particular material in the text that is especially important for your
students to master, turn the chapter headings or subheadings into questions, and
use them as class discussion questions or key lecture points.
* Integrate the text’s learning features into your teaching by using them as teaching
tools.
For example, the following features of the text may be used as focal points or visual
prompts to capture student attention and stimulate their engagement with the day’s
topic:
- Relevant classic quotes
- Insightful student perspectives
- Provocative passages
- Poignant pictures of images
- Content-relevant cartoons
- Pertinent concept maps.
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These textbook features can serve as evocative stimuli to captivate attention, generate
interest, and elicit involvement. They may be used at the start of class or a new unit of
instruction to create a sense of positive anticipation (“anticipatory set”) that builds
student curiosity and positive expectation with respect to the upcoming material. For
example, a projected cartoon that is visible to students as they mill into the classroom can
create a positive first impression of the class lesson, as well as induce a jovial mood and
some sense of anticipatory interest. More importantly, these text-derived prompts remind
and reinforce the idea that there is a clear connection between textbook reading and
classroom learning.
* In class, ask students non-threatening, open-ended questions about the assigned
reading; for example: “What ideas in the chapter really ‘hit home’?” What
sections of the reading do you think were most interesting, useful, or worthy of
additional discussion?
It may be better to call on individual students by name to answer these questions
because a personal request provides a more powerful individual incentive for students to
do the reading, and it may also help promote the involvement of students who may be too
reticent to volunteer responses on their own. If a good base of rapport is established with
the class early in the term, students should not feel “picked on” or threatened by
answering open-ended questions about their assigned reading. Occasionally posing
questions to individual students serves to transform instructor-posed questions from
anonymous queries delivered to no one in particular and converts them into personal
invitations addressed to unique individuals. Furthermore, if you rely exclusively on
student volunteers to discuss readings, it may unintentionally reinforces students for not
doing the reading because these non-readers can repeatedly sit back and not answer
questions or participate in class discussions.
* Use a portion of class time as reading time.
For example, you could:
(a) Preview the chapter with the class and point out any terminology that you think
your students may not be familiar with, or that may not match the language used on your
campus (e.g., your academic support center or the academic divisions of your general
education program may go by different names than those used in the text). When the
instructor does some talking about the assigned reading before students embark on the
reading , it serves to provide them with an orientation to the reading. It also provides a
welcome change of pace from the usual routine of leaving new students entirely to their
own devices to do the reading before it’s discussed in class, then expecting them to
effectively transfer whatever knowledge may have acquired from the reading and apply it
to class discussions.
(b) Ask students to survey the topics and subtopics to be covered in reading
assignments and have them share their prior knowledge about the topics (or what they
think they already know), their prior experiences with the topics, or their attitudes and
feelings about the topics. This strategy should also help students develop the effective
reading habit of previewing the chapter’s organization before beginning to read its
content.
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(c) If there are sections of an assigned chapter that you think contains particularly
important or high-priority information for your students, devote several minutes of class
time to allow them to begin reading that section. Students could also be asked to do some
writing in response to this high-priority reading. (Any of the reading-to-write assignments
discussed on pp. 75-66 could be used for this purpose.)
(d) During class discussions and small-group work, explicitly point out to your
students that they should borrow from and build on ideas found in the book.
Holding Students Accountable for Reading by Creating Clear Connections
between Textbook Reading and Course Grades
College exams have been found to rarely include test questions based primarily or solely
on assigned reading (Flippo & Caverly, 1991), and increasing numbers of college
students are not buying required course textbooks (Gilbert, 1996). The latter finding is
related to the former finding—i.e., since students are rarely or never tested exclusively on
text material, they can still get a good grade without having to purchase (or read) the text.
This strongly suggests that students need to be held accountable for independent
reading; they should not expect information contained in assigned reading to be covered
for them in class. As Maryellen Weimer (1989) exhorts, “Give students reasons to read.
This means do more in class than repeat what’s in the book. If everything that’s in the
book gets repeated in class, that makes the reading boring if you come to class, and the
class boring if you’ve done the reading. It’s a no-win proposition” (p. 1).
While college students do need to be challenged to read independently, new college
students also need support for meeting this challenge because they may have neither
engaged in, nor been held accountable for, independent reading of textbooks in high
school. The following strategies may be used to ensure that this lack of student
accountability for reading doesn’t become a characteristic of your FYE course.
* Explicitly articulate in your course syllabus and on the first day of class that class
participation counts toward students’ course grades and that participation doesn’t
mean simply “speaking up” or “winging it” in class.
Instead, point out that meaningful class participation means informed speaking that
incorporates information obtained from the assigned reading. Also, meaningful class
participation can also include disagreeing or challenging ideas presented in the textbook.
* Supply students with specific reading objectives or intended reading outcomes
related to the assigned reading, and hold students responsible for responding to
these objectives (e.g., by devising test questions that are tied directly to the
objectives or intended outcomes).
One characteristic of courses in which there are low rates of reading compliance is
little connection between student reading and course grades, and little distinction made
between information in assigned reading that is central or essential, versus information
that is peripheral or incidental (Hobson, 2004). Providing students with reading guides
comprised of specific reading objectives (intended reading outcomes) serves to clearly
indicate to students what ideas in their assigned reading should be most closely attended
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to and retained, and it differentiates central ideas (the “figure”) from supporting
information (the “background”).
Students should not read with the idea of trying to cove everything in the text; instead,
they should read to uncover those things in the text that are most important for them to
know and understand. Reading objectives represent a highly effective way to help
students uncover those ideas in the text that you feel are most critical for their success at
your college or university. Research indicates that when students are given specific
learning objectives before they process information, they display more intentional
learning than do students who do not receive learning objectives (Bligh, 2000). There is
also a solid body of empirical evidence demonstrating that when students are provided
with specific reading objectives or questions to help guide their reading, their retention
and comprehension of reading material read is significantly enhanced—compared to
students who read the same material without them (Anderson & Pearson, 1984; Pressley
et al., 1988; Winograd & Hare, 1988). This advantage is particularly true when course
readings are clearly connected to tests and graded assignments (Bischoping, 2003).
Providing new students with reading objectives also helps them learn what they are
supposed to learn, helps reduce their anxiety about not being able to “figure out” what
their instructor wants them to learn, and helps alleviate their fear of studying the “wrong
things.” As Maryellen Weimer (1989) warns us, “If students must read, expect them to
complain. They don't like to be held responsible for content in the book not covered in
class [because] they don’t think they’ll be able to figure out what the professor considers
important” (p. 1). Providing students with specific reading objectives is one way to
minimize the frequency and intensity of these student complaints.
Lastly, providing specific reading objectives or intended reading outcomes serves to
help students self-monitor their learning; if students are able to answer the questions
related to the reading objectives, then they know they’re extracting and understanding the
most important concepts from the reading and are learning what they are expected to
learn. (Specific reading objectives relating to each chapter of the text, and test items
directly linked with these reading objectives, are provided in this manual.)
* Use “reading-to-write” assignments that require students to write about specific
information or ideas contained in the reading, such as the following:
- One-minute papers: for example, at the start of class, students could be asked to provide
a written response to a question relating to some concept contained in the assigned
reading that should have been read prior to that class session. If students are given these
one-minute papers periodically throughout the term and receive points for accurately
completing them that count toward their course grade, these one-minute papers could
serve as “pop quizzes.” As such, they would provide students with an incentive to
complete their assigned reading on a regular basis and to come to class prepared to
engage in class discussions based on their assigned reading.
- Prompted Freewriting: for example, your students could respond to prompt you pose
about the assigned reading by completing “seed sentences,” such as: “The examples cited
in the reading that I could most relate to were . . .” “I can apply ideas contained in the
reading to . . . .”
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- Reading Journals: for example, after reading each textbook chapter, have your students
record their immediate thoughts and feelings about what they have read.
- Reading Paraphrases: for example, ask your students to summarize key points in an
assigned reading on one side of an index card, which can be submitted to you at the start
of class, or be kept by students and used during for group discussions and then submitted
to you the end of class—after students add ideas obtained from the discussion on the
reverse side of the card. You may return these index cards to students so they can use
them to prepare for upcoming quizzes or exams.
- Word Journals: ask your students to write a single word that best summarizes the
message contained in an assigned reading, and then elaborate on that word by writing a
paragraph explaining why it was chosen.
- “Idea Synthesis” Sheets: have your students construct written summaries or concept
maps that encapsulate the most important ideas contained in the assigned reading.
- “Tip” Sheets: students use information in the assigned reading to construct a list of
practical strategies or action plans.
- “Focused Dialectical Notes” (Cross & Angelo, 1988): students engage in a running
dialogue with the text by recording notes on the left half of a divided sheet of notepaper,
and use the right half to record their responses or reactions to their reading notes (e.g.,
their agreements, disagreements, or questions).
- Case-Based Writing: for example, students could be asked to apply chapter information,
(in writing) to the case studies described at the end of the chapters. Students might also
be asked to indicate the specific section or page number in the chapter where they found
information to apply to the case. Students could then use their individually written
responses to the case to prepare for group discussion of the case in class.
- Reading Critiques: students play the role of a literary critic by writing a critique of what
they’ve read, using a set of specified criteria to evaluate their assigned reading, such as:
(a) its degree of interest or usefulness, (b) its major strengths/weaknesses, and (c) its
accuracy or comprehensiveness (e.g., what important topics were omitted or should have
been discussed more extensively). Such critiques could help students develop the
effective learning habit of engaging in meta-cognition while reading. Students could also
be given a relevant “audience” to write their critiques for, by instructing them to write
their critiques as if they were communicating to the authors of the textbook. In addition to
having students submit their critiques to you (the instructor) for credit toward their course
grade, students could also submit their critiques to a “real audience”—the authors of the
text—who could this information as feedback to improve the quality of the textbook.
(Student critiques may be sent electronically to the following website, which is also cited
at the end of the textbook: www.kendallhunt.com/cuseo)
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Using Specific Reading Objectives to Guide Student Reading and
to Serve as a Study Guide for Reading-Based Quizzes or Exams
For each chapter of the text, specific reading objectives are provided to help guide
student reading and serve as study guides for exams. You do not have to assign all the
reading objectives for each chapter, particularly if your course only carries one unit of
credit, in which case you can select a portion of the objectives and use them to direct your
students to the particular information in the chapters that you would like them to focus on
and know well. Each reading objective indicates the page(s) on which information
relating to that objective can be found. You can give your students the objectives with the
page numbers listed, or you can simply supply them with the objectives without
providing the page numbers. The advantage of withholding the page numbers for each
reading objective is that it will increase the likelihood that students will read the entire
chapter, and not just go directly to the page numbers by each objective to find
information related to that objective. However, if you feel that your students’ level of
reading preparedness is low and they may feel overwhelmed by the amount of
information in the chapter, it may be better to provide students with the page numbers
that contain information related to each reading objective.
Either way, the specific reading objectives help students focus on (a) what you expect
them to know (key information and concepts), and (b) how you expect them to show that
they know it (produce it on an essay or select it on a multiple-choice or true-false
question). Thus, the specific reading objectives provided for each chapter of the text alert
students not only what reading content will be tested; they also alert students to what
testing method will be used to assess their knowledge of that content—i.e., written essays
(requiring recall memory) or multiple-choice/true-false questions (requiring recognition
memory).
See Appendix G for a more detailed rationale and research support for the educational
value of specific reading objectives. See Exhibit 9 for directions to students on how to use
the reading objectives as study guides for course exams based on their assigned reading.
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CHAPTER-SPECIFIC TEACHING STRATEGIES
Teaching the Introduction:
Welcome to College
Key Instructional Goals of the Introduction
The key goals or purposes of the Introduction are to:
(1) excite students about college by laying out it multiple economic and non-economic
advantages;
(2) excite students about the first-year seminar or student-success course, and motivate
them to take full advantage of it.
Exercises for the Introduction
Analyzing & Prioritizing the Benefits of College (In-Class Exercise)
Steps:
1. Give your students some in-class reading time to review the economic and personal
benefits of a college education listed on pp. xxvii-xxix.
2. Have students rank the eight major benefits of a college education in terms of their
importance to them (1 = most important, 8 = least important).
3. Have students reflect on their rankings and write a short statement (1-2 paragraphs)
about what they think the results of their rankings say about their values and priorities are
for college and life beyond college.
Future-Life Scenarios (Take-Home Assignment)
1. Best-Case Scenario
Ask your students to read the benefits of a college education (pp. xxvii-xxix) and write
a short paper in which they project themselves into the future and imagine what type of
life they would be enjoying as college graduates. Ask your students to include aspects of
their life that relate to each of the eight categories of college benefits identified in the
text.
2. Worst-Case Scenario
Identical directions as the above previous assignment, but students are asked to
imagine what their life might be like if they did not complete their college education and
attain a college degree.
Alumni Success Stories
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Ask graduates from your campus to visit your class and describe how they have
benefited from their college experience, both professionally and personally. If you do not
know any alums, ask your Alumni Relations Office for recommendations.
Reviewing the College/University Mission Statement (In-Class Exercise)
Steps:
1. Distribute copies of your College/University Catalog or Bulletin.
2. Ask your class to find the Mission Statement.
3. Have your students write a reflection statement or short paper in response to the
following question: “What does the mission statement mean to or for me?”
Here are some illustrative comments made by students who engaged in this exercise:
“It means that I have a great opportunity.”
“It means that all the resources I need to survive in life are offered but it is up to me to
take advantage of them.”
“It means that if I play my cards right and keep myself on track, I will be able to follow
my dreams because that’s what (name of college) is here to help us to do.”
(Courtesy of Dr. Ariane Schauer, Marymount College, California).
The previous exercise may also be adapted to educate students about the diversity of
higher educational missions in higher education, depending on the institution’s type (e.g.,
research intensive university, comprehensive state university, liberal arts college,
community college). This might the be time to articulate the distinctive advantages of
attending your type of college or university so that students can immediately begin to
capitalize on its advantages (e.g., the multitude of resources available to students at a
large university; the accessibility to professors that students have at a small liberal arts
college; the strong emphasis on teaching and learning at a community college).
Building Student Motivation for the First-Year Seminar or Student Success Course
It’s likely that this course will be unlike any or all other course students have ever taken
because it does not cover traditional subject matter and because it’s likely to use more
active more forms of pedagogy. For these reasons, some students will be skeptical about
the nature of the course and why they should take it. To help combat this skepticism,
consider the following strategies.
* Share comments made by former students on their end-of-course evaluations that serve
as testimony to the course’s value. Also, in the spirit of complete candor, consider
sharing comments by students who did not see the course’s value and point out why their
comments may represent misperceptions.
* Invite former students to class who you know enjoyed the course and profited
from the course experience (e.g., a course alumni panel). Also, consider asking one of
these students to serve as peer teaching assistant, co-facilitator, or as occasional
guest panelist.
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* To anticipate and combat student complaints that the course is covering material that is
“simple,” “obvious,” or just “common sense,” consider giving students a pre-test during
the first week of class on concepts to be discussed in the course. Score (but do not grade)
the pre-test to demonstrate to students that they do not already know everything (or even
most things) that will be explored in the course.
The text’s glossary and dictionary of college vocabulary (pp. 497-501) may be used to
quickly construct a pre-test. You might add campus-specific terminology to the pre-test,
and when later providing students with an answer key for the test, they can add campusspecific terms to the text’s dictionary.
You might also consider giving students a post-test at the end of the course that
includes terms that were included on the pre-test. You would then have a pre- to postcourse measure of students’ knowledge gain between course onset and completion, which
may serve as a vehicle for value-added assessment.
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Introduction
Reading Objectives
I.1 Recognize the percentage of Americans that have earned a college (baccalaureate)
degree. (p. xxvii)
I.2 Recall one way in which research has shown that college graduates experience
benefits in each of the following areas:
(a) career development
(b) intellectual skills
(c) physical health
(d) social development
(e) emotional development
(f) citizenship
(g) their children’s development.
(pp. xxvii-xxix)
I.3. Recall two reasons why the first year of college is the most critical stage of the
college experience. (p. xxix)
Introduction
Test Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Approximately 50% (one-half) of Americans have earned a college (baccalaureate)
degree.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: I.1][Answer: (b); p. xxvii]
2. When college graduates are compared with individuals from similar social and
economic backgrounds who have not continued their education beyond high school,
the results indicate that college is well worth the investment. College graduates have
been found to experience multiple advantages, which include the following:
(a) career development
(b) intellectual skills
(c) physical health
(d) social development
(e) emotional development
(f) citizenship
(g) their children’s development.
Briefly describe one way in which college graduates experience benefits in each of the
above areas or aspects of personal development.
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[Reading objective: I.2] [Answer: pp. xxvii-xxix]
3. Research indicates that the first year of college is the most critical stage of the college
experience. Provide two reasons or explanations why the first year is the most
important year in the college experience.
[Reading objective: I.3][Answer: p. xxix]
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Teaching Chapter 1.
Touching all the Bases:
An Overview & Preview of the Most Powerful Principles of College Success
This chapter is designed to equip students with “Big Picture” principles of college
success—before they begin to delve into all the specific strategies contained within the
more narrowly focused, topic-specific chapters.
The key goals of this chapter are to:
1. Identify the overarching principles of student success—the recurrent themes that
underlie the effective strategies recommended throughout the book.
2. Clarify the roles and expectations of college students.
3. Layout all the key student-support resources within the college environment, and point
out why they are important for promoting students’ academic and personal success.
Research on schools that are especially effective in engaging students in the college
experience has demonstrated that these schools: (1) teach students what successful
students do and how to take advantage of institutional resources for learning, and (2)
make sure that resources are available to all their students (Kuh, 2006).
Class Discussion Questions Relevant to Chapter 1
The following questions should stimulate class discussion of issues that are relevant to
the goals of this chapter:
1. What is success?
(a) What do you think it means to be successful in college? In life?
(b) What do you think are the specific qualities or characteristics of successful
college students? Of successful human beings?
Student responses to these questions are likely to coincide with and reinforce the four
core principles of success outlined in chapter 1, namely, successful students and
successful people in general are:
(a) active—they take charge and get involved,
(b) resourceful—they capitalize on their surrounding resources,
(c) interactive—they interact and collaborate with others, and
(d) reflective—they are self-aware; they “watch themselves” to monitor whether they are
doing what it takes to be successful.
2. How will Academic Life in College be Different than High School?
(a) How much time do students spend in class?
(b) What are students expected to do in class?
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(c) What are students expected to do outside of class?
(d) How much time are students expected to spend on schoolwork outside of class?
(e) What are the faculty’s roles and expectations?
(f) Can you think of any other ways that academic life in college may differ from high
school?
Student discussion of these questions can take place as a large group (whole class), in
small “buzz groups,” or in any of the following collaborative learning formats.
“Pairs Compare”
1. Students pair-up to generate ideas.
2. Each pair of students joins another pair to compare the ideas they have in common and
the ideas that are unique to each pair. (Kagan, 1992)
“Think-Pair-Share “
1. Give students a specified period of time in class to think individually about the
question that has been presented to them.
2. Students pair-up with a neighboring student to discuss their thoughts, listening
carefully to their partner’s ideas so that they can jointly construct a composite response
that builds on their individual thoughts.
3. Students then share their pair’s thoughts with the whole class (Lyman, in Kagan,
1992).
“Think-Pair-Square”
1. Students first think alone about a question or issue.
2. Students pair-up with a nearby student to discuss their thoughts.
3. Two pairs join together to form a “square” (4-member team) to discuss or integrate
their ideas. (Kagan, 1992)
Key Points for Instructors to Cover in Class
The Power of the College Environment: Support Programs and Support Professionals
It is unlikely that college students will ever be a member of any another institution or
organization with so many resources and services at their disposal that have been
intentionally designed to promote their educational, personal, and professional success.
The specific names or descriptions of these resources services are likely to vary from
campus to campus. Consequently, teaching this component of chapter 1 may require
some translation of the book’s campus support-service terminology into language that is
used on your particular campus (e.g., Do you use the term Learning Center, Academic
Support Center, or Academic Success Center?)
A potential silver lining in this cloud of terminological variation is that it may provide
a naturally venue for asking student to bring their College Catalog (Bulletin) and/or
Student Handbook to class to become familiar with the names and functions of specific
services provided by key offices on your campus. Introducing students to the catalog or
handbook in the FYE course may provide the initial stimulus needed to launch students
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into the habit of using these print resources throughout their college experience. If your
College Catalogue and/or Student Handbook is provided to students in electronic rather
than print form, students could familiarize themselves with campus resources described
online by means of an out-of class assignment (such as the one described at the end of
chapter 1.)
In addition to introducing students to support services in print, they should be
introduced in person—to the actual people who provide these services. The FYE course
has the capacity to serve as a linchpin that connects new students with key studentsupport agents on campus, and by so doing, promotes their social integration into the
college community. These interpersonal connections may be established by bringing
support agents to your students by inviting them to class—as guest speakers, or by
having your students visit support agents in their offices—via course assignments.
Inviting service representatives to your classroom, either individually as guest speakers
or collectively as members of a guest panel, will enable your students to learn the faces
associated with different support services. If your class is small enough, you may also
bring your class to the support-service sites, thereby introducing them not only to the
faces but also to the places where the services are provided. These classroom-based or
office-based visits allow the first-year seminar to serve as curricular vehicle for
proactively and intrusively connecting students with student-support agents that play a
pivotal role in promoting student success.
Here are some specific recommendations for making these connections via the FYE
course:
* If you invite resource representatives to class as guest speakers or as members of a
presentation panel, have your students construct questions for these resource
representatives prior to their visit and submit these questions to the guest speakers prior
to their visit. Students could be asked to pose their questions to guest speakers when they
come to class Also, to encourage subsequent interaction between individual students and
the visiting resource professional, have a sign-up sheet available to students so that they
may immediately schedule an appointment.
* Students may be given an assignment to interview any of the following support-service
professionals outside the classroom:
- Academic advisor—e.g., to develop a tentative, long-range educational plan
- Learning assistance (learning resource) professional—e.g., to assess learning styles
- Technology service/assistance professional
- Career counselor
- Personal counselor
- Student Activities professional
- Health Service professional
- Campus minister
- Service-learning professional
- Financial aid counselor.
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You could assign different students to interview different support-services
representatives, either individually or in small groups (2-4 students). The support service
assigned to each group of students could be based on surveys of student interest in
particular services, or students’ self-reported need for that service. If time allows,
students could report the information they obtained from their separate visits to the entire
class. The reporting students may be encouraged to use different presentation formats to
report on the service area they visited, such as panel reports, print ads, websites, or
promotional videos.
Caveats:
- When discussing the importance of utilizing campus services, special attention should
be paid to commuter students because they often have the least out-of-class time available
to take advantage of campus resources. (Commuters have been referred to as “PCPs”—
Parking lot, Campus, Parking Lot”—an acronym coined to summarize how little time
they spend on campus outside of class time.) To help address this issue, small groups of
commuter students could join together to brainstorm strategies on how they still might be
able to still capitalize on campus resources, despite the fact that they spend less time on
campus than residential students.
- If you don’t have sufficient class time available to you at the onset of the term to
introduce the full range of support services available on your campus, it may be best to
concentrate on connecting students with services that are designed to promote their
social integration with other members of the college community. Research suggests that a
sense of belongingness and feeling socially accepted are important needs for new college
students; these needs typically precede their concerns about academic performance and
educational planning. (In other words, the lower levels of Maslow’s need hierarchy are
likely to take precedence over self-actualization at this early point in the students’ college
experience.) Thus, it might be best to “front-load” support services relating to student
activities and organizations, wellness, and personal counseling at the start of the course.
Academic-Success Strategies Recommended for Discussion
Two academic behaviors that college students are expected to perform from the very start
of their first term in college are taking notes on class lectures and completing assigned
readings. Thus, it is important to get students get in the early habit of doing both of these
academic tasks. Described below are some in-class exercises that might be used to help
students develop effective early habits with respect to each of these important academic
tasks.
Note-Taking Exercises
These exercises are designed to promote student self-awareness about the importance of
note-taking in class, and to demonstrate to students how forming note-taking teams can
confirm whether or not they are taking accurate and complete notes in class.
Open-Notes Pop Quiz
Steps:
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1. Make the point that students should be taking notes in your class.
2. At some point during class, suddenly stop speaking, and ask students take an opennotes quiz on some information that you expected them to record in their notes.
3. Don’t count this as a “pop quiz” but use it to make the point that notes should be
taken, and if the notes are not there, they cannot be studied later to prepare for major
exams; in other words, you can’t learn what you don’t have.
Rewarding Students’ Lecture Notes with Bonus Points
Steps:
1. At the start of a class, announce that you’re going to collect students’ notes at the end
of class and award them a point for every point they record in their notes that’s related to
information you’ve presented in class.
2. At the start of the next class session, return student notes and the points they’ve been
awarded, and have them compare their notes on the day when you awarded them points
for good note-taking versus the notes they took on other days.
3. Typically, students will notice that the quality of their notes is much better on the day
they were informed that points would be awarded for good note-taking. This should serve
to make the point that students are capable of taking better notes in class if they would
adopt the mindset that good notes results in more points—on course exams—because the
majority of college instructors’ exam questions come from information contained in their
lecture notes that they expect students to be transferring to their class notes.
Comparing Individual Notes versus Team Notes
Steps:
1. At the start of a class session, have students review the class notes they recorded from
the previous class session.
2. Students team-up in small groups to pool the information they recorded individually.
3. Have students compare their individual notes with their team (pooled) notes. The
discrepancy between their individual notes and their team’s collective notes allows
students to discover first-hand how the power of peer collaboration and teamwork can be
used to improve the quality of class notes.
.
Rotating & Aggregating Notes
Steps:
1. Working individually, students review and neatly recopy their lecture notes.
2. Students form three-member teams.
3. Each student retains his or her original set of notes and passes along the recopied set to
a teammate on the left while receiving a recopied set of notes from a teammate on the
right.
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4. The receiving student quickly writes down any information from the sender’s notes
that are not already recorded in his or her own notes. This note-passing process is
repeated for three more rotations, by which time each team member will have reviewed
the notes of all three teammates and received back his/her own set of recopied notes.
5. Each student is asked to incorporate all the new information acquired from the notes of
teammates that was missing from his/her own original set of notes.
Reading Exercises
The point of the following exercises is to promote student self-awareness about the
importance of identifying important concepts in the reading and to demonstrate to
students how forming reading teams may be an effective strategy to confirm whether they
are extracting the most important ideas from assigned reading.
Students Compare Their Reading Notes with Instructor’s Reading Notes
Steps:
1. Assign a chapter section for students to read for the next class session.
2. At the beginning of the class session that the reading was due, project on a screen the
highlights and notes you took on the assigned and ask students to compare it with
yours.
Student Teams Compare Reading Highlights
Steps:
1. Assign a chapter section for students to read before the next class session.
2. Have students work in pairs and compare whether their highlighted and made notes on
similar ideas contained in the reading.
Note: Students might also be provided with some of the reading objectives designed for
chapter 1 and then given the assignment to read and answer those objectives for the next
class. Then, working in pairs or small groups, they could check to compare their
responses to the reading objectives for accuracy and completeness.
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Chapter 1
Reading Objectives
Here is a menu of possible reading objectives for chapter 1 that you can provide students
in advance of reading the chapter. You don’t have to hold your students responsible for
all of these objectives. Instead, select only those objectives that you think are most
important for your students to know, and make these objectives available to them in the
form of a class handout or post them on your course website for students to download.
1.1 Recall the two key components or processes that indicate a student is actively
involved in learning. (p. 2)
1.2 Recall three actions you can take to ensure that you are investing a high level of
involvement and energy in the learning process. (p. 3)
1.3 Recognize what research has revealed about the relationship between class
attendance and course grades. (p. 3)
1.4 Recognize what research shows about the relationship between the number of hours
per week that students spend on academic work outside of class and the likelihood of
earning grades of “A” or “C” and lower. (pp. 3-4)
1.5 Recognize research findings on the relationship between college grades and career
success. (p. 4)
1.6 Recognize the source of the majority of test questions on college exams (i.e., where
answers to most college test questions can be found). (p. 5)
1.7. Recognize top strategies for “getting in the right position” to listen and take notes
most effectively in the college classroom. (p. 6)
1.8 Recognize top strategies for improving textbook reading comprehension and
retention. (p. 8)
1.9 Recognize the relationship between student use of academic support services and
college success. (p. 9)
1.10 Recognize whether the majority of students make final decisions about their college
major before starting college or during their college experience. (p. 10)
1.11 Recall three ways in which your Career Development Center can help you discover
and prepare for a future career. (p. 11)
1.12 Recognize the most common reason why students withdraw from college.
1.13 Recall two major ways in which first-year students can get involved in experiential
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learning outside the classroom. (p. 13)
1.14 Recall the meaning of the term “co-curricular.” (p.13)
1.15 Recognize what research has revealed about the relationship between students’ cocurricular involvement during college and their performance in management or
leadership positions after college. (p. 13)
1.16 Recall the two types of campus clubs or organizations that are likely to have the
most positive impact on students’ educational and career development, and are most
valued by employers of college graduates. (p. 13)
1.17 Recall two ways in which participation in volunteer experiences can promote your
career development. (p. 14)
1.18 Recognize what research indicates is the maximum number of hours per week that
students should spend on co-curricular activities, volunteer experiences, or part-time
work, and still have enough time to study and maintain good grades. (p. 14)
1.19 Recall what scholars mean when they say, “Human knowledge is socially
constructed,” and recall how you can capitalize on this process to increase the
quantity and quality of your knowledge. (pp. 16-17)
1.20 Recall three academic tasks or situations for which you can create learning
teams with other students, other than forming study groups prior to exams. (p. 21)
1.21 Recall three strategies for making interpersonal “connections” with key
members of your college community. (p. 24)
1.22 Recall how active involvement in combination with reflection enables the human
brain to learn and retain knowledge. (p. 25)
1.23 Recall how the following components of a student’s academic self-concept play
an important role in college success:
(a) academic self-efficacy
(b) academic self-esteem. (p. 26)
1.24 Recall two ways you can self-monitor your learning to improve your academic
performance in college. (p. 26)
1.25 Recall the four key principles of college success and provide an example of how you
can put each one of these principles into practice. (pp. 29-30)
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Chapter 1.
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
The following test questions are tied to reading objectives. The number preceding each
test question corresponds to the specific reading objective (intended reading outcome)
that particular test question is designed to assess.
1.1 Research shows that active involvement and effective learning go hand in hand.
Simply stated, the more involved you are in the learning process, the more you learn.
Briefly describe two components or processes of active involvement that indicate you
are putting this principle into practice. (Answer: p. 2)
1.2 One way to ensure that you are exerting a high level of effort while learning is to act
on what you’re learning, i.e., perform some physical action on what you’re trying to
learning. Briefly describe three type of actions you can perform on material you’re
learning that would ensure you’re investing a high level of energy and effort in the
learning process. (Answer: p. 3)
1.11 The Career Center is your campus resource that’s designed to help you connect
your current college experience with your future career goals. Briefly describe three
ways in which your Career Center can help you to identify and prepare for a future
career. (Answer: p. 11)
1.13 Most learning in college takes place vicariously—that is, you’re learning from
or through somebody else (for example, listening to lectures and reading books).
Although this type of learning is useful, it needs to be complemented or augmented
by experiential learning—learning directly through first-hand experience. Briefly
describe two ways in which you can capitalize on experiential learning opportunities
that are available in college. (Answer: p. 13)
1.14 Colleges and universities refer to extra-curricular activities as co-curricular
experiences. Briefly explain the meaning of the term, “co-curricular.” (Answer: p.
13)
1.16 Students have with a wide variety of campus clubs and organizations they can
choose to join in college. Briefly describe two types of campus clubs or
organizations that are likely to have the most positive impact on your educational
and career success, and are likely to be most valued by future employers. (Answer:
p. 13)
1.17 Volunteer experiences are usually viewed as a form of civic responsibility or service
to your community. However, volunteering not only helps others, it can also help
you. Cite two ways in which volunteer experiences can contribute to your career
development. (Answer: p. 14)
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1.19 Scholars argue that “human knowledge is socially constructed.” Explain what
this expression means, and describe how you can take advantage of it to increase the
quality and quantity of knowledge you acquire in college. (Answer: pp. 16-17)
1.20 Collaborating with your peers to form learning teams is a powerful way to improve
your academic performance. Unfortunately, many students think that learning teams
are nothing more than “study groups” formed before an upcoming exams. However,
you can form learning teams to do a wide variety of academic tasks besides study
groups. Briefly describe three other types of academic tasks for which you can form
learning teams to improve your performance. (Answer: p. 21)
1.21 Studies consistently show that students who become socially integrated or
connected with other member of their college community are more likely to remain
in college and complete their degree. Describe three types of interpersonal
connections you can make with member of your college community that will
support your college success.
(Answer: p. 24)
1.22 Both active involvement and reflection are needed for the brain to acquire
and retain knowledge. Briefly explain the different, yet complementary role each of
these two processes play in promoting human learning and memory. (Answer p. 25)
1.23 Your personal beliefs about what type of student you are and how you see yourself
as a learner can influence your academic success in college. Briefly describe how
the following two components of your academic self-concept can affect your
college success:
(a) academic self-efficacy
(b) academic self-esteem.
(Answer: p. 26)
1.24 One characteristic of effective learners is that they self-monitor their behavior
while they are learning. Briefly explain what is meant by the term, “selfmonitoring,” and describe two ways in which you can put this effective learning
strategy into practice. (Answer: p. 26)
1.25 In the first chapter of your textbook, the authors identify four key principles of
college success that are supported by many years of research. Cite these four
principles and provide one strategy for putting each of them into practice. (Answer:
pp. 29-30)
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Chapter 1.
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1.3 Research shows that there is no direct relationship between class attendance and
course grades, because college instructors often do not take class attendance and do
not take away points from your grade for missing class.
(a) True
(b) False
[Answer (b), p. 3)
1.4 Research examining the amount of time college students spend on academic work
outside the classroom indicates that students who earn mostly “As” typically spend
how many hours per week on their course work outside of class?
(a) 10
(b) 20
(c) 30
(d) 40.
[Answer: (d), pp. 3-4)]
1.5 Studies show that the reputation or prestige of the college attended by students
matters more to their career success than the grades they earn in college.
(a) True
(b) False.
(Answer: p. 4)
1.6 Research indicates that the majority of test questions on college exams come from:
(a) instructors’ lecture notes
(b) course textbooks
(c) library resources
(d) Internet articles
(e) National Enquirer.
(Answer: p. 5)
1.6 Waldo is having trouble taking good in class, so he thinks he’ll try taking changing
his seating location with the hope that it will improve the quality of his notetaking and his course grade. Which one of the following classroom seating locations
should Waldo assume if he intends to improve the quality of his note-taking?
(a) front and to the side of class
(b) front and center of class
(c) rear and center of class
(d) rear and to the side of class
(e) outside of class looking in through a window
(Answer: p. 6)
1.8 When choosing a place to read, where should you arrange to have your light in order
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to reduce the distracting or fatiguing effects of glare and shadows?
(a) Face your source of light (lamp) and place it on the same side that you write from
(e.g., on the right side if you’re right-handed).
(b) Face your source of light (lamp) and place it on the opposite side you write from
(e.g., on the left side if you’re right-handed).
(c) Have the light come from behind you and over the same side that you write from
(e.g., over your right shoulder if you’re right-handed).
(d) Have the light come from behind you and over the opposite side that you write
from (e.g., over your left shoulder if you’re right-handed).
(e) Have the light come from underneath you (e.g., shine up between your legs).
(Answer: p. 8)
1.8 Research on effective reading suggests that chapter headings and subheadings should
be:
(a) ignored
(b) treated as if they were regular sentences
(c) turned into questions
(d) highlighted with hallucinogenic-colored high-lighters (to trigger favorable
“flashbacks”).
(Answer: p. 8)
1.8 If you were skimming a textbook chapter to find the most important information
within a particular section or paragraph, you should focus on:
(a) the first sentence
(b) the last sentence
(c) the middle sentence
(d) both (a)and (b)
(e) AC/DC (don’t pick me—I’m an aging heavy-metal band).
(Answer: p. 8)
1.8 You should finish a reading session by:
(a) quickly reviewing what you highlighted
(b) quickly previewing what you will be reading next time
(c) quickly renewing your driver’s license or marriage vows
(d) quickly tattooing your body with key points in the reading (so you’ll remember
them forever).
(Answer: p. 8)
1.9 Students who use academic support services on their college campus (e.g., Learning
Center) tend to be students who earn lower grades in college than students who don’t
use these services.
(a) True
(b) False.
(Answer: p. 9)
1.10 The majority of students have made a firm decision about a major by the time they
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begin college.
(a) True
(b) False.
(Answer: p. 10)
1.12 The most common reason why students withdraw from college is that they are
unable to handle the academic work, i.e., they flunk out.
(a) True
(b) False.
(Answer: p. 12)
1.15 Which one of the following college experiences has research shown to be the best
predictor of success in management and leadership positions after college?
(a) taking psychology courses
(b) taking leadership seminars
(c) participating in co-curricular activities involving leadership
(d) doing research on leadership.
(Answer: p. 13)
1.18 Students learn a lot from out-of-class experiences in college, such as participating in
campus clubs or organizations, volunteer experiences, and part-time work. However,
in order to reserve enough time for their coursework, research shows that students
should participate in out-of-class activities for no more than:
(a) 5 hours per week
(b) 10 hours per week
(c) 15 hours per week
(d) 25 hours per week.
(Answer: p. 14)
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Teaching Chapter 2
THE VALUE of LIBERAL ARTS & GENERAL EDUCATION:
How the College Experience Develops You as a Whole Person and
Improves Your Total Quality of Your Life
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
Probably the most important instructional goals of this chapter involve addressing the
following two questions: (a) the “what” question—helping students understand what it
means to experience a “liberal arts” education, and (b) the “so what” question—helping
students appreciate why this component of their college education plays a key role in
their current and future success.
Defining a Liberal Arts Education: What is it?
Many new students are likely to be unfamiliar with the term “liberal arts,” or it may be
a term about which they have misconceptions or misgivings. Consequently, an important
first step toward effectively teaching this unit may be to clarify the meaning and purpose
of the liberal arts. Student responses to the “Activate Your Thinking” question at the very
start of the chapter may be used as a platform for launching a lively (and perhaps
humorous) discussion of the true meaning and purpose of a liberal arts education.
It should be noted out that there is variability in how the liberal arts are defined and
described in higher education. Sometimes the term is used to refer to subject matter—
courses that comprise the liberal arts curriculum (or the liberal arts “and sciences”
curriculum), while at other times the term is used to refer to an educational process—a
liberal arts education (or liberal learning). Compounding the inconsistency is that the
term “general education” is used interchangeably with liberal arts, and the language used
to describe the academic divisions of the liberal arts curriculum varies from campus to
campus. Thus, it may be necessary to point out this variability out at the outset and
identify the particular language used on your campus. You could mention to students that
the variability in terminology doesn’t necessarily reflect confusion or disagreement, but
represents different ways of explaining the same concept. For example, the terms
“general education,” “breadth requirements,” and “core curriculum” all serve to
highlight in different ways the fact that the liberal arts represents the broadest and most
essential element of the college experience.
There are two key characteristics of how a liberal arts education is defined in chapter 2
that we think should be intentionally underscored in class:
1. A liberal arts education embraces both the formal academic curriculum and the cocurriculum (holistic development). We define a liberal arts education as a process that
promotes student appreciation of breadth and “wholeness,” which comes in two forms: a
broadened perspective and appreciation of (a) the whole world and (b) the whole person.
We treat the traditional “wellness wheel” as holistic development and include it as an
integral part of a liberal arts education. Including holistic develop as an element of a
liberal arts education serves to elevate the importance of student involvement in campus
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life and reinforces the notion that the co-curriculum importance is equally important for
educational and professional success as the curriculum. Thus, when discussing the
meaning and purpose of a liberal arts education in class, you might reinforce the
relevance of the co-curriculum and point out that student development professionals play
a central educational role on campus (and are not merely support staff for
“extracurricular” activities and services).
2. One key component of a liberal arts education is the development of academic skills
(e.g., writing and reading) that are taught in skill-building “lower division” (and
“developmental”) courses. In chapter 2, we attempted to highlight the fact that academic
skill-development courses focus on transferable, lifelong-learning skills that are essential
to the purpose of a liberal arts education. Your reinforcing this point in class may serve to
improve student perceptions of their academic skill-building courses and elevate the level
of student motivation in these courses (as well as support and validate the instructors who
teach them). Taking a little class time to highlight the transferability and durability of
academic skills as “life skills,” which promote success in all majors and any career, may
provide a motivational “shot in the arm” students at the outset of their college experience,
particularly for those students who are enrolled in developmental courses.
Motivating Students about a Liberal-Arts Education: Why bother with it?
One reason why we place the liberal arts chapter at the beginning of the text is for
motivational purposes. We hope it will build students’ enthusiasm for the component of
the college curriculum that they encounter early in their college experience, which
students can often misperceived as being irrelevant to their intended major and career
plans. Perhaps the Chapter 2’s most distinctive feature is its attempt to provide strong
arguments and persuasive evidence for the full range of personal and professional
advantages associated with a liberal arts education. The chapter tries to make a strong
case for the benefits of the value of general education. You can add to our motivational
intent by reinforcing its benefits in class and highlighting its importance for the multiple
life roles that students will play beyond college (e.g., spouses, parents, citizens).
Thus, the “so what” question about a liberal arts education may be effectively
addressed by briefly underscoring its importance for promoting students’ academic,
professional, and personal success. The three main points included in the chapter 2’s
summary and conclusion may be used to help you organize a short classroom
presentation designed to builds initial student enthusiasm and motivation for the liberalarts; namely:
1. Being a generalist is as important for career success as being a specialist.
2. Building your skills and broadening your perspectives is as important for success as
earning academic units and checking off degree requirements.
3. Attending college is not just about earning a better living; it’s also about living a better
life.
Discussing the Mission and Goals of Your College within the Context of a
Liberal Arts Education
When you’re discussing the meaning and purpose of a liberal arts education, you’re
really discussing the meaning and purpose of a college education. Thus, this may be the
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time to introduce your students to the mission statement and institutional goals of your
college. Most college mission statements and institutional goals reflect the breadth and
purposes of a liberal arts education discussed in Chapter 2. We strongly recommend take
the opportunity to discuss your institution’s mission in the context of the liberal arts
because it’s highly unlikely that your students will ever be intentionally and
systematically introduced to the mission and purpose of your college at any other place in
the college curriculum or at any other time in their college experience. The FYE course
may be the only curricular venue through which students are formally introduced to the
purpose and uniqueness of the very institution they’ve chosen to attend. This may also be
the time to point out how your institution differs from others that dot the American
postsecondary landscape. American colleges and universities form the most diverse
system of higher education in the world and the missions of these diverse institutions can
vary considerably, depending on whether they are community colleges, liberal arts
colleges, comprehensive state universities, or research-intensive universities. Students
should be aware of your institution’s distinctive place and purpose, and how it compares
with other types of colleges and universities that your students could have chosen to
attend—some of which their friends or relatives may be currently attending and reporting
different experiences or levels of satisfaction.
Using the Liberal Arts as a “Gateway” Topic for the Text and Your Course
Chapter 2 can serve as an effective introduction or gateway to the entire text and,
perhaps, your entire course. The liberal arts chapter was positioned early in the text
because the nature of its content allows connects effectively with all subsequent chapters
in the text. The liberal arts component of a college education represents the foundation
for the entire college experience, particularly if holistic (whole-person) development is
included in the definition of a liberal arts education. Thus, Chapter 2 may be used to
provide an effective bridge to all subsequent topics because its overarching discussion of
holistic development provides an effective overview of the whole person—the specific
components of which are addressed separately and more intensively in subsequent
chapters.
For example, Chapter 2 segues smoothly into the following chapter on educational
planning and selecting a major because the liberal arts provides students with intellectual
breadth and general (foundational) education, upon which study in depth and specialized
(pre-professional) education are built. Also, Chapter 2’s discussion of liberal education as
a vehicle for “liberating” people in a democracy to make wise judgments and thoughtful
decisions about their elected political leaders provides a foundation for discussing
critical thinking in Chapter 6; and the different, broadening perspectives developed by a
liberal education dovetail nicely with Chapter 8’s focus on diversity.
Thus, you may be able to use Chapter 2 as a hub or linchpin for introducing and
integrating different instructional units of the text, thereby bringing greater conceptual
unity and coherence to your course.
Introducing Strategies for Self-Management & Personal Responsibility
within the Context of a Liberal Arts Education
There are two boxes in Chapter 2 that contain strategies relating to self-management
and personal responsibility. It may seem that this such information isn’t relevant in a
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chapter on the liberal arts, but it’s included in chapter 2 because they are lifelong-learning
skills that students need for exercising personal freedom responsibly and for transitioning
effectively from being managed primarily by others (in high school) to self-management
(in college). These self-management strategies are included in Chapter 2 also because
they are skills that students need to develop early in their first term of college.
Introducing strategies for self-management within the context of the liberal arts also
put a more positive spin on the topic of personal responsibility by allowing you to
introduce this sometimes threatening or “parental” topic within the framework of the
“liberating” experience of college. In other words, you can offer these suggestions for
personal responsibility as constructive strategies for effectively exercising the newfound
freedoms students will enjoy in college—for example, more freedom from required
classroom “seat time,” more “free time” that they have the power to control, and more
freedom to make their own educational decisions.
Possible Exercises/Assignments for Chapter 2
Exercise for Promoting Student Awareness that Liberal-Arts Skills are
Career-Relevant Skills
Steps:
1. Have your students assume the role of an employer and ask them to brainstorm those
skills they would most value in a potential employee.
2. List these skills on the board as students generate them.
3. After the brainstorming process slows down, ask students to help you group the skills
they generated into clusters or categories of skill sets.
4. Have students compare their categories of work skills with the sets of skills developed
by a liberal arts education (pp. 49 & 52-55).
The comparison should reveal considerable overlap between the work skills that students
generated and those developed by a liberal arts education. This overlap should serve to
heighten student awareness that general education is really career preparation.
The Lifeline Exercise:
Helping Students Discover that a College Education is not only Preparation
for a Career, but Preparation for Life
Steps:
1. Ask students to draw a horizontal line across the longer side of a typical (81/2 x 11)
sheet of paper.
2. Have them place their date of birth on the far left of the line and their anticipated age
of death on the far right of the line. (We realize that the topic of death can be threatening
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to some students; one way to reduce the intensity of its threat would be to quickly
mention that death is a reality all of humanity faces, which is why it’s a topic that is
discussed in the Humanities, and it’s why spirituality is included as a key dimension of
holistic development.)
3. Have students place the current date in its approximate place along their lifeline. (For
the typical 18-year-old freshman, this should be about one-fifth of the way along the line;
for re-entry students, it’s likely to be farther to the right.)
4. Ask students to fill in dates along the line that represent important or significant events
in their life thus far, both good and bad (e.g., high school graduation, birth of a sibling,
parents’ divorce).
5. Ask student to project themselves into the future and fill in the events that they think
will happen to them by the time they die. (Students could use the dimensions of self
comprising the holistic-development wheel as a stimulus for prompting their thinking of
these future events, as well as a stimulus for jogging their memory of previous life events
in step 4.)
6. Ask students to reflect on their lifeline and note how many of its key events are tied
directly to work or career, compared to those that relate to other aspects of their life.
Chances are that students will discover a larger number of significant life events relating
to issues other than job or career.
7. Have students write a short reflection paper in which they examine how the liberal arts
skills developed in Chapter 2 may help to prepare them for the events and roles they’ll
encounter in their future life.
(This paper could also be tweaked to promote additional self-awareness by asking
students to reflect on what past experiences have exerted the most influence on who they
are now, and what future experiences are likely to have the most positive influence on
who they want to become.)
Panel Presentation by Faculty Representing Different Academic Disciplines
Since Chapter 2 discusses the different academic disciplines that comprise the liberal arts,
one way in which these diverse disciplinary perspectives may be compared and
contrasted is by having representatives from different divisions of the liberal arts come to
class for a panel discussion. The discussion could revolve around the types of questions
the disciplines ask and their methods for answering them. Or, the discussion could
revolve around a contemporary issue or problem (e.g., terrorism), whereby faculty from
different disciplines share ideas on how their particular discipline attempts to understand
the issue’s causes and its possible solutions.
In addition to helping students appreciate differences among the liberal-arts disciplines,
this exercise would introduce new students to different members of your faculty, and it
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would serve to involve more faculty in the seminar, which may increase their subsequent
interest in and support of the course.
Students Create User-Friendly Checklists of General Education
Requirements
Since Chapter 2 included discussion of the academic divisions and courses that comprise
the liberal arts curriculum, this may be the ideal time to get students familiar with your
college catalog and your college’s general education requirements. The size and
organization of college catalogs can sometimes be off-putting to students, resulting in
their avoidance of them or causing some students to experience “catalog anxiety.” One
way to help new students overcome their catalog avoidance and anxiety is by giving them
support and an incentive to open their catalogs and make use of them. This incentive
could take the form of an assignment in which students are asked to try and convert the
general-education requirement buried within their college catalog and convert them into
more user-friendly student checklists.
This exercise could be completed individually or in small groups, using one a jigsaw
group-learning formats in which each member of a small team takes responsibility for
identifying and pulling out the general-education requirements for one academic division
of the liberal arts, then they convene as a team to integrate their separate parts into a
whole or complete list. (Described later in this section are step-by-step instructions for
different group-learning formats that could be adapted for this catalog exercise.) At the
very least, this exercise would ensure that every student obtains a college catalog and
opens it at least once during their first term in college.
Using the “Jigsaw” Format for Small-Group Work to Help Student Identify
and Integrate the Multiple Perspectives of a Liberal Arts Education
A recurrent theme throughout Chapter 2 is that a liberal arts education involves
broadening students’ perspective of the world via different disciplinary, chronological,
and social-spatial perspectives, and broadening their perspective of themselves via
different dimensions of the “whole self” (holistic development).
Helping students to appreciate the value of taking multiple perspectives can be
accomplished quite effectively with small-group work by having individual students learn
about different perspectives and then having them share their respective perspectives in
small groups—where the different perspectives may be integrated into a multidimensional whole. Listed below are several jigsaw group-learning formats that are ideal
for helping students identify and integrate the multiple perspectives associated with a
liberal arts education. These below-listed group formats may be applied to the
perspectives of different academic disciplines (Chapter 2, pp. 42-43), to different
chronological and social-spatial perspectives (pp. 59-61), or to different dimensions of
holistic development (pp. 52-55).
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Jigsaw
Steps:
1. Have students form 3 or 4-member teams and ask each teammate to assume
responsibility for becoming an “expert” on one perspective or dimension (e.g., the
perspective of an academic discipline, a particular chronological perspective, or one
dimension of holistic development)
2. Each student applies his/her perspective to a particular topic or issue (e.g., prejudice,
poverty, war).
3. Members leave their respective “home teams” to join members of other teams who are
also “experts” on the same perspective. (Note: If the perspectives are those of different
academic disciplines, these student experts could make a group appointment with a
“faculty expert” in the discipline whose perspective they are taking.)
3. After meeting in their “expert groups,” students then return to their home team and
teach their individual area of expertise to their teammates.
4. Lastly, students piece together their specialized perspectives (like a “jigsaw” puzzle)
into a larger whole that represents a more comprehensive view and understanding of the
issue (Aronson, et al., 1978).
To help students stretch the range of perspectives they develop individual expertise in,
groups could be given several jigsaw tasks and team members could assume expertise in
a different perspective on each successive task.
Listed below are modifications of the original jigsaw format that you may use in lieu of,
or in addition to the original Jigsaw to bring some variety to this group-learning
procedure.
Jigsaw II
A slight modification of the original Jigsaw in which the final step in the process is for
team members to take an individual quiz or test on the material they have taught each
other (Slavin, 1980).
Double Expert-Group Jigsaw
Another variation of the original Jigsaw in which expert groups with the same subtopic
split in half, creating “double expert” groups. This format enables experts to meet in a
smaller group setting and adds an “Experts Consult” option, whereby members of the
two expert groups can consult with each other before returning to their teams to complete
the jigsaw (Kagan, 1992).
Co-op Co-op
Steps:
1. Students engage in a class discussion about an issue or problem and identify the key
dimensions or perspectives that they think are involved in its cause and/or solution.
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2. Different 4-member teams are formed to address each of the key dimensions or
perspectives that have been identified.
3. Within each team, students subdivide their work such that individual teammates
become experts with respect to one chosen dimension or perspective.
4. The experts research their different components individually and present the results of
their findings to their team.
5. Lastly, the team synthesizes these individually completed reports into a single group
product and makes a team presentation on their group product to the whole class—using
whatever format they prefer (e.g., oral, written, or multi-medial)(Kagan, 1985).
Co-op Jigsaw
The first three steps in this procedure are identical to Co-op Co-op, but steps 4-6 differ
as follows:
4. Each team’s expert meets with experts from other teams who are working on the same
dimension or perspective.
5. After discussing their specialized component in their expert groups, the expert groups
make presentations to the entire class.
6. Lastly, experts return to their home teams and integrate their separate work into a
unified team product (Kagan, 1985).
Co-op Jigsaw II
Steps:
1. Teams members first present their different perspectives on the same topic or issue.
2. Students then leave their teams to join expert groups who focus on learning one
transferable liberal-arts skill (e.g., writing, speaking, or multi-media communication)
3. Experts return to their home team and apply these liberal-arts skills to the team product
(Kagan, 1992).
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Chapter 2
Reading Objectives
2.1 Recognize the meaning of the term, “liberal arts.” (p. 38)
2.2 Recall three outside influences that have the potential to exert excessive control over
us, which a liberal arts education can help us resist and enable us to act as selfdirected human beings. (p. 39)
2.3 Recall three types of out of-class work tasks that you could independently during
your free time between classes to learn course material and improve your course
grades. (p. 40, 58)
2.4 Recognize what is meant by the term, general education. (p. 41)
2.5 Recognize the primary questions asked by the following disciplines of the liberal arts
curriculum:
(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Natural Sciences
(d) Social & Behavioral Sciences. (pp. 41-43)
2.6 Recognize the primary subject areas that comprise the following disciplines of the
liberal arts curriculum:
(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Natural Sciences
(d) Social & Behavioral Sciences. (pp. 41-43)
2.7 Recall how a liberal arts education can enhance your creativity in any field. (p. 46)
2.8 Recall the meaning of the following characteristics of liberal arts skills:
(a) transferability
(b) durability. (p. 46)
2.9 Recall three key skills provided by a liberal arts education that are highly valued by
employers. (p. 49)
2.10 Recall three key elements of the self that are important dimensions of holistic
development (development of the “whole person”). (p. 51)
2.11 Recognize the meaning of the term, co-curriculum. (p. 57)
2.12 Recall the two key components or ways in which a liberal arts education broadens
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your perspective of the whole world. (pp. 57-58)
2.13 Recall why the following belief is a myth (false statement): “Studying in advance of
an exam is a total waste of time because you’ll forget it all by the time of test.” [p.
58]
2.14 Recall why being a generalist is as important for career success as being a specialist.
(pp. 63-64)
2.15 Recall how a liberal arts education helps you put into practice what the authors mean
by the following statement: “Attending college is not just about earning a better
living, it’s also about learning to live a better life.” (p. 66)
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Chapter 2
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. A liberal arts education is designed to help you become a self-directed person who can
think independently and resist outside influences that may attempt to control your
thoughts. Briefly describe three outside influences a liberal arts education “liberates” you
from being excessively dependent on or controlled by. [Reading objective: 2.2; Answer:
p. 39]
2. In high school, students are often given specific homework assignments that they are to
work on and turn into their teachers on a daily or weekly basis. In college, students are
given more “free time” outside of class and are less frequently given homework to “turn
in.” However, they are expected to do unsupervised academic work on their own time
outside the classroom to prepare in advance for larger exams and assignments that are
due at later points in the term.
Cite three types of “non-assigned” academic activities that you could do on your own
outside of class—in advance of exams or assignments—which would improve your
academic performance. [Reading objective: 2.3; Answer: p. 40 & p. 58]
3. Success in college (and beyond) depends not only the ability to think critically but also
on the ability to think creatively. Briefly describe how a liberal arts education can
enhance your creativity in any major or career. [Reading objective: 2.7; Answer: p. 46]
4. One way in which the liberal arts provides you with a foundation for lifelong success is
by equipping you with a set of skills that have two powerful qualities: (a) transferability
and (b) durability. Briefly describe what these skill qualities are and why they are so
powerful. [Reading objective: 2.8; Answer: p. 46]
5. Research on the work skills sought by employers indicates that they are strikingly
similar to the skills developed by a liberal arts education. Briefly describe three key types
or categories of skills that employers seek in new employees, which college students
develop as part of their liberal arts education. [Reading objective; 2.9; Answer: p. 49)
6. One of the major goals of a liberal arts education is to promote holistic development.
Briefly describe what is meant by the term, “holistic development,” and briefly describe
three elements or dimensions of it. [Reading objective: 2.10; Answer: p. 51]
7. One major goal of a liberal arts education is that it can help us step outside ourselves
and broadens our perspective on the world around us. Briefly describe two components or
ways in which a liberal arts education broadens our world perspective. [Reading
objective: 2.12; Answer: pp. 57-58]
8. Many students believe that it’s best to begin studying the day or night before an exam
so that the information will still be “fresh in their mind” the next day; in fact, they think
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that starting to study any earlier is a total waste of time because they’ll forget it by the
time they take the test. Explain why this student belief and study strategy is a myth (not
true). [Reading objective: p. 213; Answer: p. 58]
9. When college students are asked about their future plans, the conversation typically
centers around what they’re to specialize in—for example, what field of study they’re
going to major in or what particular career they’re going to pursue. However, research
suggests that being a generalist is as important for career success as being a specialist.
Briefly explain why or how being a generalist is as important as being a specialist for
success in today’s work world. [Reading objective: 2.14; Answer: p. 64]
10. Briefly explain how a liberal arts education helps you put into practice the following
statement: “Attending college is not just about earning a better living; it’s also about
learning to live a better life.” [Reading objective: 2.15; Answer: p. 66]
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Chapter 2
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Which one of the following statements represents the most accurate meaning of the
term, “liberal arts” education?
(a) Learning to be less conservative politically.
(b) Learning to spend money more freely.
(c) Learning to value the art of peace more than the martial arts.
(d) Learning how to become a performing artist.
(e) Learning skills for freedom.
[Reading objective: 2.1; Answer: (e), p. 38]
2. If you happen to overhear two faculty talking about the general education curriculum,
they are talking about the liberal arts curriculum.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 2.4; Answer: (a), p. 4]
3. Which one of the following liberal arts disciplines (subject areas) places the greatest
emphasis on the questions: “Why are we here?” and “How should we live our lives?”
(a) Natural Sciences
(b) Humanities
(c) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(d) Fine Arts.
[Reading objective: 2.5(a); Answer: (b), p. 42]
4. Which one of the following liberal arts disciplines places the greatest emphasis on the
question: “How do humans express and appreciate what is beautiful?”
(a) Natural Sciences
(b) Humanities
(c) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(d) Fine Arts.
[Reading objective: 2.5(b); Answer: (d), p. 42]
5. Which one of the following liberal arts disciplines places the greatest emphasis on the
question: “How we can humans predict and control their physical environment and the
their interaction with it?”
(a) Natural Sciences
(b) Humanities
(c) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(d) Fine Arts.
[Reading objective: 2.5(c) Answer: (a), p. 43]
6. Which one of the following liberal arts disciplines places the greatest emphasis on the
question: “What causes humans to behave the way they do?”
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(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Natural Sciences
(d) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(e) Scientology.
[Reading objective: 2.5(d); Answer: (d), p. 43]
7. [Student’s name] is a lover of wisdom (among other things), so he has decided to take
Philosophy next semester to fulfill a general-education requirement and also to see if
he might major in this subject.. Which one of the following liberal arts disciplines
reflect _____’s possible major and career interests?
(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(d) Natural Sciences
[Reading objective: 2.6(a); Answer: (a), p. 42]
8. [Student’s name] has decided to transfer to Disco Tech University, where she plans to
major in Music and minor in Art (because she just loves to be “creative,” “express
herself,” and do her “own thing.”) In which one of the following liberal arts disciplines
has _____decided to major and minor?
(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Natural Sciences
(d) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(e) Saturday Night Fever.
[Reading objective: 2.6(b); Answer: (b), p. 42]
9. Which one of the following subject areas would not be found within the Natural
Sciences division of the liberal arts curriculum?
(a) Biology
(b) Sociology
(c) Physics
(d) Chemistry
(e) Geology.
[Reading objective: 2.6(c); Answer: (b), p. 43]
10. [Student’s name] is going to take a Psychology course next year to test his interest in
possibly pursuing a career as a psychotherapist (heaven help us!). By taking such a
course, _____ would be fulfilling a requirement in which one of the following liberal
arts disciplines?
(a) Humanities
(b) Fine Arts
(c) Natural Sciences
(d) Behavioral & Social Sciences
(e) Cuseology.
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[Reading objective: 2.6(d); Answer: (d), p. 43]
11. The co-curriculum refers to the academic courses that students take for general
education.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective; 2.11; Answer: (b)]
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Teaching Chapter 3
EDUCATIONAL PLANNING & DECISION-MAKING:
Making Wise Choices about Your College Courses and Major
Key Instructional Goal of this Chapter
The primary instructional goal of this chapter is to help students make meaningful
connections between their early academic choices and their long-term educational and
vocational plans. Studies show that students who do not see a connection between their
current academic experiences and their future educational and career goals may be at risk
for attrition. Thus, one major objective of this chapter is to enable students make this
connection, and make it early, before they conclude that college is irrelevant to their
personal and professionals plans. It is for this reason that the chapter is situated early in
the textbook.
Key Points to Emphasize When Discussing this Chapter
* It is important to remind students that being undecided is not the exception but the
norm and, therefore, “normal.” Students normally make final decisions about their majors
during the college experience; not before it. Students should be assured that some early
indecisiveness and re-thinking about majors is healthy because it often reflects a
willingness to initially explore options before fully committing to an educational or
career goal. As the chapter documents, new students are very uncertain about their choice
of major and the relationship between majors and careers. The reality is that most
entering college students are undecided, even if they may have declared a major upon
entry.
Point out to your students that it’s better to remain undecided and gain some experience
with the college curriculum, rather than to make a premature choice just to get the
decision “out of the way.” Instead of rushing their choice only to discover later that it was
not a good choice, students should be encouraged to make their first choice their best
choice, i.e., make it a carefully thought-out choice that best reflects who they are and who
they want to become.
* Students should also be reminded that the benefits waiting and committing prematurely
to a major must be balanced against the dangers of remaining undecided for prolonged
period of time, which may indicate procrastination, or unwillingness to take the time and
effort to learn more about themselves and their options. Students may need to be
reminded that prolonged indecision can lead to late changes in academic plans, which can
result in longer time to degree completion (due to the need to complete different degree
requirements for a new major).
* Point out that self-awareness represents the key first step in the process of deciding on a
major (or any other important personal decision). This step provides the foundation for
prudent selection of a college major; it improves the quality of this decision by enabling
students to make a choice that is most compatible with their personal interests, talents,
needs, and values. Thus, looking inward and gaining self-knowledge (to “know thyself”)
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is the critical first step in the decision-making process. Students need to know themselves
well before they can be expected to know their major or what career they want to pursue
in life. (It is for this reason that chapter 3 immediately follows the previous chapter on the
liberal arts.)
* In addition to knowing themselves well, students should also be reminded that good
choices and decisions rest on knowledge of the available options or alternatives. In the
case of making a decision about a college major, students need to be aware of the full
range of subject areas that represent possible options for a major, and they need to know
its “infra-structure,” i.e., what required courses comprise the major.
Clarifications & Caveats Regarding this Chapter
Coverage of Learning Styles in Chapter 3
It might be surprising to see the topic of learning styles covered in a chapter on
educational planning and decision-making, rather than its typical place in a chapter on
learning. We intentionally included learning styles in this chapter because one’s preferred
learning style represents a key personal characteristic that students should be aware of
when making choices about a major. College majors represent different academic
disciplines, which take different approaches to learning, thinking, acquiring knowledge,
and organizing knowledge. Thus, different majors will often emphasize certain learning
styles more than others. Thus, we felt that student awareness of their learning style and
how it matches the learning style used or emphasized by different academic disciplines
(majors) should be an integral part of this chapter on choosing a college major.
We also felt that it was important to juxtapose learning styles and multiple
intelligences in this chapter because both relate to how people learn and acquire
knowledge. Similar though these concepts may be, there is also a subtle, yet critical
difference between them: learning styles refer to different learning preferences, whereas
multiple intelligences refer to different aptitudes, abilities or talents. We felt that it was
important to compare and contrast learning styles and multiple intelligences within the
same chapter to help students detect this subtle distinction. It is important for students to
realize that there is a significant difference between liking or preferring something and
having an aptitude or talent for doing well (or competently). For example, a student may
have a preference for majoring in pre-med and becoming a surgeon, but if that student
does not have a sufficiently high level of kinesthetic (psychomotor) intelligence, pre-med
probably does not represent a good choice of major.
Campus-to-Campus Variation with Respect to Curricular Terminology & Degree
Requirements
As was the case with chapter 2, there is variability in how different colleges define their
terms with respect to the curriculum. Thus, it will probably be necessary for you to point
out this variability out at the outset of this instructional unit and identify the particular
language used on your campus. For example, some colleges may use the term “elective”
to refer simply to any course that is not required for general education or a major, while
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other colleges make a sharp distinction between “restricted” and “free” electives.
Colleges also vary with respect to use of terms such as “cognate areas,” “required support
courses,” “distribution requirements,” etc.
Furthermore, the number of units they required for different degree programs and
program components tend to vary from campus to campus. The number of units cited in
the chapter for general education, college majors and minors, and college graduation are
merely approximate “averages.” For instance, the exact total of units your college
requires for the Baccalaureate degree may not match the number cited in the text (120
units).
Possible Exercises/Assignments for Chapter 3
Faculty Interview
Step 1: Form small groups of 2-4 students who have interest in the same major. For
students who are “totally undecided,” have them identify a possible major they might
consider.
Step 2: Ask these student groups to make an appointment with a faculty member in the
major field that interests them. Visiting the office of a college professor while in the
company of a supportive group of peers should help students feel less apprehensive about
this interview process. (Group interviews are should also demand less time from faculty
members than individual interviews.)
Listed below is a pool of possible questions students could choose to ask during the
interview. To ensure individual accountability, each group member should be instructed
to take responsibility for asking 2-3 questions.
* Faculty-Interview Questions
1. How did you decide on your major? What influenced your initial decision or attracted
you to the major in the first place?
2. When did you decide on your major? Was it your first choice, or did you change to it
from another major? (If you changed your original major, why did you change?)
3. What personal interests, learning styles, or types of intelligence do you think would
“match up” well with the academic demands of your major?
4. What courses in your major did you find to be particularly enjoyable, exciting, or
stimulating?
5. Were there any unexpected requirements in your major that proved to be particularly
challenging?
6. Would you choose the same major again if you were a college student now?
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7. What particular course(s) or co-curricular experience(s) would you recommend
to help me decide if I should like major in your field?
8. What careers are related to your major? What different types of careers does your
major prepare you for?
9. Did you have a minor? If yes, how did it relate to or connect with your major?
10. To pursue a career directly related to your major do you need an advanced degree
(e.g., Master’s or Ph.D.) in the field?
11. Can you recommend any references or resources I could consult to learn about your
major or careers related to it?
Step 3: Have student write a short reflection paper on their interview experience, in
which they answer the following questions:
1. Did you receive information about the major that impressed you—to the point where
you are now strongly considering it as your major? (If yes, what in particular
impressed you about the major?)
2. Did you receive any information that reduced your interest in the major? (If yes, what
in particular dampened your interest in the major?)
3. What was the most important thing you learned about the major or yourself as a result
of conducting this interview?
MBTI Center-Divide
Steps:
1. Create an open space down the center of your classroom.
2. Have students move either to the left, right, or center of the room, depending on where
they score (or think they would score) on each of the four traits measured by the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI); for example: strong extraversion (far left), strong
introversion (far right), intermediate (in the middle).
Students could simply self-assess where they think they would fall along each of its
four scales read about the MBTI in the text (p. 86). Students could also take the fulllength inventory on paper, or take an abbreviated online version of the inventory (for
example, at: personalitypathways.com/type_inventory.html)
3. Once students with similar styles have come together in the same area of the room,
have them form triads or quartets within that area. While in their small groups, ask them
to identify majors in your college catalog or bulletin that they think would be most and
least compatible with their personality traits.
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4. Repeat steps 1-3 for each pair of traits measured by the MBTI.
LSI Corners-Rotation
Steps:
1. Ask students to move to one of four corners of the room, depending on where they
score (or where they think they would score) with respect to the four sectors of the
Learning Styles Inventory (LSI).
For example:
Accommodators: Left-Front Corner
Assimilators: Right-Front Corner
Convergers: Left-Back Corner
Divergers: Right-Back Corner.
(Note: The LSI may be purchased at the following website: www.haygroup.com/TL/)
2. Have students break into triads or quartets and use your college catalog to identify
major(s) that appeal to their group.
3. Have each group rotate clockwise and merge with an adjacent group that has a
different learning style. Ask them to note the learning style of the other group and note
any differences between that group’s preferred majors and those preferred by their own
group.
4. Have the groups rotate two more times, thereby enabling each group to have an intergroup interaction with three other learning-style groups.
Multiple Intelligences & High School-Learning Experiences
Steps:
1. Ask students what academic subject came easiest to them to in high school, or in which
they experienced the most success.
2. Form homogeneous groups of 2-4 students who identified the same subject area, and
have them list the skills or talents they think that subject required.
4. Ask the group to identify what type of multiple intelligence most closely matches their
list of skills.
Multiple Intelligences & Team Presentations
Steps:
1. Ask students to identify what they think is their most well-developed type of multiple
intelligence (MI) from among the eight described in the text (p. 85). Or, ask your students
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to take an online multiple-intelligence assessment and have them report the intelligence
type or area in which they scored highest. (For example, they could take a short version
of the MI test at: mitest.com/o7inte~1.htm_)
2. Have students with the same type of MI join together in small groups, and ask them if
their group were to make a group presentation that best reflects the skills associated their
form of MI, what format would they use (e.g., oral presentation, art work, drama, visual
demonstration).
3. Ask students to take the presentation format they identified in step 2 and apply it to any
topic or idea of their choice (e.g., one chapter topic in the text).
4. Ask the groups to make their presentations or ask groups to volunteer.
If you ask for a volunteer group, it may be interesting to note what type of MI group
volunteered to go public with their work and share it with the whole class. For example,
did the interpersonal (social) MI group feel more comfortable making a public
presentation than the intrapersonal (self) group?
It might also be revealing to ask different multiple-intelligence groups assess their
learning styles to see if certain learning styles tend to cluster together with certain MI
types. For example, do the interpersonal (social) intelligence groups tend report being
more extroverted than the intrapersonal (self) intelligence groups? If so, this may explain
their greater willingness to volunteer to publicly present their work in front of the entire
class.
Final Note: This format may also be expanded into a group project, whereby small
groups of students with the same type of MI decide on what particular source of
information to consult and what delivery format they would use to present their project
(e.g., written report, panel presentation, collage, exhibit, dramatic skit, or videotape).
How teams of students with different MI types approach and deliver their group projects
might serve as a vivid illustration of their different skills or talents.
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Chapter 3
Reading Objectives
3.1 Recognize what research findings show about how certain or definite students are
when it comes to their choice of a college major. (p. 74)
3.2 Recognize when (by what term) in the college experience students should reach a
firm decision about their college major. (p. 76)
3.3 Recall why each of the following statement is a myth:
(a) When you choose your college major, you’re choosing your career. (pp. 77-78)
(b) If you want to continue your education after college, you must continue in the
same field as your college major. (p. 79)
(c) To work in a business or corporation, you need to major in business or a technical
field. (p. 81)
(d) If you major in a liberal arts field, the only career available to you is teaching.
(p. 81)
(e) Having specialized skills is more important for career success than general skills.
(pp. 81-82)
3.4 Recognize whether deciding on a major and deciding on a career are decisions that
are usually made simultaneously or at different times. (p. 79)
3.5 Recognize approximately how many units (course credits) are typically required for a
a Bachelor’s degree.
3.6 Recognize the approximate time it takes to complete the following degrees after
graduating from college:
(a) Master’s degree
(b) Ph.D. (doctoral degree)
(c) Medical degree (M.D.)
(d) Law Degree.
(p. 80)
3.7 Recall three key steps that should be taken to reach an effective decision about a
college major. (p. 82)
3.8 Recall three characteristics of your self that you should be aware of when choosing
a college major. (p. 82 &/or p. 90)
3.9 Recognize the following forms of multiple intelligence:
(a) linguistic
(b) spatial.
(c) bodily-kinesthetic (psychomotor).
(p. 85)
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3.10 Recognize the distinction or difference between multiple intelligence and learning
style. (p. 85)
3.11. Recognize the meaning of the following terms:
(a) “free elective”
(b) “restricted elective.” (p. 92)
3.12 Recall three specific strategies that you could use to explore and discover a
personally compatible major. (pp. 92-96)
3.13 Recall three strategies for making the most of your college electives. (pp. 93-94
&/or p. 98).
3.14 Recognize how many courses are usually required to complete a:
(a) minor
(b) concentration area. (pp. 96-97)
3.15 Recognize the meaning of the term, curriculum. (p. 97)
3.16 Recall how taking general education courses in the liberal arts curriculum can help
you discover a personally compatible major. (pp. 97-98)
3.17 Recognize approximately what percentage of courses taken for a college degree
college will be free electives. (p. 98)
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Chapter 3
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Since students often pick a major with the idea that it will lead them to a career or set
of careers, it’s important to have an accurate understanding of the relationship
between majors and careers. Unfortunately, myths exist about the relationship
between majors and careers that can lead student to make uniformed or unrealistic
choices about their college major. Briefly explain why each one of the following
statements is a myth (false or inaccurate):
(a) When you choose your college major, you’re choosing your career.
(b) If you want to continue your education after college, you must continue in the
same field as your college major.
(c) To work in a business or corporation, you need to major in business or a technical
field.
(d) If you major in a liberal arts field, the only career available to you is teaching.
(e) Having specialized skills is more important for career success than general skills.
[Reading objective 3.3; Answer: pp. 77-81]
2. The first step in making an effective choice about a college major is self-awareness—
i.e., being aware of key personal characteristics, and knowing whether they are
compatible with (“match”) the requirements of your chosen major. Cite and briefly
describe three key characteristics of your self that should be carefully examined to
determine if they are compatible with your intended major.
[Reading objective: 3.8; Answer: p. 82 &/or p. 90]
3. Making an effective choice of a college major is a multi-step process. The authors of
your textbook argue that there are three critical steps in this decision-making process.
Briefly describe each of these three key steps.
[Reading objective: 3.7; Answer: p. 82]
4. Whether you’re undecided about a college major or have already made an initial
Choice, you need to adopt strategies that will help you confirm whether that choice is
Most compatible with your personal qualities. Describe three specific strategies you
could use to explore and confirm your choice of a personally compatible major.
[Reading objective: 3.12; Answer: pp. 93-96]
5. By the time you graduate from college, a significant number of your college
credits (units) will be in elective courses. These courses represent the part of the
curriculum you can completely control because you choose what courses they’ll be. If
chosen wisely, electives can represent a golden opportunity for you to enrich the
quality of your college experience and the power of your college degree. Describe
three strategies you can use to make the most of your college electives.
[Reading objective: 3.13; Answer: pp. 93-94 &/or p. 98]
6. During your first two years of college, you will be taking quite a few general
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education courses that comprise the liberal arts curriculum. At the same time, you will
also be trying to reach or confirm your decision about a college major. Briefly describe
how taking liberal arts courses to fulfill your general-education requirements will also
help you discover a personally compatible major.
[Reading objective: 3.16; Answer: pp. 97-98]
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Chapter 3
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Which one of the following statements describing college students’ decisions about
their major is not supported by research?
(a) Less than 10% of new college students feel they know a great deal about the field
they’re intending to major in.
(b) As students proceed through the first year of college, they grow more certain
about the major they chose when they began college.
(c) Over two-thirds of new students change their mind about their major during the
first year of college.
(d) Only one in three college seniors eventually major in the field that they chose
during their first year of college.
[Reading objective: 3.1; Answer: (b), p. 74]
2. At which of the following points or stages in your college experience should you reach
a firm decision about your major?
(a) first year
(b) sophomore year
(c) junior year
(d) senior year.
[Reading Objective: 3.2; Answer: (b); p. 76]
3. When students decide on a major, they’re usually deciding on a career at the same
time.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading Objective: 3.4; Answer: (b), p. 79]
4. To earn your bachelor’s degree (e.g., B.A. or B.S.), approximately how many credits
of general-education (liberal arts coursework) is typically required?
(a) 20
(b) 40
(c) 60
(d) 80
(e) 800 (If you pick me, this means that you’ll be serving a “life sentence” in college.)
[Reading Objective: 3.5(a); Answer: (b) p. 80]
8. Approximately how many total credits (course units) are required for a Bachelor’s
degree (e.g., a B.A. or B.S. degree)?
(a) 40
(b) 60
(c) 80
(d) 120
(e) 1,000 (ouch).
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[Reading objective: 3.5; Answer: (d), p. 80]
9. (Student’s Name) wants to become a rich and famous lawyer (and appear on the TV
program, “LA Law”). After graduating from college, ____ plans to attend law school
at Altered State University to earn her law degree. How many years after his
Bachelor’s degree should _____expect to spend in law school in order to earn his law
degree?
(a) 2 years
(b) 3 years
(c) 6 years
(d) 8 years
(e) a lifetime (____ is a rather slow learner).
[Reading Objective 3.6(a); Answer: (b), p. 80]
10. _____ changes her major as often as she changes TV channels. Suddenly she now
wants to become an Emergency Room nurse (because she loves to save people and
see blood). Following her bachelor’s degree in nursing, she plans to go on to graduate
school where she will obtain a Master’s degree in the same field. How many years
after her Bachelor’s degree should _____ expect to spend in graduate school before
she completes her Master’s degree?
(a) 10 minutes (holy speed-reading skills, _______!)
(b) 2-3 years
(c) 4-5 years
(d) 6-7 years
(e) 67 years (_____ is expecting live a very long and healthy life.)
[Reading objective: 3.6(a); Answer: (b), p. 80];
11. _______ wants to be called “doctor” but he doesn’t want to go to medical school.
So, instead, he’s planning on going to graduate school and earning a doctorate
(Ph.D.). How long would ______probably be in graduate school before he completes
his doctoral degree (Ph.D.)?
(a) 2 years
(b) 4 years
(c) 6 years
(d) 8 years
(e) 8,000 light years (beam ______ up to the starship, Enterprise).
[Reading objective: 3.6(b); Answer: (c), p. 80]
12. Which on the following degrees would take the longest time to complete?
(a) Master’s
(b) Law degree.
(c) Doctorate (Ph.D.)
(d) Medical degree (M.D.)
[Reading objective: 3.6(c); Answer: (d), p. 80]
13. (Student’s name) wants to become a lawyer because she feels that she has good
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analytical reading skills and can debate well. Which one of the following forms of
multiple intelligence does ______ claim to possess?
(a) naturalist
(b) spatial
(c) linguistic
(d) bodily-kinesthetic (psychomotor)
(e) out-of-body anesthetic (psychedelic).
[Reading objective: 3.9(a); Answer: (c), p. 85]
14. (Student’s name) wants to become a funky fashion designer because he think he’s an
extraordinary artist who can visualize designs better than Gucci himself. Which one
of the following forms of multiple intelligence would be most important for
____ to posses in order to succeed in his intended career?
(a) logical-mathematical
(b) spatial
(c) naturalist
(d) linguistic.
[Reading objective: 3.9(b); Answer: (b), p. 85]
15. (Student’s name) thinks she might want to become either a dentist or an oral surgeon.
Which one of the following forms of multiple intelligence should _______ possess to
excel in this career?
(a) naturalist
(b) logical-mathematical
(c) bodily-kinesthetic (psychomotor)
(d) linguistic
(e) sadistic.
[Reading objective: 3.9(c) Answer: (c), p. 85]
16. A minor in a particular subject usually requires about one-half as many courses as a
major.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 3.14(a); Answer: (a), p. 96]
17. A concentration area requires fewer courses than a minor.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 3.14(b); Answer: (a), p. 97)
18. The term curriculum refers to a collection of:
(a) extra-curricular activities
(b) work experiences
(c) volunteer experiences
(d) courses
(e) stamps.
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[Reading objective: 3.15; Answer: (d), p. 97)
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Teaching Chapter 4
STRATEGIC LEARNING:
Applying Research on Human Learning & the Human Brain to Acquire Knowledge
Effectively and Comprehend it Deeply
Key Instructional Goal of this Chapter
One of the primary instructional goals of the first three chapters of the text was to help
students see why college is worthwhile and how it is relevant to their future plans.
Building on this motivational base, Chapter 4’s primary instructional goal is to help
students learn how they can learn—strategically and deeply.
Motivating Students for this Chapter
* The importance of learning effectively and efficiently for achieving college is selfevident; however, its relevance for personal and professional success may be greater
today than at any other time in history. Increasing global interdependence and the
burgeoning information-technology revolution are creating a greater need for humans to
develop transferable learning skills that can be applied in different cultural and
occupational contexts. The current climate of global communication and technological
change also places a higher premium on workers who have learned how to learn and are
able to learn continuously throughout life. Taking a few minutes of class time to point
this out to your students should serve to create a positive anticipatory set for this
instructional unit.
* Explicitly indicate to your students that this unit does not take the traditional “study
skills” approach to improving academic performance. First-year students are likely to
perceive study skills as something that was already covered in high school study (“been
there, done that”). Instead, you’ll be approaching this topic from the perspective of
human learning theory and brain-based (brain-compatible) learning. This should trigger
greater interest in the topic and should make it more stimulating (and challenging) for
your students.
* Remind students that this chapter places heavy emphasis on the underlying reason(s)
for the learning strategies that are recommended. By grounding the suggested strategies
in solid research on human learning and brain functioning should enable students to gain
a deeper understanding of why these strategies are effective, which should benefit
students not only conceptually, but also motivationally.
* Highlight the chapter’s focus on the underlying principles of learning that make the
recommended learning strategies effective. Our goal is to improve your students with a
powerful principle that they can use to improve their learning in different situations or
contexts, both in college and beyond. Encourage your students to see the suggested
strategies less as narrow college-success “tips” and more as a transferable principles,
which they may apply to learn any subject or skill (i.e., they are learning how to learn,
rather than learning what to do).
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Key Points to Make When Covering this Chapter
* Although learning does involve memory, learning and memorizing are not synonymous.
Memorizing represents superficial “surface” learning; “deep” meaningful learning
doesn’t take place by simply pounding information into the brain through sheer
repetition, but by reflecting on that information and doing something to, or with it, such
as transforming it into different words or identifying an example of it
* Learning is a sequential, multi-stage process that involves getting info into the brain
(attention), keeping it in (storage or retention), and getting it out when we need it
(retrieval). It takes all three stages for effective learning to take place and a breakdown at
any one of these stages can lower the quality of academic performance. On the other
hand, if learning is divided and conquered at each of these key stages, it becomes a more
manageable task. This chapter focuses primarily on the first two stages in the learning
process. Chapter 5 focuses primarily on the memory retrieval stage of the learning
process.
* Learning is a multi-modal process that occurs more effectively when multiple sensory
modalities are involved in the learning process (hearing, seeing, touching, moving, etc.).
* Timing matters in learning, i.e., effective learning depends on what is done before the
learning process begins (ensuring attention), what is done during the learning process
(monitoring comprehension), and what is done after the learning process (promoting
consolidation).
Points of Clarification Regarding this Chapter
* If you are familiar with Benjamin Bloom’s oft-cited taxonomy of learning objectives,
we have used the comprehension and application levels of the taxonomy as criteria for
identifying “deep learning.” Our review of the literature revealed that many scholars view
comprehension as the mental process that distinguishes deep, meaningful learning from
rote memorization. The most frequently cited “litmus test” for determining whether
students have deeply learned (comprehended) something, rather than simply memorized
it, is if they can apply it to a new situation or problem that they have not encountered
before. Since the terms “comprehension” and “application” are so frequently used to refer
to learning rather than to advanced thinking, we elected to keep those two terms out of
the higher-level thinking taxonomy we created in chapter 6, and used them in Chapter 5
to represent the key mental processes that distinguish deep learning from surface or
superficial learning (rote memorizing).
* No specialized method or format for note-taking was described in this chapter (e.g.,
outline method or Cornell method) because we have found that students often have
difficulty applying a single method effectively across different types of academic
disciplines and different lecturing styles. Furthermore, students sometimes get so
preoccupied with adhering to the note-taking format that it distracts them from the more
131
important task of listening actively and processing meaningfully the information that is
being conveyed to them during lectures.
Nonetheless, given the popularity of the Cornell Method of Note-Taking, we include it
as one possible exercise in the following section.
Possible Exercises/Assignments for Chapter 4
Lecture Note-Taking Exercises
Using the Cornell Note-Taking System
Steps:
1. On a single 8-1/2 x 11 page of notepaper, have student draw a vertical line about 21/2
inches from the left edge of the page and a horizontal line about 2 inches from the bottom
edge of the page (as depicted in the scaled-down illustration below).
← 81/2" →
← 21/2" →
← 6"→
↑
Area C
9"
Area A
↓
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
↑
2"
Area B
↓
2. While presenting lecture information, have students use the large space to right of the
vertical line (Area A) to record notes during your presentation.
3. After completing your presentation, ask students to use the space at the bottom of the
page (Area B) to summarize the main points recorded on that page of their notes.
Note: To convert this exercise into a team-learning format, have pairs of students work
together to complete steps 2 though 6.]
4. Ask students to use the column of space on the far left side of the page (Area C) to
write questions that are answered in their notes on the right.
5. Ask students to quiz themselves by looking at the questions listed in the left margin
while covering the answers to them that are written on the right (their class notes).
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6. Have students reflect on the material they recorded in their notes by asking them to
apply to it one or more of the higher-level thinking questions listed on pp. 201-202 of the
text (e.g., a synthesis question, such as: “How can this idea be joined or connected with
what I’ve learned in the text?” )
Note: This final step is particularly useful for helping students move beyond notetaking to note-making (i.e., finding meaning in their notes, or making meaning from their
notes).
Active Knowledge Sharing
Steps:
1. Before delivering a short lecture, provide students with a list of questions relating to
the subject matter to be covered (e.g., words to define, people to identify, pretest of facts
or concepts).
2. Have students pair-up to answer the questions as best as they can.
3. Have students mill around the room to find other pairs who may have answers to
questions they’re unable to answer (Silberman, 1996).
Note: This procedure also serves the important purpose of pre-assessing and activating
students’ prior knowledge (and latent misconceptions) before the learning process begins.
Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs
Steps:
1. At a designated point during a lecture, stop your presentation and have students form
pairs.
2. While in pairs, have partners take turns, asking each other questions such as: “What
have you got in your notes thus far?” or, “What are the most important points that have
been presented?” Each member of the pair should attempt to take something from the
other’s notes to include in her own notes (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1995).
Scripted Cooperation
Steps:
1. At a key point during the lecture, have students form pairs and ask one member to
assume the role of summarizer—who attempts to summarize the information the
instructor has presented without looking at his notes, while the other assumes the role of
listener—who provides feedback about its accuracy and completeness.
2. Have partners elaborate on the information by personalizing it, relating it to previously
learned information, or creating mnemonic devices to remember it (O’Donnell, 1994).
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Note: This structure and the preceding one (“Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to
intercept the attention loss that often accompanies listening to lectures by engaging
students in tasks that requires them to actively process the information they’ve received.
Closure Note-Taking Pairs
Steps:
1. At the conclusion of a lecture, one partner summarizes her notes for the other—who, in
turn, corrects any mistakes and adds any missing information.
2. Each member should attempt to take something from her partner’s notes and include it
in her own (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991).
Pair Review
Steps:
1. At the end of a lecture, present students with a list of topics that have been covered.
2. Have students form pairs and ask them to recall as many things as they can remember
about each topic (Silberman, 1996).
Note: This structure and the preceding one (“Closure Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to
summarize and bring closure to the lecture-learning process, ensuring that students reflect
on and consolidate the information they’ve received.
Reading Exercises
Dyadic Essay Confrontation (DEC
Steps:
1. In response to an assigned reading, have students work individually outside of class to
(a) construct an integrative essay question that compares the reading with previously
covered material, and (b) write a model answer to this question.
2. During class time, ask students to (a) exchange essay questions with another student
and write a spontaneous essay in response to the question they receive, and (b) compare
their spontaneous answer with the model answer, noting similarities and differences
(Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993).
Pairs Think – Turn Teach
Steps:
1. Forms teams of four and have them subdivide into two sets of pairs.
2. Each pair learns one-half of an instructional unit or textbook chapter. Then each pair
turn-teaches its half of the unit to the other pair (Kagan, 1992).
Studying Exercises
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Term Teaming
Steps:
1. Form four-member teams and give each team a list of four terms to research, define,
and self-teach. Members of each team are assigned a number—1, 2, 3, or 4, and all
students with the same number are assigned the same term.
2. Students research their individual terms (e.g., by using their textbook and class notes),
then the “number-one” students pair up with the “number-two” students and teach them
what they have learned. The “number-three” students do the same for the “number-four”
students.
3. Students reverse roles and students with numbers two and four do the teaching.
4. Partners rotate (e.g., 1 & 3, 2 & 4) and continue to rotate until all four terms have been
taught to all four team members (Dentler, 1994).
Biological Rhythm Timeline
Steps:
1. Ask students to take a moment to think individually about what time of day tends to be
their “peak period,” i.e., when they are most productive mentally.
2. Designate a line across the room (left to right or front to back), representing early
morning (e.g., 7 AM) to late night (e.g., 11 PM), and have students take a position on that
line which corresponds to their period of peak productivity.
3. Form homogenous groups of students with similar peak periods and ask them to
exchange e-mail addresses in the event they would like to form study groups for your
class or other classes they may have in common during their first term in college.
Cooperative Study Groups
Steps:
1. Ask students form 4-member study groups and register their group with the instructor
by providing their names and student identification numbers. (Groups may release or add
a new member by unanimous vote; however, if group membership falls below four, the
group is considered disbanded until members vote in a replacement).
2. Students who are members of registered study groups receive bonus points for each
course assignment, provided that their group has registered prior to the assignment’s due
date. The bonus is based on an average of all individual grades received by group
members, according to the following formula: If the average grade is A, all members
receive three percentage points; if the average grade is B, they receive two percentage
points; and if the average grade is C, they receive one percentage point. If an individual
student receives an A on the assignment, but the group average is C, that student still
receives a bonus of one percentage point (Robinson, cited in Weimer, 1991).
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Chapter 4
Reading Objectives
4.1 Recognize how the percentage of students earning “A” and “B” grades in high school
compares with the percentage in college. (p. 106)
4.2 Recall the difference between shallow, surface-oriented learning and deep, meaningoriented learning. (p. 108)
4.3 Recall the cause of “absentmindedness.” (p. 111)
4.4 Recall three strategies that would help you learn more deeply. (p. 131)
4.5 Recall what is meant by the “tip-of-tongue” phenomenon and what it demonstrates
about human memory. (p. 114)
4.6 Recall the three key stages in the learning and memory process. (p. 114)
4.7 Recognize what research shows about the relationship between writing down
information during lectures and remembering that information. (p. 115)
4.8 Recall why students who record notes while listening to lectures tend to remember the
recorded information better and earn higher grades. (p. 115)
4.9 Recognize strategies for using selective attention to detect the most important
information your instructors are delivering during class lectures. (p. 116)
4.10 Recognize nonverbal behaviors that indicate you’re paying close attention during
lectures. (p. 118)
4.11 Recognize what research shows about the effectiveness of taking your own notes
versus relying on someone else’s notes. (p. 120)
4.12 Recognize effective strategies for improving textbook-reading comprehension and
retention at the following stages in the reading process:
(a) before beginning to read (pp. 122-123)
(b) while reading (pp. 123-126)
(c) after reading (p. 126).
4.13 Recognize what research shows about the effects of multi-tasking on human
performance. (pp. 127-128)
4.14 Recognize what is meant by the term “distributed practice.” (p. 129)
4.15 Recall the part-to-whole method of studying and how it capitalizes on the memory
principle of “relearning savings time.” (p. 130)
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4.16 Recognize what research shows about the effectiveness of studying different
subjects in different places (p. 132).
4.17 Recognize what is meant by the term “dual coding.” (p. 133)
4.18 Recall three strategies for checking whether you truly understand what you’re
learning, rather than just memorizing it. (p. 137)
4.19 Recognize an example of the following types of knowledge:
(a) declarative (semantic) knowledge
(b) procedural (skill) knowledge
(c) episodic knowledge. (p. 138)
4.20 Recall why learning-memory strategies are life-success and lifelong learning
skills that you’ll use throughout life, particularly in the current era of rapid
technological change. (p. 141)
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Chapter 4
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. One characteristic of successful college students is that they are deep, meaningoriented learners; in contrast, less successful students tend to be shallow, surfaceoriented learners. Briefly describe the difference between these two approaches to
learning. [Reading objective: 4.2] [Answer: p. 108]
2. Absentmindedness is a common from of forgetting (e.g., forgetting where we put our
keys). Briefly explain what causes this type of memory failure. [Reading objective:
4.3][Answer: p. 111]
3. When humans learn deeply, they are more likely to retain what they learn for long
periods of time. Briefly describe three strategies you could use to promote deeper,
longer-lasting learning. [Reading Objective: 4.4][Answer: p. 113]
4. Memory is a multi-stage process that involves successful completion of three key steps
before something can be recalled. Briefly describe each of these three key stages in the
memory process. [Reading Objective: 4.6][Answer: pp. 110-114]
5. Some students think that if they just listen to what the instructor is saying, rather than
trying to take notes and listen a the same time, they well better understand and remember
lecture information. In reality, the opposite tends to be true: Students who take notes
while listening to lectures, remember the information better and earn higher grades.
Briefly explain why recording notes while listening improves learning and memory.
[Reading objective: 4.8][Answer: p. 115]
6. One reason why students procrastinate and cram for exams is that they believe
studying ahead of time is a waste of time because, by test time, they’ll forget what they
studied ahead of time. However, research on the “part to-whole” study method indicates
that when students study in advance, they do not completely forget what they’ve studied
and actually outperform students who cram.
Briefly describe what the part-to-whole study method involves, and explain how it
capitalizes on the memory principle of “relearning savings time.”
[Reading objective: 4.15][Answer: p. 130]
7. Thelma and Louise are talking to each other before an upcoming exam, and the
conversation goes something like this:
Thelma: “Did you study for the test?”
Louise: “Yeah, I did.”
Thelma: “Do you know it?”
Louise: “Hmm . . . I think I know it.”
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This conversation points to a very important question about learning and comprehension:
How do you know if you really know it? Briefly describe three strategies for determining
whether you really know (understand or comprehend) what you’re trying to learn.
[Reading objective: 4.18][Answer: pp. 137-138]
Chapter 4
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. In high school, 50 % of students earn grades of “A” and “B”; in college, the percentage
is:
(a) 10%
(b) 33%
(c) 50%
(d) 75 %.
[Reading objective: 4.1] [Answer: (b), p. 106]
2. When we are close to recalling something, but cannot quite do so, we often say: “Oh,
it’s on the tip of my tongue.” This tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon demonstrates the
importance of which one of the following stages of human memory:
(a) attention
(b) storage
(c) retrieval
(d) sensory perception. [Reading objective: 4.5][Answer: (c), p. 114]
3. During lectures, if students only listen to what the professor is saying, they tend to
remember it better than when they try to listen and record notes at the same time.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 4.7][Answer: (b), p. 115]
4. Which one of the following behaviors or cues would be an indicator that a college
instructor is delivering an important piece of information in class?
(a) speaking softly
(b) speaking slowly
(c) losing eye contact with the class
(d) scratching his nose
(e) rubbing his thighs.
[Reading objective: 4.9][Answer: p. 116]
5. Which one of the following behaviors or cues would also be an indicator that a college
instructor is delivering an important piece of information in class?
(a) speaking at a rapid rate
(b) standing still
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(c) moving closer to the students
(d) moving to the side of class
(e) moving out of the classroom and into the nearest restroom.
[Reading objective: 4.9][Answer: p. 116]
6. _____ (female student’s name) wants to be sure that she’s paying close attention to her
instructor. Which one of the following nonverbal behaviors would best indicate to _____
that she is really paying close attention during her instructor’s lecture?
(a) She makes continuous eye contact with the instructor—staring at him until her eyes
begin to burn a bit.
(b) She makes no eye contact with the instructor.
(c) She nods her head continuously—like a bobble-head doll.
(d) She orients her body squarely in the direction of the instructor so that her shoulders
line up directly with his.
(e) She looks out the window, hoping to spot something more interesting than the lecturer
himself.
[Reading objective: 4.10][Answer: p. 118]
7. Which one of the following would not be an effective textbook-reading strategy?
(a) After previewing a chapter, thinking about what knowledge or ideas you may have
that relate to the chapter’s topic.
(b) Reading the chapter’s summary before reading the chapter.
(c) Making written notes on what you’re reading.
(d) Reading different subjects (e.g., science and literature) at the same speed.
[Reading objective: 4.12][Answer: (d), pp. 122-126]
8. Research on multi-tasking indicates that when students are studying material that
requires higher-level thinking, the only task they can do at the same time without
interfering with their concentration is listening to music.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 4.13][Answer: (b) p. 128]
9. The distributed practice method of studying involves studying more frequently and in
shorter study sessions than cramming (massed practice).
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 4.14][Answer: (a), p. 129]
10. Research on human learning and memory indicates that it is best to study all subjects
in the same place (location).
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 4.16][Answer: p. 132]
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11. Waldo likes to study his assigned reading before exams by looking at the pictures and
figures in the chapter and recalling the verbal (written) information in the chapter that
relates to the pictures and figures. Waldo is using a memory-improvement principle
known as:
(a) distributed practice
(b) procedural knowledge
(c) episodic knowledge
(d) dual coding.
[Reading objective: 4.17][Answer: (d), p. 133]
12. You are taking a laboratory exam in chemistry. You are given a substance and asked
to conduct an experiment, taking all the necessary steps needed to determine whether the
substance you’ve been given is an acid or base. This exam question is testing for a type of
knowledge known as:
(a) declarative (semantic) knowledge
(b) procedural (skill) knowledge
(c) episodic knowledge
(d) psychedelic knowledge.
[Reading objective: 4.19(b)] [Answer: p. 138]
13. You are taking an exam in human anatomy and physiology, and one test question
asks you to explain what happens in the pancreas to cause diabetes. This exam question is
testing for a type of knowledge known as:
(a) declarative (semantic) knowledge
(b) procedural (skill) knowledge
(c) episodic knowledge
(d) neurotic knowledge.
[Reading objective: 4.19(a)] [Answer: p. 138]
14. Another question on a human anatomy and physiology exam asks you to identify the
location of the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. This exam question is testing for a type of
knowledge known as:
(a) declarative (semantic) knowledge
(b) procedural (skill) knowledge
(c) episodic knowledge
(d) psychotic knowledge.
[Reading objective: 4.19(c)] [Answer: pp. 138-39]
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Teaching Chapter 5
IMPROVING MEMORY AND TEST PERFORMANCE:
Strategies for Remembering What You Have Learned and
Demonstrating What You Know
Key Instructional Goal of this Chapter
The previous chapter focused on the first two stages of the learning-memory process:
(1) getting information into the brain (attention) and (2) keeping in there (storage or
retention). The primary goal of this chapter is to equip students with effective strategies
for the third and final stage in the learning-memory process: accessing and retrieving
information that has been stored (studied).
Motivating Students for this Chapter
* Learning, memory, and thinking are interconnected mental processes. Memory plays a
pivotal role in the learning-and-thinking process because, if you can’t remember (access
and retrieve) information that you’ve learned, you can’t build on it, communicate it, or
apply higher-level thinking skills to it. It would be like having great information stored
on the hard drive of your PC, but not being able to call it up to and use it or to send it to
anybody else.
* Studies show that the vast majority of test questions on college exams require
remembering factual information. While it is true that higher-level thinking skills, such as
critical thinking and creativity, are valued by college professors and future employers,
achieving good grades in college still requires the basic ability to remember information.
* The importance of good memory for success in school and beyond is well illustrated by
the vast number of how-to-improve-your-memory books that can be found in the selfhelp section of any popular bookstore.
Key Points to Make When Discussing this Chapter
* Repetition should not be the first strategy used when we’re trying to remember
something. Remembering is not synonymous with rote memorization—pounding
information into the brain through mindless repetition. Although repetition is required for
certain types of memory (e.g., skill memory, such as serving a tennis ball), remembering
factual information and mental concepts occurs more effectively by using memory
strategies that involve learning actively, finding meaning, and thinking creatively. The
memory-improvement techniques discussed in this chapter can transform the process of
remembering from a dull, repetitive task into a more stimulating learning experience.
* The chapter consists of multiple mnemonic devices and strategies, so to ensure that
your students don’t “lose the forest for the trees,” remind them that all these different
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strategies boil down to using one of four key memory-promoting principles: finding
meaning, creating organization, visualizing, or using rhythm and rhyme.
* Research shows that the vast majority of people who are good at remembering things
are not born with an extraordinary genetic gift (e.g., photographic memory); instead,
good memory is developed through the consistent use of strategic memory-strengthening
methods or techniques, such as those discussed in this chapter.
* Memory is displayed or demonstrated in different forms (e.g., recall and recognition),
and different types of test questions call for different forms of memory (e.g., essays
versus multiple-choice questions). Since not all tests are created equally, remembering
information for an upcoming exam requires being aware of the type of test questions that
will appear on the exam and adjusting your study methods to the type of memory that the
test questions will ask for or demand.
* Timing matters: Test performance and test grades depend on what is done immediately
before a test (e.g., timely review of mnemonic devices), during a test (using effective
test-taking strategies), and after a test (diagnosing errors so they don’t reoccur on
subsequent tests).
* Experiencing a moderate amount of anxiety or stress during an exam is not a bad thing;
it indicates motivation and generates adrenalin, which can improve test performance.
* If you have your students complete the midterm-evaluation exercise at the end of the
chapter, this may be the prime time to raise such questions as:
(a) If you studied a lot for your midterm exams and still did poorly, what happened?
What can you do now to reduce the likelihood that this doesn’t happen again on your
finals?
(b) If you have an extremely low grade in a course at this point, how should you
determine whether or not to drop the course or continue with it? (This may also be a
propitious time to discuss the advantage and disadvantages of withdrawing from courses,
and whom students should consult with to make this decision.)
(c) What grades would land a student on academic probation? What are the
consequences of being on academic probation? What does it take to get off academic
probation?
(d) What grades qualify a student for academic awards and honors? What specific types
of academic awards and honors does the college bestow on high-achieving students
(Dean’s List, Honors Program, Divisional Awards, etc.)?
Possible Exercises/Assignments for Chapter 5
Consultation with a Learning Assistance or Academic Development
Specialist
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As an extension of the last step in the first or second exercise described at the end of the
chapter, you can easily generate an assignment for students to consult with a learning or
academic development specialist. This would ensure that your students at least discover
where your Learning Resource Center is and that they have at least one contact with a
supportive learning-assistance professional during their first term. This initial contact
could involve a review of students’ learning habits and strategies that they used to
prepare for or midterm exams, with the objective of identifying current strengths and
areas for improvement.
The initial connection made with this support service created through this assignment
may establish an early habit among students that could continue beyond their first term in
college. The questions below may be used as prompts for a student reflection paper on
their consultation with a learning assistance or academic development professional.
Learning Resource Center Reflection Paper
1. Date of appointment ___________________________
2. Who did you meet with in the Learning Center? ______________________
3. Was your appointment useful? (e.g., Did you gain any insights or acquire any new
learning or test-taking strategies?)
4. What specific steps were recommended to you for improving your academic
performance?
5. How likely are you to actually take the specific steps mentioned in the previous
question: (a) definitely, (b) probably, (c) possibly, (d) unlikely? [Why did you choose
this answer?]
6. Are you using any learning strategies or habits that were identified as personal
strengths, which you should continue to use?
7. Do you plan to revisit the Learning Center (or related campus resources) to assist
you this term? (If yes, why? If no, why not?)
Memory-Improvement Exercises
Team Recall
Steps:
1. At the start of class, ask students to list on a sheet of paper everything they can
remember that was covered in the previous class period.
2. Ask students to pair-up with a partner and add any info on their partner’s list that
wasn’t on their own list. (Have them skip space after their own list before adding their
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partner’s information, so that they can easily distinguish their own ideas from those
contributed by their partner.)
3. In round-robin fashion, ask different pairs of students to share an item from their
combined list and record it on the board.
4. Have the student pairs add all items that appear on the board that were that were not
the list they created with their partner. (Ask them to skip a space again after the last
entry on their list before adding these items, so that they can easily identify ideas added
to their list that were recalled by other students in class.)
5. Ask students to note how many ideas were recalled by their partner and other students
in class, above and beyond those that they recalled individually.
Note: This procedure helps to highlight for students how teamwork (e.g., study groups)
can improve memory and test performance.
Mnemonic-Device Corners
Steps:
1. Ask students to choose one corner of the room based on whether they think they could
best create mnemonic devices based on (a) visualization, (b) organization (e.g.,
acrostics), (c) rhythm-and rhyme, or (d) a meaningful story.
2. Have students form 3- or 4-member teams in their corner of the room, and ask them to
create a mnemonic device for remembering some material that you present to them.
(What works best is material that contains about 5-7 separate pieces or “bits” of
information—e.g., the seven habits of highly effective people, or the seven deadly
sins.)
3. Have one student on each team rotate clockwise to an adjacent team and share
the mnemonic device created by their “home team.” Continue this rotation until the
rotating student returns back to her home team.
4. At the beginning of the next class period, ask the class if they can recall the material
for which they created a mnemonic device in the previous class.
Note: This practice should serve to demonstrate to students the power of mnemonic
Devices, as well as how their production can stimulate creative thinking.
Test-Preview Exercises
Learning Tournaments
Steps:
1. In advance of an upcoming test, form 4-member teams and have students review and
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study some material that will appear on the test.
2. Have teammates take an individual test on that material that is comprised of easy-toscore test questions (e.g., several multiple-choice or true-false questions drawn from
this Manual’s test bank).
3. Have students tally their individual test scores.
4. Ask all team members to pool their individual test scores to obtain a single “team
score.” Announce these team scores and declare a winner.
This procedure can end here, or it may continue with successive “rounds” of
additional material to be studied and additional sets of tests questions (Silbereman,
1997).
Note: This procedure serves two primary purposes: (a) it helps students prepare for
upcoming exams in your course, and (b) it models for them the value of studying in
groups, which may increase the likelihood that they will do so outside of class for your
course and for other courses as well.
Numbered Heads Together
Steps:
1. Pose a question to 3- or 4-member teams of students with the directive that they should
put their “heads together” and make sure that every member on the team knows the
correct answer or solution.
2. After the team reaches consensus on what they think the correct answer is, have
students number-off within their teams (i.e., each student takes the number 1, 2, 3, or
4).
3. Randomly call out one of the four numbers and ask only the student with that number
to respond on his or her team’s behalf (Kagan, 1992).
To add some drama and game-like atmosphere to this step of the procedure, roll a die
to randomly identify the student number that will be called.
Note: Because the answer is team-generated and the individual student reporting the
team’s answer typically experiences less anticipatory anxiety or apprehension about
giving the wrong answer (and experiences much less embarrassment experienced if an
incorrect answer happens to be reported).
Think-Heads Together
This team test-review format represents a minor modification of “Numbered Heads
Together” whereby students are allotted a preparatory period of private, individual think
time to incubate about the correct answer or solution before joining the team discussion
(Kagan, 1992).
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Collaborative Test-Taking Exercises
Cooperative Study Groups
Steps:
1. Have students form 4-member study groups and register their group with you by
providing the names of all group members. (Groups may release or add a new member
by unanimous vote; however, if group membership falls below four, the group is
considered disbanded until members vote in a replacement).
2. Students who are members of registered study groups receive bonus points for each
course assignment, provided that their group is registered prior to the assignment’s due
date, and they document how they collaborated to complete the assignment when it’s
submitted. Each team member must submit his or her own work on an individual basis.
3. Each team member receives an individual grade based on the quality of his or
her own work. However, bonus points are added to each teammate’s score based on an
average of all individual grades received by group members. For example, if the
average grade is A, all members receive 10 bonus points; if the average grade is B,
they receive five bonus points; and if the
average grade is C, they receive two bonus points.
If an individual student receives an A on the assignment, but the group average is
lower, bonus points are still added to that student’s grade, based on the group’s average
(Robinson, cited in Weimer, 1991).
Note: This procedure is designed to provide a strong incentive for students to form
learning teams and to work interdependently, yet all teammates are held personally
accountable for the quality of their individual work.
Group Exam
Steps:
1. Have the same 3- or 4-member team of students work on group tasks periodically
throughout the term.
2. Students take an exam individually.
3. After students turn in their exams, ask team members to assemble and complete a
single answer sheet for the same exam. If the group score is higher than the individual
score for any individual group member, the group earns bonus points that are added to
each member’s test score. The total number of bonus points awarded is determined by
subtracting the highest individual score from the group score, with the maximum
bonus being 10% of the total exam score (Keyworth, 1989).
In a variation of this procedure, you can have students keep a copy of their individual
exams for reference during the team test. To ensure academic integrity and individual
accountability, you can distribute a special-colored pen (e.g., purple) for students to use
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during the individual exams and collect these pens before students assemble for the team
exam, thereby ensuring that students’ individual test score and their team score are
clearly differentiated (Creed, in Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Test-Review Exercises
Test Review-&-Troubleshooting Teams
Steps:
1. Students complete and submit an exam individually.
2. Return the test questions and have students form teams whose charge is to locate the
source of information where the correct answer to the test question was found (e.g.,
instructor’s lecture notes, handouts distributed in class, or assigned readings).
3. Teams return the exam to the instructor after they have listed next to each test question
the information source from which they think the answer to that question was drawn or
derived. Bonus points are awarded to individual team members based on the total
number of correct sources identified by their team (Cuseo, 2000).
Note: This procedure is designed to increase student awareness of where test questions
come from, and it provides an incentive for students to start developing the habit of
locating the informational source of test questions they missed.
Team Learning
Steps:
1. Prior to class, students complete a reading assignment (e.g., a textbook chapter, or a
portion thereof).
2. Individually, students take a closed-book quiz on the assigned reading.
3. Students take the same quiz as a team, attempting to reach consensus with respect to
the correct answers for all test questions; this “team quiz is also submitted and all
teammates receiving the same “team score.”
4. Each student’s individual quiz score and team quiz score are counted equally toward
the student’s final course grade (Michaelsen, 1992).
Note: This testing procedure serves two purposes: (a) it holds students responsible for
completing their reading assignments, and (b) it encourages students to work
collaboratively and grapple with the challenging task of reaching consensus.
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Chapter 5
Reading Objectives
5.1 Recall the meaning of the term, “mnemonic device.” (p. 146)
5.2 Recognize the four research-based memory principles that mnemonic devices are
based on. (p. 146)
5.3 Recall how the process of “reconstruction” is involved in memory retrieval. (p. 147)
5.4 Recall how meaningful association can improve memory. (p. 147)
5.5 Recognize two ways in which visualization may be used as a mnemonic device. (p.
149)
5.6 Recognize how acrostics are used to improve memory. (p. 152)
5.7 Recognize the link system strategy for improving memory. (p. 153)
5.8 Recognize the loci method for improving memory. (p. 154)
5.9 Recognize the relationship between test anxiety and procrastination (p. 156)
5.10 Recognize what types of test questions require recognition memory. (p. 156)
5.11 Recognize what types of test questions require recall memory. (p. 156)
5.12 Recognize whether recognition or recall test questions place a greater demand on
(pose a greater challenge for) human memory. (p. 157)
5.13 Recognize what type of test question requires practicing memory retrieval while
studying. (p. 158)
5.14 Recognize the following strategies for practicing memory retrieval:
(a) recitation
(b) creation of retrieval cues. (pp. 158-159)
5.15 Recognize the classroom seat you should occupy during a test in order to maximize
your memory for information you learned in the classroom. (p. 161)
5.16 Recall two nutritional strategies you can use to strengthen your academic
performance on the day of an exam. (p. 162)
5.17 Recall three strategies for managing test anxiety during an exam. (p. 164)
5.18 Recognize the amount of stress you should be experiencing during an exam in order
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to maximize your concentration and memory. (p. 165)
5.19 Recognize the process-of-elimination strategy for taking multiple-choice tests (p.
166)
5.20 Recognize what research shows about changing your answers on multiple-choice or
true-false tests. (p. 167)
5.21 Recall three effective strategies for answering essay test questions. (p. 168)
5.22 Recall three features of high-quality feedback that you should seek following an
exam in order to improve your performance on the next exam. (p. 171)
5.23 Recall three questions you can ask yourself following an exam to pinpoint the
source (cause) of lost points. (p. 173)
5.24 Recall how to compute your grade-point average (GPA). (p. 173)
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Chapter 5
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Your computer retrieves information in the exact form in which it was stored or saved.
In contrast, human memories are retrieved by means of a process called “reconstruction.”
Briefly describe what is involved in this reconstruction process of memory retrieval.
[Reading objective: 5.3][Answer: p. 147]
2. One effective strategy for improving memory is by making a meaningful association
between what you’re trying to remember and what you already know. Briefly explain
why this is an effective memory-improvement strategy.
[Reading objective: 5.4] [Answer: p. 147]
3. Research has not conclusively demonstrated that there is a particular type of food that
humans can consume which can dramatically improve our ability to learn and retain
knowledge. However, there is evidence that certain nutritional strategies can be used on
the day of an exam to improve our mental performance. Briefly describe two nutritional
strategies that you could use to improve your mental performance on test day.
[Reading objective: 5.16] [Answer: p. 162]
4. If you happen to experience test anxiety during an exam, briefly describe three
strategies you could use to manage or reduce your anxiety so that it is less likely to
impair your test performance.
[Reading objective: 5.17] [Answer: (b), p. 164]
5. Typically, college tests are made up of either multiple-choice questions or essay
questions, or some combination thereof . Students sometimes find essay tests to be more
difficult because they require writing and place greater demands on memory. Briefly
describe three strategies for improving your memory and performance on essay test
questions.
[Reading objective: 5.21] [Answer: p. 168]
6. Human learns best when they receive feedback about their performance and use that
feedback to improve their future performance. Briefly describe three features or
characteristics of high-quality feedback you should seek following an exam to improve
your performance on future exams.
[Reading objective: 5.22] [Answer: p. 171]
7. When students get tests back from their instructors, they usually just look at the grade
they received; if it’s a bad one, they often become upset or disgusted and do not use the
test results as feedback—to help them discover why they lost points and how they can
prevent losing as many points on the next exam. A bad test performance can be used as
feedback and turned into a good learning experience if the test results are viewed as
“error detectors”—to locate the specific source or stage in the learning process where the
breakdown occurred, which caused points to be lost on the exam. Briefly describe three
151
questions you can ask yourself after an exam to pinpoint the stage in the learningmemory process that was the source or cause of your lost test points.
Chapter 5
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Mnemonics are devices or methods designed to prevent forgetting.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 5.1] [Answer: (a), p. 146]
2. Mnemonic devices may be based on any of the following memory principles except:
(a) meaning
(b) organization
(c) visualization
(d) rhythm and rhyme
(e) recitation.
[Reading objective: 5.2] [Answer: (e), p. 146]
3. If you try to remember something by imagining that it hanging in a place or location
that is very familiar to you, you are using a mnemonic device that is based on the
memory principle of:
(a) organization
(b) visualization
(c) recitation
(d) rhythm and rhyme.
[Reading objective: 5.5] [Answer: (b), p. 149]
4. _____ (male student’s name) is a college senior and has only six more required courses
to complete before he graduates. Naturally, he doesn’t want to forget to take these
required courses, so he creates a mnemonic device to help him remember them—he
takes the first letter of each of his six remaining courses and forms them into one word:
“HERPES” (to stand for: History, English, Religion, Philosophy, Economics,
Sociology). Which one of the following mnemonic devices is _____ using to improve his
memory in this case?
(a) acrostic
(b) loci method
(c) peg system
(d) link system
(e) venereal system.
[Reading objective: 5.6] [Answer: (a), p. 152]
5. Whenever _______ (male student’s name) has to remember a list of items, he makes a
logical association or connection between each successive item on the list (i.e., between
152
the first and second items, the second and third items, etc.) until he completes the entire
list, tying all the items together into one logical sequence or story (which usually has
something to do with fast cars and fast women). Which one of the following mnemonic
devices is ____ using in this case?
(a) recognition
(b) acrostic
(c) link system
(d) loci method
(e) muy loco method.
[Reading objective: 5.7] [Answer: (a), p. 153]
6. Even though she doesn’t drink, whenever _____ (female student’s name) has to
remember a list of items, she takes an imaginary walk through her favorite night club
(“Tommy Trojan’s Punk Pit”) and visually pictures each item she’s trying to remember at
each site along the way. For example, she visualizes the first item hanging on the front
door of the bar, the second item sitting on top of the bottles of booze behind the bar, the
third item lying on the bandstand where the bar’s band (the “Pimple-Pus Pistols”) usually
play, etc. Which one of the following mnemonic devices is ____ using in this case?
(a) loci method
(b) acrostic
(c) recitation
(d) link system
(e) funky chick bar-hopping system.
[Reading objective: 5.8] [Answer: (a), p. 154]
7. Research indicates that students who procrastinate tend to experience less test anxiety
than non-procrastinators.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 5.9] [Answer: (b), p. 156]
8. _____ (male student’s name) likes tests that allow him to use the memory process of
recognition when answering questions. ____ should sign-up for courses in which grades
are based on:
(a) short-essay tests
(b) long-essay tests
(c) multiple-choice tests
(d) sobriety tests
(e) pregnancy tests.
[Reading objective: 5.10] [Answer: (b), p. 156]
9. If you were a college professor (“yeah, right”), and you wanted your students to use
recall memory, which one of the following tests should you give?
(a) multiple-choice test
(b) essay test
(c) matching test
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(d) true-false test
(e) urine-analysis test.
[Reading objective: 5.11] [Answer: (b), p. 156]
10. Practicing memory retrieval while studying is more important when preparing for
essay tests than for multiple-choice tests.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 5.13] [Answer: (a), p. 158]
11. _____ (female student’s name) is an actress who tries to remember her lines wordfor-word without looking at them. Which one of the following memory strategies is ____
using?
(a) acrostic
(b) loci method
(c) recognition
(d) recitation.
[Reading objective: 5.14a] [Answer: pp. 158-59]
12. The old practice of tying a string around your finger to remember something is a
good example of which one of the following memory-improvement strategies:
(a) recitation
(b) retrieval cue
(c) acrostic
(d) loci method.
[Reading objective: 5.14b] [Answer: (b), p. 159]
13. When taking a test, if you wanted to maximize your memory for information you
learned in class, research suggests that you should take the test in the same seat where
you usually sit.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 5.15] [Answer: (a), p. 161]
14. To maximize your concentration and memory during an exam, your stress level
should be:
(a) low
(b) moderate
(c) high
(d) none of the above.
[Reading objective: 5.18] [Answer: (b), p. 165]
15. The process-of-elimination strategy for taking multiple-choice tests requires that you
read all the choices listed before picking an answer.
[Reading objective: 5.19] [Answer: (b), p. 166]
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16. Research on multiple-choice and true-false tests suggests that it is best to stick with
your first answer, rather than going over the test again and changing some of your
answers.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 5.20] [Answer: (b), p. 167]
16. At Altered State University, Acid Head Ed took the following courses and received
the following grades:
Introduction to Addiction (3 units) = C (he was really hooked on this course)
Ecstasy 101 (2 units) = A (his most pleasurable class)
Human Aphrodisiacs (1 units) = B (this course really turned him on)
Studs and Steroids (4 units) = B (this class really pumped him up)
History of Hallucinogens (3 units) = D (bad trip)
Use and Abuse of Alcohol (3 units) = F (total blackout)
What was Acid-Head Ed’s GPA be for this heavy dose (I mean, load) of courses?
(a) .5 (how low can you go)
(b) 2.0
(c) 3.0
(d) 4.0
(e) 4.5 (how high can you fly!).
[Reading objective: 5.24] [Answer: (b), p. 173]
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Teaching Chapter 6
Higher-Level Thinking:
Moving Beyond Basic Knowledge and Comprehension to Higher Levels of
Critical & Creative Thinking
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
Three key goals of this chapter are to provide students with: (a) a clear definition of what
higher-level thinking is and what it’s not, (b) a carefully organized classification of
different forms or types of higher-level thinking, and (c) concrete illustrations of how
higher-level may be applied and demonstrated to improve academic performance in
college.
The size of this unit on higher-level thinking (HLT) in the Manual reflects the fact that
this chapter may be the heaviest and headiest one of the text, and it one that students will
probably need the most instructional support and structure to master.
Motivating Students about this Chapter
Point out to students that becoming a critical and creative thinker is a developmental
process. If they can make the effort to establish good habits of good thinking skills early
in their college experience, they are likely to become natural habits that can be applied
routinely to improve the quality of their performance and decision-making in college and
in their personal life.
By heightening students’ awareness of the long-term and transferable value of effective
thinking skills and encouraging them to use these skills in their discipline-based courses,
then students will be able to demonstrate HLT “across the curriculum” and develop a
lifelong learning skills that they can use throughout their college years and beyond.
DEFINE It:
Help your students get a handle on what
“higher-level thinking” actually means
There is much inconsistency in how “critical thinking” has been defined or described in
higher education (Fisher & Scriven, 1997). Following a 25-year review of the critical
thinking literature, McMillan concluded that, “What is lacking in the research is a
common definition of critical thinking and a clear definition of the nature of an
experience that should enhance critical thinking” (1987, p. 37). Definitions of critical
thinking have ranged from the very narrow—a well-reasoned evaluative judgment or
critique (King & Kitchener, 1994), to the very broad—a general concept that includes all
forms of higher-level thought processes, sometimes referred to as “higher-order thinking
skills” or “HOTS”, which represent “higher” mental operations than those involved in
merely acquiring knowledge or recalling factual information (Bloom, 1956; Greeno,
1989; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Thus, scholarly definitions of critical thinking have
ranged from the very narrow—a well-reasoned evaluative judgment, to the very broad—
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all thinking that is more complex than mere acquisition of knowledge or rote recall of
factual information.
In chapter 6, we adopted the broader, more inclusive definition and opted for the term,
higher-level thinking, which we define as all thought processes that are higher than rote
memorization or basic comprehension. Thus, in our text, we define learning as taking
place in three progressively high levels or forms: (1) memorization (surface learning), (2)
comprehension (deep learning), and (3) higher-level thinking (higher than
comprehension) that builds on comprehension to move to higher levels of thought (e.g.,
critical and creative thinking).
The broad definition of HLT that we’ve adopted embraces a wide variety of specific
cognitive processes or mental activities that are loosely referred to as critical thinking.
We elected not to use the term “critical thinking” as a generic label for all of these mental
processes; instead, we define it as a particular form of higher-level thinking that involves
an evaluative judgment (as in the word, “critique”). This is an important distinction, not
only for the purpose of definitional clarity, but also for the practical purpose of
combating the prevalent student misconception that critical thinking means being “being
critical.” In fact, this common student misconception is one of the reasons that led to our
decision to title chapter 6, “Higher-Level Thinking,” instead of “Critical Thinking.”
Thus, it may be worth taking some time to clarify for your students that this is not what
critical thinking means. (You can jump-start this clarification process by using your
students’ responses to the “Activate Your Thinking” prompt at the start of the chapter.)
We wish the language of thinking were simpler and more universal, but the reality is
that there is considerable variation and imprecision in the higher education literature with
respect to defining concepts such as “memory”, “learning”, “deep learning”, “critical
thinking”, and “higher-order thinking.” Thus, we elected to adopt our own working
definition and classification system that would lend some consistency and precision to the
language of thinking. Just as content-based academic disciplines have developed their
own well-defined vocabulary (terminology) that serves to advance the discipline and
students’ mastery of it, so, too, should thinking have a well-defined vocabulary that
advances students’ mastery of effective thinking skills. Language can shape and influence
our thoughts; we often think with words in a way that approximates an “internal
conversation.” Thus, if students can learn to speak the language of higher-level thinking,
it’s reasonable to expect that it will increase the likelihood they’ll actually engage in
higher-level thinking.
Once students are clear on what higher-level thinking means, and that there is more to
it than critiquing or criticizing something, you can then turn to clarifying the recurrent
theme that unites all forms of higher-level thinking, namely: it is a mental process that
involves thinking at a higher level than merely memorizing or comprehending
information.
REFINE It:
Help students identify the varieties or forms in which HLT may be displayed
Once you’ve defined HLT in terms of its common theme, then you can proceed to
identify the variations on the theme—i.e., the various forms or varieties of HLT. One
way to simplify the process of identifying all the forms of higher-thinking skills
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described in chapter 6 is to organize them into sets of complementary or contrasting
pairs, as follows:
1. Induction/Deduction: basing inferences (conclusions) on empirical observation or
logical reasoning.
2. Adduction/Refutation: marshalling evidence for or evidence against an argument.
3. Dialectic/Dualistic: thinking in terms of relative strengths & weakness, versus
absolute terms (black-and-white, right-or-wrong).
4. Balanced /Multidimensional: viewing issues from both sides & diverse perspectives
5. Analysis/Synthesis: breaking down or building up ideas.
6. Convergent/Divergent: thinking with a narrow focus that aims at a single idea, versus
wide-focused thinking aimed at multiple ideas.
7. Creative/Critical: generating ideas versus evaluating or judging ideas.
ILLUSTRATE It:
Give Student Concrete Examples of HLT
* Provide students with thinking verbs that illustrate what mental actions represent
higher-level thinking.
The set of HLT question stems on pp. 201-202 of the text can be conveniently used
for this purpose.
* Model higher-level thinking for your students.
For example, rather than simply sharing or supplying students with solution
strategies for college adjustment problems or challenges, consider situating yourself in
the problem situation, as if you were a student, and think through the process of solving
the problem—out loud. This enables you to model higher-level thinking for your
students, and allows them to witness the process of solving a problem in addition to
receiving its final product. You could even ask students to bring college-adjustment
issues or dilemmas to class that you think through extemporaneously and attempt to
resolve in front of them.
A variant of this procedure would be for you to role-play common thinking errors that
students commonly make with respect to a college-related issue—for example, deciding
on a college major or writing a term paper (the reasoning errors described on pp. 195-197
of the text may be used for this purpose.) You could then ask your class to diagnose the
type of thinking error you committed, and have them replace it with a more effective
thought process.
Prompt or Provoke HLT in your Students
* Pose questions to students that are intentionally designed to provoke HLT.
The “Questions for Stimulating Different Forms of Higher-Level Thinking” (pp, 201202) may be used to intentionally promote higher-level thinking in class. You can insert
these questions into your class notes and pose them at times when you’re covering a
particularly important issue.
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You can pose HLT questions for the purpose of stimulating general class discussion or
as a stimulus or focal point for small-group discussions. You could also ask students to
write a one-minute paper in response to the HLT question you pose. Or, you could
reverse the steps and have students write a one-minute paper first, then have them discuss
their written responses. This strategy encourages students to engage in reflection, sending
a signal to students that they should take time to gather their thoughts before expressing
them.
* Create cognitive dissonance or disequilibrium in the minds of students with respect
to course concepts and issues.
This strategy promotes HLT by forcing students to look at issues from more than one
perspective or viewpoint (Brookfield, 1987; Kurfiss, 1988). The following practices are
recommended as strategies for inducing cognitive disequilibrium among your students.
- Persuade students to buy into a certain position, then immediately proceed to “turn the
table” and expose its flaws.
- During class discussions, raise questions that call for multiple student perspectives. (For
example, “Who doesn’t agree with what’s being said?” “Would someone else like to
express an opposing viewpoint?”) Or, at the end of class discussions, assign a one-minute
paper that asks students if there was any point made or position taken during today’s
class session that they strongly question or challenge. You could then use their responses
as springboards for discussion in the next class session.
- Invite and encourage your students to disagree with ideas you present in class or that
are presented in the text. Also, you may openly disagree with an idea presented in the
text, thereby pitting the views of two different authority figures against each other
(teacher and author), which not only serves to create cognitive dissonance, but also helps
students realize that knowledge is often not absolute, known, or owned by authority
figures.
- Invite guest speakers to visit class who hold differing perspectives with respect to a
course topic or issue. For example, invite faculty members who hold different positions
on a contemporary moral or social issue, or invite faculty from different academic
departments or divisions of the college to discuss how their disciplines differ with respect
to how critical and creative thinking is used to advance knowledge.
- Tape TV programs involving debates or panel discussions among authorities who hold
differing positions, and stop them at key times or junctures to engage the class in class
discussion.
Have Students Apply It:
Give them multiple opportunities to Practice HLT
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If students are to develop higher-level thinking skills, instructional methods need to be
used that require student to do something to or with course content, not simply acquire it.
Thinking can be viewed as a mental habit, which, like any other habit, is likely to persist
once it is established. If we want first-year seminar students to become effective thinkers,
they need to be given opportunities to repeatedly practice effective thinking so that they
begin to evolve into habits that they can be readily transferred to other courses across the
curriculum. The following strategies are recommended for providing students with
multiple opportunities to apply and practice HLT.
* After students have communicated their ideas, have them reflect on their thought
processes to assess whether they engaged higher-level thinking and what form of if
they put into practice.
This recommendation can be implemented by occasionally giving students some
“pause time” in class during which they can reflect on the quality of their thinking and
assess whether they have engaged in the thought processes and attitudinal qualities
associated with HLT. For example, after a small-group or whole-class discussion, have
students reflect on the quality of the thinking they displayed during the discussion, or
what type of thinking was called for the discussion question you posed, and have them
share these personal reflections verbally or in writing (e.g., in the form of a short, postdiscussion minute paper). Research indicates that this “meta-cognition” (thinking about
thinking) can be learned by students with the help of thinking self-assessment questions;
when students learn to routinely ask themselves these questions, the depth and quality of
their thinking are enhanced (Resnick, 1986). Students can the taxonomy of higher-level
thinking questions in chapter 6 (pp. 200-201) as a self-assessment guide for determining
whether they are actually engaging in the process of higher-level thinking skills when
they speaking, writing, or studying. Also, the “Characteristics of Higher-Level Thinker”
(pp. 212-213) can be used by students as a self-assessment guide for evaluating whether
they’re displaying the personal qualities that characterize higher-level thinkers.
* Play the role of devil’s advocate to help students see the limitations associated with
different arguments and positions.
For example, if students state an argument or take a position, keep asking the question
“Why?” until it can be taken no further. Or, ask questions such as: (a) “How do you know
that you know or that it’s so?” (b) “How did you arrive at that conclusion?” (c) What
source(s) of information or experiences led you to that conclusion? These questions help
students think through and express the reasoning process behind their arguments and
positions, rather than their simply stating the end product or outcomes of their thinking.
Research indicates that the quality students’ thinking is enhanced when students are
asked to think out loud while they solve problems. This probably occurs because thinking
aloud causes students to: (a) consciously focus on their thought process, and (b) convert
their covert thoughts into overt actions (spoken words) that are observable and more
amenable to being critiqued and improved by the thinker and by others (Resnick, 1986).
* Have students engage in “reverse thinking” by asking them to switch their original
position on an issue being discussed in class.
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This can serve to combat either-or/black-or-white thinking and prompt students to
adopt a more balanced position on controversial issues.
* Have students research and prepare to defend both sides of an issue then randomly
assign them to argue for one side of the issue.
For instance, two students might be given the assignment of researching both sides of a
college-life issue, such as what should be the legal age for alcohol use. Before the debate
begins, a flip of the coin could determine which side of the issue each student will take.
* Use student-centered instructional methods that take you “off stage” and allow
your students to gain access to the perspectives of their peers.
This practice serves to reduce the likelihood that students will perceive you as the
absolute authority who has all the answers and who does all the thinking, while they sit
comfortably (and mindlessly) taking notes on the pearls of wisdom you cast their way.
When students are required to engage in face-to-face discussion of course concepts with
their peers, they are more likely to develop HLT skills than by merely listening to
lectures and writing down your ideas. Peer interaction and collaboration represent a
powerful educational resource for advancing students’ cognitive development and higherlevel thinking skills (Kurfiss, 1988). Higher-level thinking involves risk-taking, and
students are more likely to take the risk of expressing their ideas and sharing their
viewpoints within the sanctuary of a small group of peers. This student-centered context
removes the inhibiting presence of an authority figure, takes the “sage off the stage,” and
allows students to assume ownership or control of the issue being discussed.
The Content for Small-Group Work: Topics or Focus Points
HLT tasks that are ideal for small-group work are those that involve (a) making
difficult choices or decisions, (b) taking a side on a debatable position, (c) discovering
potential solutions to a vexing problem, and (d) identifying possible resolutions to a
thorny issue or dilemma. Such though-provoking tasks lend themselves to higher-level
thinking among peers, particularly when students are expected to express their
differences, grapple with their differences, and attempt reach consensus within their
groups.
Since the first-year seminar is a student-centered course that focuses on the college
experience, issues or dilemmas that relate directly to student experiences in college
represent particularly relevant content for small-group work. The cases that appear at the
end of all chapters are ideal for small-group work. Also, debatable, open-ended questions
that lead to divergent thinking and diverse perspectives can provide a very effective
stimulus and focal point for group work. For example, the following open-ended
questions relating to the college experience may be used to effectively prompt HLT in
small-group settings.
- Should students be graded on a curve?
- Should grades be abolished?
- Should there be no required courses in college (only electives)?
- Does competition or collaboration bring out the best in students?
- What should the legal age be for drinking? Should drinking be allowed at all?
- Is cheating ever justified?
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- Is college worth the cost?
- How important should salary be in affecting a student’s choice of major and career?
- How would you rank creativity, intelligence, or social skills in terms of their importance
for professional success? For personal success?
- How do ability, drive, and luck rank in importance for personal success?
- How important should attractiveness be in romantic relationships?
- Would you say that men and women more alike than they are different, or are they
more different than they are alike?
- Do you believe in sex without love or love without sex?
- Would you agree that it is better to have loved and lost than not to have loved at all?
The stimulus or focal point for group work could also be larger, societal or global issues,
such as contemporary moral issues involving such topics as: stem-cell research, animal
research, euthanasia, war, gun control, cloning, etc. The catalog description of any
contemporary moral issues course offered on your campus could provide potential topics
for promoting HLT in small groups. Also, Taking Sides, a college-level resource
published by McGraw-Hill/Dushkin, provides a wide array of issues that students could
discuss in small groups, including political, legal, environmental, psychological, and
bioethical issues, as well as issues relating to criminal justice, race/ethnicity, and mass
media. (See: www.dushkin.com/takingsides/) In addition, USA Today’s “Our View” and
“Opposing View” columns may also be a useful resource. You might also ask faculty
from different disciplines to provide you with current issues in their field that might be
ripe for group discussion in a first-year seminar. (This strategy would also serves to get
more faculty involved with the seminar, albeit indirectly, which may increase their
cognizance of the course and perhaps their support of it.)
The Process of Small-Group Work: Procedures or Formats
The group procedures and formats for group work that we are about to describe are not
tied to any particular content area or course concept because thinking is a process that can
be applied to any content. Although all the procedures are explicitly spelled out in stepby-step fashion, they are essentially “content-free” and may be transferred or applied to
anything you’d like your students to discuss in a small-group setting.
The sizable number of small-group formats is not intended to overwhelm you with a
dizzying and paralyzing array of procedural decisions. Instead, the large number is
intended to provide you with multiple options, allowing you a significant degree of
freedom to “pick and choose” those procedures that best meet your needs.
The names used to describe the specific procedure are those that were coined by their
originators. Naming or labeling group-learning formats makes it easier to organize them
and to communicate their procedural steps to students. We also recommend keeping the
name of the procedure and its steps in full view of students while they work through it
(e.g., keep the steps projected on a slide or transparency); this will them remember what
they’re supposed and in what order they’re expected to do it.
“Reciprocal Peer Questioning”
Steps:
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1. Have students listen to a presentation (your own or that of a guest speaker) and
generate 2-3 relevant questions pertaining to the presentation, using question stems
designed to elicit higher-level thinking responses (such as those provided on pp.200-201
in the text).
2. Divide your class into two-member groups; have one member pose a higher-level
thinking question while the other member adopts the role of explainer/respondent who
attempts to respond to it, based on the presentation’s content.
3. Have students reverse roles and have the respondent become the questioner who uses a
different set of question stems designed to elicit a different set of higher-level thinking
responses with respect to the presentation’s content.
Note: Research demonstrates that students can effectively learn to apply HLT question
stems to ask and answer higher-level thinking questions on different topics and content
areas (King, 1990). Furthermore, it’s been found that students who engage in this
reciprocal peer question-and-answering interaction are more likely to ask higher-level
thinking questions in subsequent group discussions and demonstrate higher-level thinking
on course examinations (King, 1995).
The following group strategies are designed to promote BALANCED THINKING. They
are intentionally designed to have students listen carefully and thoughtfully consider
arguments on both sides of a controversial issue.
Pro-&-Con Grids
1. Form 3 or 4-member teams and have the teams examine both the pros and cons of a
particular idea or strategy and record them in grid-like format (Angelo & Cross, 1993).
2. Have one member form each team report the pros and a different team member report
the cons.
3. List both pros and cons on the board as they are reported.
4. After all the cons have been listed, ask groups to brainstorm strategies for converting
or transforming the list of “cons” into “pros.”
5. Finally, conduct a plenary discussion and have students note the conversion strategies
generated by different teams.
Forced Debate
Steps:
1. All students who agree with a proposition sit on one side of the room and all who
disagree with that proposition sit on the opposite side.
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2. Form 3- or 4-member teams among students who find themselves on the same side of
the room
3. Then unexpectedly “force” students to argue for the position opposite to the side they
chose (Kalish, 1996).
Timed Pair-Share
Steps:
1. Pair students who hold different views on a particular issue.
2. One member shares her ideas for a designated amount of time (e.g., one minute) while
the partner listens and records the partner’s main ideas.
3. Have partners reverse roles and follow the same procedure for the same amount of
time (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Paraphrase Passport
Steps:
Same as the “Timed Pair-Share”; the only differences are: (a) it’s used either with pairs
of students or in small groups (3 or 4 members) and (b) teammates are asked to
paraphrase or restate the idea of the teammate who has just spoken, before they can
contribute any ideas of their own.
Affirmation Passport
Same steps as “Paraphrase Passport,” except that each teammate is expected to affirm
something about the comment made by the previous student (e.g., its clarity, creativity, or
most persuasive point) before contributing his/her own idea (Kagan, 1992).
Response Gambits
This procedure involves the same steps as Paraphrase Passport, except that each team
member provides a response to the previous teammate’s contribution before being
allowed to share her own idea. To facilitate responses to their teammates, students are
given response stems or sentence starters, such as: “One thing I learned from your
contribution was . . .” or, “Tell me more about . . . .” (Kagan & Kagan, 1997).
Note: The HLT questions stems on pp. 200-201 of the text may be used as the response
stems or sentence starters for this procedure.
Constructive Controversy (a.k.a., “Structured Controversy”)
Steps:
1. Form 4-member teams.
2. Have the quartet divide into two pairs and give them an assignment that asks them to
generate ideas for one side of a controversial issue.
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3. After the pairs complete their work, each pair presents the evidence or arguments it has
gathered for its assigned side of the issue. (The purpose of this sharing is to marshal all
the information available on behalf of the position—not to “defeat” the opposing
position.)
4. After each pair has presented its information on the side of the issue it was assigned,
the pairs then switch sides to research or develop further arguments for the position
opposite to the one they initially endorsed.
5. Finally, all four teammates generate a compilation the best arguments for both points
of view (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1993).
The following group strategies are designed to promote the taking of
MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES.
The purpose of the procedures in this section is to intentionally create heterogeneous
teams of students who hold different perspectives, thereby ensuring that students are
exposed to diverse perspectives—which is likely to induce cognitive dissonance or
disequilibrium. The following procedures should be introduced by instructing group
members to clearly articulate the reasoning behind their own perspectives and to listen
carefully to the reasoning that lies behind other perspectives. Also, a final step could be
added to any of the following procedures, which asks the groups to identify what they
think are the root causes for their disagreement and possible strategies for reducing the
gap between their differing positions.
Corners
Steps:
1. Students move to one corner of the room based on a personal choice, position, or
stance on particular position. For instance, students may move to a corner of the room
that represents their level of agreement with respect to a particular issue or statement
(strongly agree – agree – disagree – strongly disagree).
2. Form 4-member teams, by taking a pair of students from different corners of the room
(i.e., students holding different positions).
3. Within these four-member groups, have the two students who hold the same viewpoint
pair-up and share their best arguments.
4. Then have both pairs take turns listening to each other’s arguments.
5. Finally, have all four students work together to create a final product that represents
the best arguments for both sides of the issue.
Value Line
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Steps:
1. Students form a human line across the room, taking a position on that line that
corresponds to where they stand with respect to a statement on a controversial issue on an
issue (e.g., personal ownership of guns should be banned). The line could represent a
scale of 1-10 with far left representing strong endorsement of the position and far right
representing strong opposition to the positions. Thus, the line serves as a values or
opinion continuum for visually demonstrating the range of student positions on the issue
at hand, and showing students (literally) where they stand on the issue relative to their
peers.
2. From this rank-ordered line, you can form heterogeneous four-member teams by
asking students on opposite ends of the line to join together—a procedure referred to as a
“folded value line”—which results in the creation of teams comprised of students who
most strongly agree with and students who most strongly disagree with the position or
statement. For example, two students representing extreme positions (e.g., positions #1
and #20 in a class of 20 students) join up with two students who’ve taken middle-ground
positions (e.g., positions #10 & 11). Then students in positions #2, 9, 12 and 19 are
grouped, etc. until all students on the value line have been assigned to a heterogeneous
team.
3. Groups then identify evidence or specific incidents that support their different
perceptions, and they collaborate to brainstorm campus strategies for bringing their
discrepant viewpoints closer in line.
Note: A “split value line” procedure may also be used for step 2, whereby the value line
is split in half, at the middle, creating two separate lines. These two lines can then be slid
together in such a fashion that students occupying a middle position—who are likely to
hold a balanced viewpoint that reflects appreciation of both sides of the issue, are teamed
with students occupying the end positions—who hold a more polarized perspective and
are more likely to view the issue in black-and-white terms (Kagan, 1992).
Talking Chips
Steps:
1. Create 3- or 4-member teams of students who hold different viewpoints on an issue
and give each team member a symbolic “talking chip” (e.g., a checker, coin, or pen).
2. Each teammate is instructed to place the chip in the center of the team’s workspace
when he or she makes an individual verbal contribution to the team’s discussion.
3. Teammates can speak in any order, but they cannot speak again until all chips are in
the center—an indication that every team member has spoken.
4. After all chips have been placed in the center, team members retrieve their respective
chips for a second round of discussion—which follows the same rules of equal
participation (Kagan, 1992).
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Response Mode Chips
Same steps as Talking Chips except that teammates use different-labeled or colored
chips that signify different types responses to their teammates—e.g., a “continue
brainstorming” chip, a “summarizing” chip, or an “evaluation” chip (Kagan & Kagan,
1998). (Note: The chips could also be designated as representing different types of
higher-level thinking questions, using the question stems on pp. 201-202 in chapter 6.)
The following group strategies are designed to promote INDUCTIVE REASONING.
PIG (Particular pieces of important information are identified and then Inductive
reasoning is used to formulate a Generalization that states the relationship among the
pieces)
This structure is designed to promote students’ identification of important information in
their textbook reading, and their use of inductive reasoning with respect to the important
information they’ve identified. It is a multi-phase structure that includes the following
steps:
1. Find a textbook reading assignment that contains three or more specific facts, concepts,
or examples that relate to a particular generalization or set of generalizations, such as the
general principles of student success that traverse any all chapters of our text (e.g., active
involvement, self-reflection reflection, interaction/collaboration). For each set of
generalizations you’ve identified, list three strategies or pieces of information and an
unrelated piece of information (a foil). (Just like a 4-item multiple-choice test item, with
the only difference being that instead of choosing one correct answer, they choose one
incorrect answer and eliminate it.)
2. Have students read the text individually with the objective of discovering the
generalization that unifies the three related items and eliminates the foil.
3. Using their own words, each student constructs a written statement that captures the
generalization among the related items. (This step could also include asking students to
locate additional ideas found in the text that relate to the generalization statements
they’ve constructed.)
4. Students join teams to compare their individually completed PIGs, set by set,
reconciling differences and reaching consensus on the generalizations they identified and
the foils they eliminated (Watherbie, 1995).
The following group strategies are designed to promote ANALYSIS.
Advertising Analysis Groups
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1. Bring to class (or ask your student to bring to class) advertisements designed to
persuade the public to purchase particular products.
2. Create “pair-share” groups in which two teammates team-up to share their thoughts
about what underlying persuasive messages or strategies are being used in the
advertisements.
3. Have each pair join another pair to create 4-member groups (“pairs square”) that
compare their respective analyses, noting similarities and differences in their
interpretations.
Three-Stray, One-Stay
Steps:
1. Form groups of 4 students and have them generate their ideas with respect to a
particular issue, dilemma, or problem.
2. Have 3 members of the team stray (rotate) to an adjacent group while one student stays
seated to explain the ideas that appear on his/her team’s product to three rotating “strays”
from another team.
3. After the straying students return to their home team, a second teammate stays back
while the other three rotate two teams ahead.
4. Then the third teammate stays back while the others rotate three teams ahead.
5. Finally, the fourth teammate stays back while the other three rotate four teams ahead.
When this four-step rotation is complete, each team member will have seen three
different products generated by other teams.
6. Teammates reconvene to conduct a comparative analysis of the differences and
similarities among the products they’ve observed and use this information to improve
their own team’s final product. (Kagan, 1992; Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Half-Stay, Half-Stray
Same steps as Three Stray, One Stay, except that a pair of teammates from the home
team stays to receive a pair of strays from another team, while the other pair strays from
the home team to visit with a pair from another team (Cuseo, 2000).
The following group strategies are designed to promote SYNTHESIS.
Unstructured Sorts
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams.
2. Working individually, students generate ideas on separate slips of paper or index cards.
3. All ideas are laid out on a table so that they can be read by all teammates.
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4. Teammates work together to sort their separately brainstormed ideas into conceptually
similar categories, noting the number or frequency of responses in each category.
(Kagan, 1992).
Team Statement
Same steps as Unstructured Sorts, except that the group synthesizes their brainstormed
ideas into a team statement, which attempts to integrate their separate ideas into a
coherent narrative sentence or paragraph. To do this effectively, students may need to be
informed that a team statement is not simply an add-on list or run-on sentence, but a
narrative composite that best summarizes and connects each teammate’s main ideas
(Cuseo, 2000).
Note: This procedure can be modified to move it from a team statement to a team
phrase or team word, whereby the group attempts to capture the essence of their ideas in
a single phrase or word—sometimes referred to as a “word journal.”
Affinity Diagram
A procedure similar to Unstructured Sorts, which involves the following steps:
1. Team members think individually about possible solutions to a problem and record
their ideas on separate Post-It notes.
2. After members run out of ideas, all their individual solutions are posted across a blank
wall or on a large piece of paper.
3. Teammates then work collectively, attempting to group all their individually generated
ideas into a “master list” that’s organized into categories and subcategories that
effectively synthesize the group’s collective ideas (Ray, 1994).
Cooperative Concept Mapping
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams and have them discuss how their ideas on a particular
problem or issue might be graphically organized or “mapped” in a way that best captures
their ideas and the relationships among them.
2. Teammates first work individually, either inside or outside of class, to construct
concept maps on which key concepts are displayed in different nodes (boxes or circles)
and connected by specific links—which indicate the nature of the relationships between
concepts.
3. Teammates reunite to compare their separately constructed maps, and attempt to
integrate them into one global, “team map” (Abrami, 1995).
Jigsaw
Steps:
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1. Form 3 or 4-member teams and ask that each teammate assumes responsibility for
becoming an “expert” on one perspective or dimension of an issue (e.g., one cultural
perspective or dimension of holistic development).
2. Members leave their respective teams to join members of other teams who are also
“experts” on the same subtopic.
3. After meeting in different expert groups, students return to their home team and teach
their individual area of expertise to their teammates.
4. Lastly, students piece together their specialized perspectives or dimensions (like a
“jigsaw” puzzle) to create comprehensive coverage and understanding of the whole issue
(Aronson, et al., 1978).
Note: This procedure could be modified so that each teammate assumes a different
higher-level thinking role (e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation, balance) with respect to
the learning task. These roles may be depicted visually for students in the form of a
graphic organizer, such as the content-by-process matrix depicted below, which crosshatches key higher-level thinking processes with key course concepts. (Matrices, grids,
rubrics, and checklists are often effective ways to visually pull together and keep track of
multiple processes, particularly when these processes are tacit or “invisible”—such as
thought processes.)
TOPIC/ISSUE
(Learning Task)
Analysis
Synthesis
HLT PROCESSES
(Student Roles)
Evaluation
Balance
Concept
Concept
Concept
1
2
3
╔════════╤═════════╤═════════╗
║
│
│
║
╟────────┼─────────┼─────────╢
║
│
│
║
╟────────┼─────────┼─────────╢
║
│
│
║
╟────────┼─────────┼─────────╢
║
│
│
║
╚════════╧═════════╧═════════╝
To ensure that students “stretch” their range of thinking skills, teammates could be asked
to rotate their thinking roles on successive small-group tasks.
Co-op Co-op
Steps:
1. Students engage in a class discussion about an issue or problem and identify the key
dimensions or perspectives that they think are involved in its cause and/or solution.
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2. Different 4-member teams are formed to address each of the key dimensions or
perspectives that have been identified.
3. Within each team, students subdivide their work such that individual teammates
become experts with respect to their chosen dimension.
4. The experts research their different components individually and present the results of
their findings to their team.
5. Lastly, the team synthesizes these individually completed reports into a single group
product and makes a team presentation on this product to the whole class—using
whatever format they prefer (e.g., oral, written, audio-visual, multi-modal)(Kagan, 1985).
Co-op Jigsaw
The first three steps in this procedure are identical to Co-op Co-op, but steps 4-6 differ as
follows:
4. Each team’s expert meets with experts from other teams who are working on the same
dimension or perspective.
5. After discussing their specialized component in their expert groups, the expert groups
make presentations to the entire class.
6. Lastly, experts return to their home teams and integrate their separate work into a
unified team product (Kagan, 1985).
Representative Reporting Groups
Steps:
1. Form 3-4 member teams of students who hold similar views on a position and ask
them to generate their best arguments.
2. Ask or randomly select one representative from each group to share the team’s ideas as
part of a panel of representative reporters—who occupy seats in the front of class.
3. Include a chair at the front of the room that you use as panel moderator—who keeps
the panel dialogue flowing and highlights key differences and recurrent themes expressed
by the group representatives; and include a second chair for any student not on the panel
who would like to come up and ask a question or request clarification on the ideas
presented by the panelists (Abrami, 1995).
A minor modification can be made to this structure that simulates the TV game show,
Who Wants to be a Millionaire by allowing panelists to “call a friend” (teammate) if they
would like to seek input or assistance.
The following group strategies are designed to promote CREATIVE THINKING.
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The Whip
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams and ask them to sit in a small circle to discuss solutions to
a problem or resolutions to an issue.
2. While seated in their circles, group members use a word or phrase to quickly share
their first thought on how to solve the problem or resolve the issue.
3. Teammates continue to “whip” around their group’s circle until they run out of
solutions.
Carousel Brainstorming
Steps:
1. Three- or four-member teams are given different colored magic markers and a poster
on which they are to record their ideas in response to a specific issue or dilemma.
2. After completing their work, teams rotate clockwise from one poster to the next and
add a different idea to each poster, being sure not to duplicate what another team has
already written (Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993).
Blackboard Share
Steps:
1. Working in 3- or 4-member teams, have students generate ideas with respect to the
same topic or issue, and as each new idea is generated, a member of the team goes to the
front of the room to post it.
2. As teams generate a new ides that is not posted, a different team member goes to the
board to post it (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Note: This procedure allows teams to work independently, yet interdependently because
they get to see what other teams are producing while simultaneously working on their
own ideas. This can serve to increase energy within teams and create synergy across
teams because they have the opportunity to piggy-back on each other’s ideas.
Stand & Share
Steps:
1. Three- or four-member teams generate ideas relating to a problem or issue.
2. After group work is completed, a member from each team successively stands and
shares one idea generated by her team; other teams check it off if they already have this
idea, or add it to their list if they don’t already have it.
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3. After the first team member reads an idea, the list is passed to another team member
who reads another idea. This process continues until all items on a team’s list have been
shared. The team then sits down, and a new team stands and shares their ideas any ideas
that haven’t already been mentioned ideas, using the same reporting format.
4. The rotational process continues until all unique or distinctive ideas generated by each
team have been reported to the whole class (Kagan, 1992).
Team Stand & Share
Similar to Stand and Share, except that the entire team stands, and after one of its
members reports an idea, the list is passed to another team member who reports a
different idea. This process continues until all items on a team’s list have been shared.
The team then sits down, and a new team stands and shares an idea that hasn’t been
mentioned ideas.
Note: A more active version of Team Stand & Share can be created by having each
team deliver only one of its ideas before the next team stands and shares an idea that
hasn’t been mentioned. This serves to get groups up and off their chairs in rapid fashion,
which lends more physical energy to the reporting process, simulating the “wave”
sometimes created by fans at sporting events (Cuseo, 2000).
Rotating Review
Steps:
1. Write a problem or issue atop separate pieces of chart paper and post then around the
room.
2. Form 3- or 4-member teams.
3. Have each team stand in front of one of the charts and allow them one minute to record
as many ideas as they can on that first topic before rotating to the next topic (chart).
4. When teams rotate to the next topic, give them two minutes to read, discuss, and take
notes on the ideas written by the previous team, and then give them one minute to write
additional information before rotating to the next topic.
5. Continue this process until all teams rotate back to the first topic they encountered
(Kagan (1992).
Gallery Tour
Steps:
1. Have 3- or 4-member teams first complete a product that represents their collective
thoughts on an issue—for example, a chart, poster, concept map, or artistic depiction.
Explicitly encourage the teams to represent the products of their thinking in creative
ways. The variety of group products that are subsequently created can often poignantly
173
illustrate to students how creativity is enhanced by collaboration and teamwork (Millis &
Cottell, 1998).
2. Have students rotate around the room to view the completed products of other teams
before returning to their own team product to incorporate any new ideas they acquired
during the tour.
Note: To expedite this procedure, teammates can be asked to split up, with different
members going to view different products before reconvening to share the information
they gleaned on their separate tours (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Conference Poster Session
Same steps as the Gallery Tour except that one or two members of the team remain by
their own team-posted product in order to explicate or elaborate on its contents and
confer with touring teams who come to view it (Cuseo, 2000).
Rotational Graffiti
Steps:
1. Write different topics or issues atop separate pieces of chart paper and distribute one of
them different 3- or 4-member teams.
2. In response to the topic on their sheet, teammates individually write “graffiti” (i.e.,
their reactions, interpretations, or free associations) for a designated period of time, after
which they rotate their sheets clockwise to another team who adds their own graffiti on
the topic—without looking at the ideas already recorded.
3. The rotational procedure continues until each team receives back the sheet (topic) they
started with, thus ensuring that all teams have written graffiti on all topics.
4. Finally, each team works independently to integrate or categorize all the ideas
expressed by different teams on their particular topic and presents their summary to the
whole class (Abrami, 1995).
Cooperative Graffiti
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams.
2. Give each team one large, butcher-block sized piece of paper on which each teammate
individually records as many ideas as possible—using different colored pens.
3. After completing their individual brainstorming, teammates work together and attempt
to organize their multi-colored collage of ideas into meaningful categories (Abrami,
1995).
Roundtable
Steps:
174
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams and provide them with a single pen and a single piece of
paper (or transparency).
2. One teammate records a contribution on the paper and then passes the paper and pen
on to another teammate who does the same.
3. The paper and pen are passed progressively around the table until all team members
have recorded an idea (Kagan, 1992).
Roundrobin
Same steps as Roundtable except that students’ individual contributions are expressed
orally, rather than in writing (Kagan, 1992).
Simultaneous Roundtable
Same steps as Roundtable except that two or more large, butcher-block sized papers—
each with a heading relating to a different topic—are passed around the table
simultaneously (e.g., three papers relating to three different perspectives or theories),
with each member recording an idea on the paper before passing it on an adjacent
teammate (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
The following group strategies are designed to promote CRITICAL THINKING
(Evaluative Judgment)
Carousel Feedback
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams and provide them with different colored magic markers
and a poster on which they are to record their ideas in response to a specific issue or
dilemma.
2. Teams rotate clockwise from one poster to view other teams’ products and also record
their reactions or comments on a feedback sheet that is posted by the product (Kagan,
1998).
Product Rotation
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams; have them generate ideas with respect to a topic or issue
and record their ideas on paper.
2. After a designated period of time, each team passes its product clockwise to another
team while simultaneously receiving and critically reviewing a product from an adjacent
team.
3. The rotational process continues until the team’s original product is returned to them
(Cuseo, 2000).
175
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
Steps:
1. Three- or four-member groups first generate ideas individually (e.g., possible solutions
to a problem) and write them down on an index card.
2. Individual members pass their completed cards clockwise to review ideas generated by
their adjacent teammate and to make note of ideas that they did not include on their own
list. This rotational process continues until each member receives back his or her original
set of ideas.
3. Each member adds ideas gathered from their teammates to their original list of ideas,
and attempts to prioritize the ideas with respect to some criterion (e.g., importance,
validity, usefulness, probability of being implemented).
4. The group reconvenes and members share their list of prioritized ideas, looking for
patterns of agreement or disparity in their orders of priority, and then attempt to reach
group consensus about what ideas should be given highest priority.
Send-a-Problem
Steps:
1. Form 3-4 member teams.
2. Pose different problems or issues on the blackboard, a flip chart, or an overhead
transparency.
3. Have each team select a different problem or issue to address.
4. Each team brainstorms as many solutions as possible to the problem and records them
on a sheet of paper that is placed inside a folder.
5. After a designated period of time, the folder is passed on to another team who, upon
seeing the particular problem written on the outside of the folder, begins to generate as
many solutions as possible—without opening the folder to see the solutions generated by
the previous team.
6. The folders are passed on to a third team that reviews the proposed solutions generated
by the previous two teams; their major task is to identify—by consensus—the two most
effective solutions to the problem from among those that have been listed by the other
two teams (Millis, 1997).
Group Prioritizing of Guest-Speaker Questions
1. During the class preceding a guest-speaker presentation, have all students prepare
questions for the speaker individually.
176
2. Form small groups and have students evaluate their questions to determine their
highest-priority questions.
3. Ask groups to select a representative whose task will be to ask the group’s highestpriority questions when the speaker comes to class.
4. On the day that the speaker comes to class, have students sit in their groups and allow
each team representative to take a turn asking a question in a round-robin format (Cuseo,
2000).
177
Chapter 6
Reading Objectives
6.1 Recall what differentiates or distinguishes higher-level thinking from the mental
process of remembering or memorizing factual information. (p. 181)
6.2 Recognize the difference between the higher-level thinking skills of analysis and
synthesis. (p. 183)
6.3 Recall an example of the following four key perspectives of multidimensional
thinking:
a) person
b) place
c) time
d) culture. (p. 184)
6.4 Recall three key dimensions of human culture. (p. 186)
6.5 Recognize how a theory differs from a hypothesis. (pp. 187-188)
6.6 Recall the difference between dualistic and dialectical (dialogic) thinking. (pp. 188189)
6.7 Recognize the following forms of higher-level thinking:
a) inferential reasoning
b) deductive reasoning
c) inductive reasoning. (pp. 191-192)
6.8 Recognize the meaning of critical thinking. (p. 192)
6.9 Recognize the following types of logical reasoning errors:
a) dogmatism
b) selective perception
c) double standard
d) straw man argument
e) begging the question. (pp. 195-196)
6.10 Recall how creative thinking and critical thinking typically go “hand in hand,” and
complementing each other to improve the overall quality of our thinking. (p. 197)
6.11 Recognize the difference between convergent and divergent thinking. (p. 198)
6.12 Recognize the meaning of the term, meta-cognition. (p. 199)
6.13 Recall the meaning of cognitive dissonance and two strategies for creating your own
state of cognitive dissonance. (p. 204)
178
6. 14 Recall the meaning of the phrase, “playing devil’s advocate” and it can be used to
help avoid the dangers of “group think.” (p. 204)
6.15 Recall the meaning of the mental process known as incubation and how you can
take advantage of it to promote creative thinking. (p. 205)
6.16 Recall why higher-level thinking skills are becoming increasingly important in
today’s “information age.” (p. 208)
6.17 Recall why higher-level thinking may be an important safeguard against prejudice
and discrimination. (p. 209)
179
Chapter 6
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
6.1 The authors of your textbook distinguish higher-level thinking from thinking that
involves factual knowledge, such as the information contestants are tested on in TV
game shows. What distinguishes or differentiates the process of higher-level thinking
from the process of remembering factual knowledge? (Answer: p.181)
6.3 A key aspect of multi-dimensional thinking is the ability to view an issue from
multiple perspectives. Provide an example of how each of the following four key
perspectives can help us gain a more come complete understanding of any issue:
(a) the perspective of person,
(b) the perspective of place,
(c) the perspective of time, and
(d) the perspective of culture.
[Answer: p. 184]
6.4 One key perspective that needs to be considered in order to gain a comprehensive
understanding of an issue is the perspective of culture—which is a perspective that
embraces a number of different dimensions. Briefly describe three dimensions or
components of human culture.
[Answer: p. 186]
6.10 Although critical and creative thinking are different types of higher-level thinking,
they often work hand-in-hand to improve the quality of our thinking and decisionmaking. Briefly explain how creative and critical thinking can work together in a
complementary way to improve the quality of ideas.
[Answer: p. 197]
6.13 One way you can achieve balanced thinking is to put yourself in a mental state of
cognitive dissonance. Explain what is meant by the term “cognitive dissonance”
and briefly describe two strategies for putting yourself in this mental state.
[Answer: p. 204]
6.14 Playing the role of “devil’s advocate” is one way we can help ourselves in balanced
thinking. Briefly describe what this role involves and how it can be used to avoid
the dangers of “group think.”
[Answer: p. 204]
6.15 One way to promote creative thinking is through the use of a mental process known
as incubation. (a) Explain what this process is, and (b) briefly describe how you can
take advantage of it to promote creative thinking.
[Answer: p. 205]
6.16 We are currently living in what has been called the “information age.” Briefly
180
explain why higher-level thinking skills are especially important for success in our
current age or era.
[Answer: p. 208]
6.17 Prejudice and discrimination still plague our country and our world. Briefly explain
why or how higher-level thinking skills can help serve as a safeguard to reduce the
likelihood that humans will develop prejudice toward other groups of people.
[Answer: p. 209]
Chapter 6.
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
6.1 If you were asked on an exam to conduct a critical analysis of an issue, you should
break down the issue and examine its key elements or parts.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Answer: (a), p. 181]
6.2 Which one of the following mental tasks would require the higher-level thinking skill
of synthesis?
(a) evaluating or judging an argument
(b) breaking down an argument into its elements or parts
(c) integrating separate pieces of information into a larger whole
(d) drawing a conclusion by means of deductive logic.
[Answer: (c), p. 183]
6.5 Compared to a hypothesis, a theory is better supported by evidence.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Answer: (a), pp. 187-188]
6.6 Which one of the following types of thinking does not represent an effective form of
higher-level thinking?
(a) dualistic thinking
(b) balanced thinking
(c) critical thinking
(d) creative thinking.
[Answer: (a), p. 189]
6.7(a) Both inductive and deductive reasoning are forms of inferential reasoning.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Answer: (a), p. 191]
181
6.7(b) Consider the following line of reasoning:
“All flowers are plants.
A rose is a flower, therefore:
A rose is a plant.”
Which one of the following forms of higher-level thinking was used to reach the
conclusion in the above argument?
(a) inductive reasoning
(b) deductive reasoning
(c) dualistic thinking
(d) wishful thinking.
[Answer: (b), p. 191]
6.7(c) Inductive reasoning involves inferring a general conclusion based on specific
instances or observations.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Answer: (a), p. 192]
6.8 Which one of the following forms of higher-level thinking involves making a wellreasoned judgment or evaluation?
(a) synthesis
(b) divergent thinking
(c) creative thinking
(d) critical thinking.
[Answer: (d), p. 192]
6.9(a) If you know someone who is closed-minded, that person would be demonstrating:
(a) dogmatism
(b) wishful thinking
(c) begging the question (circular reasoning)
(d) dialectical thinking.
[Answer (a), p. 195]
6.9(b) A prejudiced person always seems to notice examples or instances that support
their prejudice but often fails to see instances that contradict it. This prejudiced
person is demonstrating a reasoning error known as:
(a) double-standard
(b) begging the question (circular reasoning)
(c) dogmatism
(d) selective perception
(e) immaculate reception.
[Answer: (d), p. 195]
6.9(c) The expression, “Do as I say, not as I do” best reflects a reasoning error known
as:
182
(a) dogmatism
(b) selective perception
(c) straw man argument
(d) double standard
(e) double jeopardy.
[Answer: (d), p. 195]
6.9(d) In a political debate, candidate A accuses candidate B of being “pro drugs” when,
in fact, candidate B merely voted “yes” on a bill to legalize marijuana for medical
use by people suffering from certain diseases. Candidate A is demonstrating a
reasoning error known as:
(a) dogmatism
(b) double standard
(c) begging the question (circular reasoning)
(d) straw man argument
(e) tin woman trick.
[Answer: (d), p. 196]
6.9(e) A person argues that blacks and whites should not marry because they are not the
same race. This person’s argument demonstrates a reasoning error known as:
(a) straw man argument
(b) selective perception
(c) begging the question (circular reasoning)
(d) dialectical thinking.
[Answer: (c), p. 196]
6.11 Creative thinking is more likely to require divergent thinking, whereas critical
thinking is more likely to require convergent thinking.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Answer: (a), p. p. 199]
6.12 If you are engaged in the mental process of meta-cognition, you are:
(a) thinking dualistically
(b) thinking divergently
(c) thinking deductively
(d) thinking about your own thinking.
[Answer: p. (d), p. 199]
183
Teaching Chapter 7
Three Key Academic Skills:
Research, Writing, and Speaking
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
The primary instructional goal of this chapter is to help students acquire effective
strategies for locating, evaluating, and communicating information. A second, major goal
of this chapter is to promote student awareness that writing and speaking are not only
communication skills, but are also learning skills.
Motivating Students for this Chapter
A strong case can be made for the strategies discussed in this chapter because they
focus on powerful skills that are transferable (applicable) across courses and careers.
Arguably, these transferable skills are more important today than at any other time in
human history because the current “revolution” in information technology has made more
information available to us and has given us more routes through which to receive and
communicate information. This rapid rate of technological change and information
exchange has made the ability to effectively locate, evaluate, and communicate
information a high commodity in today’s world and in the foreseeable future.
Key Points to Emphasize When Discussing the Chapter
* When discussing research, this may be the time to intentionally address the topic of
academic integrity. As some of the student perspectives in this chapter suggest, integrity
violations are not always the result of intentionally unethical behavior; they also result
from lack of education or knowledge about how to properly cite and reference
information. Thus, the topic of academic integrity may be covered in a non-threatening or
guilt-inducing manner if it is introduced as education for research that all students will
eventually conduct, rather than as chastisement for ethical violations that only a
percentage of students will intentionally commit.
* When discussing writing, it’s important to underscore the fact that communicating via
written words is more labor intensive than communicating orally. It may be necessary to
emphasize that high-quality writing is a multi-stage, multi-draft process, even for
professional writers and award-winning authors. Students may need to be reminded that
not generating a finished product on the first try is not an indication of a poor or
struggling writer; instead, it represents the “normal” first-draft stage of the writing
process. Students may also need to be reminded that writing is something that’s not only
done in English classes to please English teachers, but is something that’s done across
the curriculum and throughout life to improve learning, self-awareness, and personal
performance.
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* When discussing speaking, be sure to highlight the fact that anxiety about speaking in
public is an extremely common phenomenon and that it’s often not an enduring
personality trait; instead, it’s often just a fear about not knowing what to say or about
being evaluated negatively about what we do say. Just as test anxiety can be reduced or
eliminated by studying and coming prepared to take tests, so too can fear of public
speaking be reduced or eliminated by acquiring knowledge and coming prepared to
speak.
* It’s likely that our students will need professional support with respect to each of the
three major skills discussed in this chapter (research, writing, and speaking) because
development of these skills may have been given short shrift prior to college, and because
each of these skills has the potential to trigger an excessive amount of stress. “Library
anxiety,” “writer’s block,” “communication apprehension” and “fear of public speaking”
are well-documented emotional experiences can interfere with development of the
academic skills discussed in this chapter.
Consequently, students may need to receive proactive and intrusive professional
support in order to overcome these insecurities before they can fully develop these
academic skills. Rather than immersing students in the process of using these skills in a
sink-or-swim fashion, their fears and anxieties should be addressed intentionally and
proactively by exposing students to professionals with expertise in each of these
academic-skill areas. Intrusive exposure to professional support may be provided by
inviting professionals to class, or by bringing your class to the professional (e.g., libraryscience professional for research skills; a professional in the Writing Center or Learning
Center for writing skills; and a professional in the speech department for public speaking
skills).
Another effective strategy for combating student fears with respect to the skills
discussed in this chapter is to have students develop the skills within the supportive
context of a small group of peers. In the next section, you will find a variety of exercises
and assignments for research, writing, and speaking that students can do in pairs and in 3or 4-member groups. It may even be possible to provide students with a social “scaffold”
for the development of these skills by having them first practice the skills in highly
interdependent, small-group settings and gradually move them into contexts that require
them to use the skills in a more independent or autonomous fashion. For instance, you
may have students may start off at the beginning of the term working in pairs, then
progress to exercises done in larger 4-member groups, and later in the term, ask them to
make presentations in front of class—either individually or as a panelist.
Possible Exercises & Assignments
Writing Exercises
Reciprocal Letter Writing (a.k.a., Responsive Written Exchanges)
Steps:
1. Have students pair up and write a personal letter to their partner based on sentence
stems that you provide them. The stem could be an incomplete sentence about some
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aspect of college life that you would like your students to share with each other (e.g.,
“My first impression of this college is . . . ” “What I like most about this college is . . .”
“What has surprised me most about my college experience thus far is . . .”)
2. The letter should begin with the salutation, “Dear . . . .” and end with “P.S.: One
personal thing about me you may not know is . . .”
3. The partners exchange letters, read them independently, and then write a response to
their partner’s letter that is focused on the issue introduced by the sentence stem. In
addition, the letter recipient may also elect to write a P.S. in response to the P.S. of the
letter sender.
4. Students keep these letters, or you can collect them, read them informally, and return
them to students to include in an ongoing class journal (Fulwiller, in Millis & Cottell,
1998).
Team Journal
In contrast to the traditional journal, for which the target audience is either the student
herself or the course instructor, the audience for the team journal is a group of peers who
comprise the writer’s learning team.
Steps:
1. Student teams create a name for their journal, record the team’s name on the outside
cover of a notebook, and list the names of all team members on the inside cover.
2. The journal is stored in a place where all teammates can readily access it (e.g., library
reserve).
3. Once per week, team members record their own entries to the journal and respond to
the entries of their teammates. (You don’t respond to or grade student entries; you
simply spot check the journals at the end of each week to credit each student and
ensure individual accountability.) (Renfro, in McQuade et al., 1991)
Dyadic Essay Confrontation (DEC)
Steps:
1. In response to an assigned reading, give students a writing assignment to complete
individually outside of class, in which they develop an essay question that integrates
the reading with previously covered material.
2. Have students write a model answer to their question.
3. During class time, ask students to pair up and exchange essays questions with another
student; have each of them write a spontaneous essay in response to the question they
receive from their partner.
4. Students compare their spontaneous answer with the model answer, noting similarities
and differences (Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993).
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Pair Paper Swap
Steps:
1. Assign students to write a short paper that meets the criteria of a well-written paper
cited on pp. 235-236. (You can suggest additional or alternative criteria.)
2. Have students form pairs in class and ask the partners to exchange papers and evaluate
them according to a checklist that contains all the criteria they should have met while
writing their paper.
3. Ask evaluators to suggest how the quality of their partner’s paper might be further
improved further with respect to one or more of the criteria (Medina, 1997).
Research Exercises
Workstation Jigsaw
Steps:
1. Following a class presentation on information resources from a library science
professional, or a class trip to the college library for this presentation, assign your class
a topic to research.
2. Form 4-member groups and give all groups the same list of four information resources
discussed by the library science professional (published books, journals, periodicals,
and different online databases or search engines).
3. Have teammates divide their labor, such that each member assumes the role of
resource specialist for one of these information resources.
4. Teammates leave their “home team” to join a group of students who are “resource
specialists” for the same information resource; they work together to locate
information from their resource that relates to the assigned topic. (Depending on your
class size, you may want to subdivide these resource-specialist groups so they do not
contain more than four students per group.)
5. Specialists return to their home teams, where they share the information they gleaned
from their respective resource areas and integrate them into a composite team
bibliography (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Note: A 6th step may be added to this procedure, whereby the team actually accesses
the information obtained from the different resources and presents it to the class as part
of a small-group report or panel presentation.
Team Anthologies
This is a multi-stage procedure that involves the following steps:
Steps:
1. Have four-member teams decide on a topic to research.
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2. Each teammate individually constructs a bibliography of important sources relating to
this topic and submits it to you.
3. You return their individual bibliographies and have students form teams to construct a
composite bibliography that builds on the individual research conducted by each team
member.
4. The team breaks up and each member works individually to prepare a reflective
commentary on a different bibliographic source, using a double-entry format in which
major points identified in the reading are listed on the left and personal reactions to
these points are listed on the right.
5. Two teammates join together and read their partner’s articles, and add their reflective
commentary to their partner’s commentary.
6. The paired teammates read each other’s reflective commentaries on the same article
and then jointly construct a composite annotation that summarizes their reading.
7. Pairs reconvene in four-member teams to complete an annotated bibliography of all
articles they’ve reviewed, and include it in a final product also includes a cover sheet,
an introduction, and conclusion (Millis, 1994).
Specialized Research-Paper Evaluation
Steps:
1. Have students write a research paper individually.
2. Ask students to make four copies of their paper.
3. Form 4-member groups, and have all group members bring four copies of their
research paper to class to share with each of their teammates.
4. Provide students with four copies of a checklist of criteria for evaluating their paper
(e.g., mechanics, organization, clarity of writing style, or supporting evidence).
5. Using the checklist of criteria, ask each team member to assume the role of an
evaluation specialist who focuses on one of the criteria for evaluating their teammates’
papers.
6. Have each evaluation specialist take turns providing feedback to their teammates with
respect to their particular criterion, first noting the paper’s strengths and then noting
any way(s) it might be improved (Medina, 1997).
Note: A final step to this procedure would be for student to turn in their individual
papers to be graded. This step would provide a stronger incentive for students to
actively listen to, and actually use, the feedback they receive from their peers to
improve the quality of their paper.
Simultaneous Group Research-Paper Evaluation
A variation of the above procedure (“Specialized Research-Paper Evaluation”) in
which all team members focus simultaneously on the same criterion, then proceed to the
next criterion until all criteria have been discussed and applied to the evaluation of the
each teammate’s research papers (Medina, 1997).
Assembly Line Research-Paper Evaluation
A variation of the above structure (“Simultaneous Group Research-Paper Evaluation”)
in which separate teams specialize in evaluating their classmates’ research papers with
respect to one criterion, then papers are passed successively from one team to the next—
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in “assembly line” fashion—until all papers have been evaluated with respect to all
criteria on the checklist (Medina, 1997).
Oral Communication (Public Speaking) Exercises
Team Stand & Share
Steps:
1. Form 3- or 4-member teams and have them generate ideas with respect to some topic
or issue of your choosing (e.g., causes of stress; strategies for overcoming shyness).
2. Have one team stand and a member of that team read what she feels is the most
important or interesting item on the team’s list of ideas. After the item is read, other
teams add it to their list if they don’t already have it; if they already have the same or
similar idea, they place a check mark by it.
3. After the first team member reads her favorite item, the list is passed to a teammate
who reads his favorite unmentioned idea. This process continues until all items on a
team’s list have been shared. The team then sits down, and a new team stands and
shares its unmentioned ideas.
4. The process continues until all teams have stood up and the distinctive ideas of all
teams have been shared (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Note: In a less time-consuming version of this procedure, each team decides on
which one of their ideas is best and only shares their best idea before another team
takes its turn (Kagan, 1998).
Stand & Share
This is a modified version of the previous procedure (“Team Stand & Share”) in which
individual members from different teams successively stand to share one idea generated
by their team, while being sure not to repeat an already-shared idea.
This rotational process continues by having a new member from each team stand and
report different ideas on successive turns—until all unique or distinctive ideas generated
by each team have been reported to the whole class (Kagan, 1992).
Rapid Report Wave
A slightly modified version of the above procedure (“Stand & Share”) in which
students are encouraged to stand and share their ideas in rapid, round-robin fashion—
simulating the “wave” displayed by spectators at sporting events (Cuseo, 2000).
Representative Reporting Groups
Steps:
1. Following a small-group discussion, one representative from each group volunteers (or
is randomly selected) to share his team’s ideas as part of a panel of representative
reporters—who occupy seats in front of class.
2. Two additional chairs may be included at the front of the room—one chair for any
student who would like to come up and ask a question or request clarification on the
ideas presented by the panelists, and one chair for you—who moderates the panel and
highlights key differences or recurrent themes expressed by the group representatives
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(Abrami, 1995).
Note: A minor modification of this procedure can be made so that it simulates the
TV game show, Who Wants to be a Millionaire, if panelists are allowed to seek
“lifeline” assistance by “phoning a friend” (asking a teammate) or polling the audience
(members of the class).
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Chapter 7
Reading Objectives
7.1 Recall the meaning of “information literacy.” (p. 216)
7.2 Recall four criteria for critically evaluating the quality of references that you locate
while doing research. (p. 217)
7.3 Recognize the meaning of the following research terms:
(a) abstract
(b) wildcard. (p. 218)
7.4 Recall the difference between primary and secondary sources of information. (p. 221)
7.5 Recognize how students may still be guilty of plagiarism even when they paraphrase
an author’s words rather than use the author’s exact words. (p. 223)
7.6 Recognize how students may still be guilty of plagiarism even if they cite the source
of their information in the reference section at the end of their paper. (p. 223)
7.7 Recall three writing-to-learn strategies that can be used to improve your academic
performance. (p. 227)
7.8 Recall the first and last stages of the multi-stage process that your authors
recommend for improving the quality of a research paper. (p. 230)
7.9 Recall two key ways in which your ideas should be organized in a paper and one
strategy for achieving each of these forms of organization. (p. 232)
7.10 Recall three strategies for critically evaluating your paper when reading and editing
it. (p. 235)
7.11 Recall two reasons why participation in writing groups can improve the quality of
your writing. (p. 236)
7.12 Recall two reasons why speaking can improve the quality of your thinking. (p. 239)
7.13 Recall the two major types of oral presentations, which differ in terms of their
purpose or objective. (p. 241)
7.14 Recognize how fear of public speaking is related to fear of failure. (p. 242)
7.15 Recall three speech-rehearsal strategies that can be used to improve the
preparation and delivery of your oral presentations. (p. 242)
7.16 Recall two strategies for reducing your level of speech anxiety:
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(a) before delivering a speech, and
(b) during delivery of your speech. (p. 245)
7.17 Recall the difference between learning factual knowledge and learning a
transferable skill (p. 246).
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Chapter 7
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. We’re now living in an era referred to as the “information age,” which makes
“information literacy” a critical skill for success in today’s world. Briefly explain what
information literacy means or involves.
[Reading objective: 7.1][Answer: p. 216]
2. One element of a well-written research paper is effective use of references
(information sources) to support or reinforce your conclusions. However, not all
references are created equally; some sources of information are better than others. Briefly
describe four criteria or standards that can be used to evaluate the quality of references
you locate.
[Reading objective: 7.2][Answer: p. 217]
3. References can vary in terms of whether they represent primary or secondary sources
of information. Briefly explain the difference between these two types of information
sources. [Reading objective: 7.4][Answer: p. 221]
4. Writing is a strategy that we can use to help us learn from any experience by increasing
our level of involvement with the experience and our ability to carefully reflect on it.
Briefly describe three writing-to-learn strategies that can be used to improve your
academic performance.
[Reading objective: 7.7][Answer: p. 227]
5. Organization is a key characteristic of a well-written paper or research report. Briefly
describe two ways in which ideas should be organized in a paper and provide one
strategy for achieving each of these forms of organization.
[Reading objective: 7.9][Answer: p. 232]
6. Writing a research paper is a multi-stage process, and breaking up this process into
separate stages or steps can improve the quality of your written product. The first step
and last step in the writing process are probably the most critical steps. Briefly describe
what the authors of your text recommend should be done during the first step and last
step of the writing process.
[Reading objective: 7.10] [Answer: p. 235]
7. When you’re writing a paper, you need to play two roles: first, a writer; second, a
critical reader and editor of what you’ve written. Briefly describe three strategies for
evaluating the quality of your writing as you read and edit it.
[Reading objective: 7.10][Answer: p. 235]
8. Students can benefit not only from study groups, but also from writing groups. Briefly
describe two reasons why participating in writing group can improve the quality of your
writing.
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[Reading objective: 7.11][Answer: p. 236]
9. Speaking is more than a communication skill. Like writing, speaking not only can be
used as a form of communication, but also as a tool for learning. Provide two reasons why
speaking can improve the quality of your thinking.
[Reading objective: 7.12][Answer: p. 239]
10. There are two major types of oral presentations that differ with respect to their
purpose or objective. Briefly describe the difference between these two major types of
oral presentations.
[Reading objective: 7.13][Answer: p. 241]
11. Fear of public speaking is less likely to be experienced when speeches are well
prepared and well rehearsed. Briefly describe three speech-rehearsal strategies that could
be used to improve the preparation and delivery of your oral presentations.
[Reading objective: 7.15][Answer: p. 242]
12. Surveys indicate that fear of public speaking is one of the most common human fears.
(One survey found that people fear public speaking more than they fear death itself!)
Briefly describe two strategies for reducing speech anxiety before delivering a speech,
and two strategies for reducing speech anxiety during delivery of a speech.
[Reading objective: 7.16][Answer: p. 245]
13. In college, you will acquire both factual knowledge and transferable skills. Briefly
describe the difference between these two forms of learning.
[Reading objective: 7.17][Answer: p. 246]
Chapter 7
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. If you wanted to read a concise summary of a scholarly article, you should read its:
(a) catalog
(b) abstract
(c) wildcard
(d) digest.
[Reading objective: 7.3(a)][Answer: (b), p. 218]
2. A symbol, such as asterisk, which may be used to substitute different letters into a
search word or phrase so that an electronic search for information will be performed on
all words represented by the symbol, is known as a:
(a) key word
(b) wildcard
(c) search thesaurus
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(d) descriptor.
[Reading objective: 7.3(b)][Answer: (b), p. 221]
3. A student who paraphrases an author’s ideas, but does not quote the author’s exact
words, must still cite the author in both the body of the paper and in the reference section
at the end of the paper.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 7.5][Answer: (a), p. 223]
4. A student uses a source of information, cites it in the reference section at the end of the
paper, but does not cite it in the body of the paper. This student could still be charged
with plagiarism.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 7.6][Answer: (a), p. 223]
5. Studies show that fear of public speaking is often really fear of failure—a fear of being
negatively evaluated by the audience.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 7.14][Answer: (a), p. 242]
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Teaching Chapter 8
DIVERSITY:
Appreciating the Value of Human Differences for Enhancing
Learning and Personal Development
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
The primary goal of this chapter is fourfold, namely to help students develop greater
awareness of: (a) what “diversity” truly means; (b) diversity’s multiple forms (both
visible and invisible), (c) misuses or abuses of diversity (prejudice and discrimination),
and (d) the multiple advantages of diversity (for the individual and the nation).
Key Points to Emphasize When Discussing the Chapter
There is a lot more to diversity than meets the eye, i.e., diversity comes in multiple
forms and varieties, some of which may be hidden or invisible.
Refer students to the diversity spectrum on p. 252 to identify sources of diversity that
might not be apparent at first glance. The particular form(s) of diversity you’ll probably
want to emphasize in your class may depend on the particular composition of your
student body and your current campus climate.
Do not assume that students know what you mean by the word “culture.”
Instead, explicitly define it and illustrate it, and be sure they know the distinction
between culture and society (see p. 253 for definitions, illustrations, and distinctions).
Point out that “race” is not a genetic category, but a socially constructed category.
Humans have simply elected to categorize themselves socially by skin color; however,
the Census Bureau could just as easily categorize people into groups on the basis of their
hair color, eye color, body shape, body size, etc. and use these categories in its annual
statistical report.
To appreciate human diversity is not to depreciate our commonality (humanity) and
our individuality.
Though there may be variations between members of different cultural groups,
members of these different groups have a lot in common because they are also members
of the same group: the human species. Furthermore, there are more individual differences
within cultural groups than there are differences between cultural groups. For example,
individuals from diverse ethnic groups still share many common characteristics as a result
of being citizens of the same country, persons of the same gender, or members of the
same generation.
There is more to the concept of diversity than social justice and political rights.
Although one major goal of appreciating diversity is to promote more equitable
treatment of all people and reduce prejudice or discrimination toward particular groups of
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people, diversity is also a learning experience that strengthens the quality of an
individual’s education, career preparation, citizenship, and leadership in a democratic
nation. Simply stated: we learn more from diversity than we do from similarity or
familiarity.
Be sure your students understand that appreciating diversity involves (a)
acknowledging differences—being aware of them, (b) accommodating differences—
dealing with them in a fair, non-prejudicial or discriminative way, and (c)
cultivating differences—capitalizing on them to enrich learning and personal
development.
Becoming aware of our biases and prejudices is a learning experience; not a “guilt
trip.”
This is an important to make because introducing the topic of diversity may
immediately trigger a defensive reaction in some majority students, perhaps based on the
anticipation that you’re going to “guilt” them or their ancestors. Although there are many
instances of overt prejudice and discrimination that are clearly unethical, illegal, and
punishable, there are also many cases where prejudice and discrimination take place
without full awareness or malicious intent. Some of these unconscious prejudicial
tendencies may be rooted in our evolutionary history and involve a deeper understanding
of our biological, anthropological, and psychosocial roots. Thus, diversity awareness and
appreciation is not just an exercise in “political correctness;” it’s a subject that is just as
intellectually challenging, though-provoking, and self-illuminating as learning other
scholarly subjects.
Instructional Strategies for Promoting Diversity Awareness & Appreciation
Perhaps more than any other unit of the text, the instructional goals of this chapter cannot
be realized without use of interactive, student-centered pedagogy because the goals of
diversity education involve attitudinal and behavioral change. The effectiveness of
diversity education rests more in the process of students directly experiencing and
appreciating human differences, and less on the content of lectures delivered by authority
figures about why they should value differences. “Lectures are relatively ineffective for
teaching values associated with subject matter. Sermons rarely convince agnostics, but
they give solidarity to the faithful. Similarly, lectures are ineffective in changing people’s
values, but they may reinforce those that are already accepted” (Bligh, 2000, p. 12).
Fortunately, the same student-centered instructional alternatives to the lecture method
that promote students’ active involvement and higher-level thinking also promote their
awareness and appreciation of diversity. In particular, the following student-centered
instructional may be especially effective for realizing the goals of diversity education.
Allow students an opportunity to share their personal histories.
To appreciate diverse cultural experiences, students must first hear about them and,
ideally, they should hear about them from people who have experienced them first-hand.
One way to enable students to learn about the diverse experiences of others is to first ask
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them to write a short, autobiographical story about their personal journeys. To give your
students direction and focus for this writing assignment, they could tie their stories to
such topics as: (a) turning points in their life, (b) past experiences they’ve had or
decisions they’ve made, which continue to affect them (positively or negatively, and (c)
role models or sources of inspiration in their life.
Students could then share their written histories in small, intentionally formed groups
comprised of students from diverse backgrounds. Allowing students from a variety of
students to share their stories may enable students to see that others have had very
different personal journeys and that some have managed to overcome major obstacles to
get where they are now. These stories may be shared online rather than in person.
Sometimes, absence of eye contact may help reduce students’ fear or embarrassment
about sharing personal information relating to sensitive topics. The absence of face-toface contact can provide reticent students a greater sense of privacy or anonymity, which
may result in a less defensive and more forthright sharing of personal information.
Have students bring to class an artifact of their cultural background (e.g., food,
clothing, music, art), and ask them to briefly describe its role or significance in their
life.
This may be a non-threatening way to initiate discussion of students’ personal
stories and cultural experiences.
Invite guest speakers or a guest panel to class that represent diverse perspectives.
For example, international students or students who have studied abroad could be asked
to come to class and share their cross-cultural perspectives. To increase student
engagement in the process, have your students come to class with one or two questions to
ask the speakers, perhaps based on the dimensions of culture identified in chapter 6 (p.
186. (You could hold students accountable for doing so by collecting their questions at
the end of class).
Capitalize on diversity-education speakers in your local community.
For example, to promote awareness and tolerance of groups with alternative sexual
orientation and lifestyles, you could invite a panel of representatives from a chapter of the
Parent and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG). This is an international organization
that has almost 300 chapters in the United States, including at least one in every state.
The organization consists of “parents, families and friends of lesbian, gay, bisexual and
transgender persons” and their goal is to “celebrate diversity and envision a society that
embraces everyone, including those of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.”
Trained panelists from this organization typically speak briefly about their experiences
and then field questions from the audience. To ensure that your students give forethought
and afterthought to this classroom visit, have them construct one or two questions to ask
the panelists in advance of their presentation; and after the presentation, have your
students write a one-minute paper to assess how they felt about the experience what they
learned from it, and what unanswered questions they may still have about it. (To locate a
chapter of PFLAG in your geographical area, go to:
http://www.pflag.org/Find_a_Chapter.68.0.html)
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Construct assignments that ask your students to interview members of the campus
community (students, faculty, or staff) who come from diverse backgrounds.
Students could be the dimensions of culture cited in chapter 6 (p. 186) to develop
questions to ask their interviewees. This practice can ensure that individuals who may
otherwise never come in contact with each other do make at least one connection, which,
in turn, may increase the likelihood that they will reconnect in the future.
Require or give extra-credit assignments for students to engage in co-curricular
experiences relating to diversity awareness.
These assignments could be designed to coincide with already-scheduled national
weeks or months that are designated for appreciation of diverse groups, such as Black
History Month, Women’s History Week, Latin Heritage Month, and Asian American
Month.
Require or allow extra-credit opportunities for student to engage in service-learning
experiences that will bring them in contact with people from diverse groups.
Studies show that participation in service-learning experiences results in greater-thanpredicted changes in students’ levels of racial tolerance and appreciation (Astin, 2000).
Service-learning experiences may also allow you to capitalize on forms of diversity that
may be more available outside the college community than within it.
Also, students who’ve become involved in service to the community might be
encouraged to invite diverse members from the community whom they’ve met to come to
class as guest speakers or panelists.
Convey high expectations for student engagement among students of all groups.
There is evidence that female students and students from minority racial or ethnic
groups tend to receive different treatment in college classrooms than do males and nonminority students. The following recommendations are offered as instructional strategies
for decreasing the likelihood that such messages are unwittingly conveyed to female and
minority students in particular, and for increasing the likelihood signals of high
expectations are sent to all students.
* Learn your students’ names as quickly as possible.
For example, schedule instructor-student conferences with your students outside of
class during the early weeks of the term. This will help you learn your students’ names
quickly and establish initial personal rapport with your students, which can provide the
social/emotional foundation for promoting student participation in class. “High
expectations are communicated as instructors learn students’ names and call on them by
name” (Forsyth and McMillan 1991, p. 58). (See Exhibit B for a series of strategies for
learning students’ names.)
* In addition to learning who your students are, learn something about them. For
example, the questions included on the “Student Information Sheet” (Exhibit 2) can be
used to learn about your students on the first day of class. This sheet can be used to learn
about your students (e.g., their backgrounds, goals, and interests), which you can use to
make personal connections with them, which should increase their willingness to
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contribute their experiences in class. The Student Information Sheet can also be a
valuable tool for helping you identify the diversity that exists among students in your
class, which you can capitalize on by creating heterogeneous learning groups that expose
students to diverse perspectives.
* Make a conscious attempt to elicit involvement among students from diverse groups by
using effective questioning techniques that are most likely to elicit student responses,
such as open-ended questions that stimulate divergent thinking. (See the section of this
manual dealing with the “interactive lecture” for more detailed information about
effective questioning strategies.)
* During class discussions, intentionally ask for a response from members of diverse
groups whose ideas have yet to be heard (e.g., I haven’t heard the perspective of females
on this issue. May I ask some of the women in class to share their ideas?).
* Report the perspectives shared by members of diverse groups on written assignments
(e.g., one-minute papers or written reflections on co-curricular experiences). Naturally,
you should seek permission from any student whose written comments you’d like to
share with your class, or you could share a student’s perspectives without mentioning that
student’s name)
Intentionally form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds.
Creating heterogeneous groups comprised of students with different demographic or
cultural characteristics can effectively implement two cardinal recommendations found in
the scholarly literature on teaching for critical thinking: (a) students should “collaborate
to ‘stretch’ their understanding by encountering divergent views” (Kurfiss, 1988, p. 2),
and (b) teachers should intentionally create an “atmosphere of disequilibrium so that
students can change, rework, or reconstruct their thinking processes” (Meyers, 1986, p.
14).
Forming heterogeneous discussion groups of students is also an effective way to
convert social constructivist theory into pedagogical practice. Individual students can
build (“construct”) personal knowledge via social interactions that expose them to
diverse perspectives of others who differ with respect to such characteristics as (a)
race/ethnicity (e.g., Anglo-American and under-represented students), (b) national
citizenship (e.g., domestic and international students), or (c) age (e.g., traditionally-aged
and adult re-entry students).
One caveat should be heeded when forming small discussion groups of diverse
composition: Do not spread out individual students from under-represented populations
across groups in a way that isolates them from one another. For instance, if there are four
international students in your class, it may be tempting to distribute them so that each one
of them is a member of a different group in order to maximize the diversity of the groups.
However, it may be more advisable to place them in only two groups, one pair per group,
because they may feel more comfortable contributing their ideas if there is at least one
other international student in their group. In subsequent group discussions, new groups
can be formed in such a fashion that the majority students who were not initially exposed
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to the international students’ perspective may now be grouped with one pair of
international students.
Use cooperative learning strategies that convert group work into teamwork by: (a)
intentionally forming learning groups with diverse composition, (b) assigning
interdependent roles to team members, and (c) having learning teams pursue a
shared goal that eventuates in the development of a common (team-produced) work
product.
See Appendix E for specific, detailed information on how to implement these key
features of cooperative learning. The relevance of cooperative learning for promoting
multicultural appreciation and reducing racial prejudice is strongly suggested by
experimental research in social psychology, which indicates that continued exposure to
an initially-disliked person under conditions of competition and conflict will intensify the
dislike of that person (Burgess & Sales, 1977; Swap, 1977). In contrast, there is empirical
evidence that inter-group contact in the context of cooperative learning activities tends to
decrease racial prejudice and increase interracial friendships among (a) elementary and
secondary school students (Aronson, 1978; Slavin, 1980), (b) college students (Worchel,
1979), and (c) workers in industrial organizations (Blake & Mouton, 1979). There is also
some evidence that students of color may benefit more from cooperative learning than
White students (Posner & Markstein, 1994).
Furthermore, by creating learning teams with diverse membership, cooperative learning
has the potential to capitalize on the rising wave of student diversity, allowing instructors
to access and harness its educational power by intentionally exposing students to diverse
perspectives within the collaborative context of teamwork.
When discussing diversity, remain mindful of helping your students identify
patterns of human unity that transcend differences between groups.
Visible human differences are easily detectable and attention-grabbing, and having
students discuss diversity can often heighten their focus on group differences and divert
their attention away from detecting group commonalities. If this happens, repeated
attempts to promote discussion of diversity may inadvertently promote divisiveness
between groups. In fact, some research indicates that when diversity education initiatives
focus on differences alone, disenfranchised groups are likely to feel even more isolated
(Smith, 1997).
To minimize this risk, when asking students to discuss diversity (the variations on the
theme), remind them to dig deeper and uncover their commonalities (the universal
themes). In fact, it may be advisable to have discussions of diversity begin with the
identification of common themes before launching students into a discussion of their
differences. For example, before beginning a discussion of cultural differences, students
might first discuss the common elements of all cultures (e.g., language, family, artistic
expression, rituals). This initial identification of similarities may serve to help defuse
divisiveness and provide a common ground upon which a non-defensive discussion of
diversity can be built. The dimensions of culture (p. 186), the elements of the whole
person (p. 51), and/or the broadening perspectives of a liberal arts education (p. 59) may
be as focal points for helping students identify universal human themes.
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Other instructional strategies for realizing the dual objective of appreciating diversity
while embracing humanity include the following:
* Create heterogeneous discussion groups comprised of students with different
demographic characteristics. At the conclusion of these discussions, provide students
with some reflection time to think about both the diversity and unity that may have
emerged during the group process. Students could write a one-minute paper designed
specifically to promote reflection on both the diversity and unity of experiences that
emerged during the group’s discussion; for example: (a) What major differences in
perspectives did you detect among group members during your discussion? (b) What
major similarities in viewpoints or background experiences did all group members share?
(c) Were there particular topics or issues raised during your discussion that proved
equally important or relevant to all members of your group?
* Form homogeneous groups with students who share the same demographic
characteristic, such as same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups, and have them
share their personal views or experiences with respect to a diversity-related issue (e.g.,
how prevalent they think prejudice and discrimination is). Have the groups record their
main ideas and then have representatives from each group form a panel to report their
group’s ideas and respond to questions from the audience. You can serve as a moderator
who identifies key differences and common themes that emerge across different groups.
Or, a student who is not on the panel may adopt this role.
* Before launching groups into collaborative learning tasks, have them engage in teambuilding activities that are designed to foster social cohesiveness. Such activities include
(a) having groups participate in icebreaker (warm-up) activities when they are first
formed (e.g., name-learning, personal information-sharing); (b) having groups engage in
practices that promote team identity (e.g., team photo, team name, team symbol, team
mascot, team cheer, team handshake). The educational objective of these team-building
activities is to establish a sense of unity or solidarity among group members, and to create
a social-emotional climate conducive to the development of an esprit de corps, which will
enable teammates to feel comfortable in future group activities that may require them to
express personal viewpoints, disagree with others, and reach consensus in an open (nondefensive) fashion.
Here are a few specific team-building practices that can be used for this purpose:
Team Portrait
Have teammates answer individually a few questions about themselves (e.g., academic
major, career interests, personal interests). Then teammates convene and integrate their
personal information into a composite team portrait or profile that may be depicted in
narrative or visual-spatial form—e.g., an emblem, mascot, or coat of arms (Ellis, 1996).
Team Vision Statement
A variation of the above procedure, in which teammates write individual statements
about what they hope their team experience will be like, then unite to integrate these
individual vision statements into a single team-vision statement (Silberman, 1998).
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Three-Step Interview (Kagan, 1992)
Steps:
1. Have four-member teams sub-divide into pairs and one member interviews the other.
2. Partners reverse roles whereby the previous interviewer becomes the interviewee and
vice versa.
3. Each team member shares the interview information obtained from her partner with the
other members of the team.
Note: This procedure functions as an icebreaker for group work, but it also can cofunction as a unity-building experience because teammates often discover that they
do share some common interests and background experiences. Attention to these
commonalities can be explicitly solicited by adding a step after partners interview
each other, which asks them to identify interests or experiences they have in common.
Ask students to complete a self-assessment instrument (e.g., learning style
inventories or personality profile), and then have them form a line according to
their individual scores, or move to different sections of the room based on their
different profiles.
This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how members of different student
populations can be quite similar with respect to their learning styles or personality
profiles, thereby enabling student to see how individual similarities can often overshadow
group differences.
Form heterogeneous groups of students who differ with respect to a particular
demographic characteristic, but who are similar with respect to another
characteristic (e.g., students of the same gender who differ with respect to race,
ethnicity, or age).
This practice can serve to increase student awareness that humans who are members of
different groups can, at the same time, be members of the same group—with similar
experiences, needs, or concerns. You can use the following procedure to ensure equal
participation among all group members on this task (or any other group-learning task)
“Talking Chips”
Steps:
1. Give each team member a symbolic “talking chip” (e.g., a checker, coin, or playing
card).
2. Each teammate is instructed to place the chip in the center of the team’s workspace
when he or she makes an individual verbal contribution to the team’s discussion.
3. Teammates can speak in any order, but they cannot speak again until all chips are in
the center—an indication that every team member has spoken.
4. After all chips have been placed in the center, team members retrieve their respective
chips for a second round of discussion—which follows the same rules of equal
participation (Kagan, 1992).
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Additional Exercises & Assignments
Ask your class to list the five most important events or five most important people in
history.
It’s likely that the events and people named by your students will be disproportionately
American, occasionally European, but almost never African, Hispanic, Asian, or Native
American. You can use these lists as stepping stones to discussion about what Americans
know, how we got to know it, and the limitations of our knowledge of other cultural
perspectives.
Extension of Exercise 1 (“Diversity Spectrum,” p. 281)
Step 1. Have each student select one of the groups they identified as being a member of,
and put them together in small groups of 2-4 students with other students who identified
themselves as a member of the same group.
Step 2. Ask each group to list things that they never want to hear said again about their
group and one thing that they would like to hear said about their group.
Step 3. In round-robin fashion, have each group share one item from both lists and
continue to do so until all groups have reported all items from both lists.
Extension or Variation of Exercise 2, p. 282 (“When Have You Felt Different?”)
Ask your students to respond to the following questions:
1. In what way(s) do you think others might stereotype you based on your appearance or
background?
2. Do you think you act or behave in any way that either reinforces or contradicts this
stereotype?
3. If you detect others holding this stereotypical view of you, does it affect how you act
or react in their presence?
4. If you find someone treating you according to this stereotype, do you typically
approach that person about it?
Extension of Exercise 4 (“Personal Experience,” p. 282)
Ask your students to share any personal experiences they may have had in which they
were offended by prejudice or discrimination. You might use the following three-step
procedure for doing so:
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1. Have students form 2- to 4-member groups, and ask individual members to share any
personal experience they may have had that involved being offended by prejudice or
discrimination.
2. After a member has shared an experience, have other members of the group brainstorm
what they would have done to defend the offended person if they were there at the time
of the offensive act.
3. Ask the groups to report one of the personal stories shared by a member of their group,
and the responses of other members about how they would have defended the offended
person.
Note: This third step could be enacted as a role play. Research suggests that role plays are
excellent ways to promote attitudinal change, particularly with respect diversity issues
(Bligh, 2000).
Have your students take one of the Hidden Bias Tests at the following website:
https:implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/emo/selectastest.html
This site contains self-assessment inventories for bias with respect to gender, age,
Native Americans, African Americans, Asian Americans, religious denominations, sexual
orientation, disabilities, and body weight. Thus, you can have students respond to the
particular form(s) of diversity you’d like to assess their biases toward.
After they complete their self-assessments, have your students reflect on their results
by writing a short reflection paper, asking them questions such as: (a) Did you think the
assessment results were accurate or valid? (b) Were the results surprising or predictable?
(c) What do you think best accounts for, or explains your results?
Rather than discussing any single student’s scores, it may be best to report an average
score for your class and the score range (highest and lowest score). These class-combined
results could serve as a stimulus or springboard for class discussion.
Case Study
Hate Crime: Homophobic Murder
October 7, 1998
Matthew Shepard, a 21-year-old freshman at the University of Wyoming in Laramie,
was fatally attacked a few hours after he had attended a planning meeting for Gay
Awareness Week events on campus. Shepard, 21, was lured from a downtown Laramie
bar, then was beaten, bound, and tied to a wooden fence post in the foothills outside of
Laramie. As he lay there bleeding and begging for his life, his attackers left him lying in
near-freezing temperatures.
Several hours after the attack, another student passing by on a mountain bike found the
comatose Shepard, initially mistaking the nearly lifeless body for a “scarecrow or a
dummy set there for Halloween jokes.” Shepard had been hit in the head at least 18 times
with the butt of a .357-caliber Magnum. He was also bruised on the backs of his hands,
indicating that he had tried to protect himself, and around the groin, where he had been
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kicked repeatedly. Officers testified that Shepard’s face was caked with blood—except
where it had been partially washed clean by tears. They said his wrists were bound so
tightly, a sheriff’s deputy had trouble cutting him free. He never regained consciousness
and the University of Wyoming freshman died five days later in a Colorado hospital.
The attackers, Aaron James McKinney and Russell Henderson, both 21, were later
apprehended. They lured Matthew Shepard out of a campus bar on October 7 and took
him to a remote area outside Laramie. He was targeted because he was gay. McKinney
and Henderson first befriended Shepard by telling him they were gay and they wanted to
get “better acquainted.” As they drove away in McKinney’s truck, McKinney pulled a
handgun and said “We’re not gay, and you’re jacked.” Before savagely beating Matthew
Shepard with a pistol butt, one of his tormentors taunted him, saying, “It’s Gay
Awareness Week.”
Explaining the violence, McKinney told his girlfriend, Kristin Price, “Well, you know
how I feel about gays.” When questioning McKinney about the incident, a police
detective said that he repeatedly referred to Shepard as “queer” and “faggot.” McKinney
admitted that Matthew did not hit on him or make advances in the Fireside Bar before
they abducted him.
McKinney was given two life sentences for killing Matthew Shepard. McKinney had
faced the possibility of being sentenced to death by lethal injection, but Shepard’s parents
agreed to accept two life terms in prison for their son's killer. Prosecutor Cal Rerucha
said he wanted to seek the death penalty, but Shepard’s family wanted to show tolerance.
The other attacker, Russell Henderson, pleaded guilty to murder and kidnapping charges
and is serving two consecutive life sentences in a Wyoming prison.
“Matthew Shepard was frail and small and if anyone was born to be a victim in this
case it was Matthew Shepard,” Albany County District Attorney Cal Rerucha told jurors
in his closing arguments.
(Source: The Story of Matthew’s Murder, Retrieved August 16, 2007 from
http://community-2.webtv.net/Wildheart/TheStrory of Matthews/)
Discussion Questions
1. Why or how do you think the attackers developed such an intense hatred of gay men?
2. What, if anything, could have been done to prevent the attackers’ hatred toward gays
from developing in the first place?
3. What do you think the appropriate sentence should have been for this crime? Why?
4. Do you think the attackers could ever be successfully rehabilitated, educated, or treated
for their homophobia?
5. Do you predict that hate crimes toward gay males is likely to decrease, remain the
same, or increase in the future? Why?
6. Do you think that there are more hate crimes committed against homosexual men or
homosexual women? If you think there is a difference, what do you think accounts for
this difference?
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Chapter 8
Reading Objectives
8.1 Recognize the meaning of the following terms:
(a) culture
(b) cross-cultural
(c) multi-cultural
(d) ethnic group. (p. 253)
8.2 Recognize whether you can determine a person’s race by a genetic test. (p. 255)
8.3 Recall the reason why humans have different skin colors. (p. 255)
8.4 Recall the differences among the following terms:
(a) humanity
(b) diversity
(c) individuality. (p. 256)
8.5 Recall what is meant by the term “multicultural competence” and why it is a skill that
is essential for success in today’s world. (p. 258)
8.6 Recall how experiencing diversity can promote an individual’s:
(a) self-awareness
(b) learning and thinking skills
(c) career preparation and success (pp. 259-261).
8.7 Recall the meaning of the terms “selective perception” and “selective memory,” and
how both can reinforce and maintain prejudice. (p. 263)
8.8 Recognize the difference between discrimination and prejudice. (p. 263)
8.9 Recall how familiarity and stranger anxiety may contribute to prejudice. (p. 265)
8.10 Recognize the meaning of the term ethnocentrism. (p. 266)
8.11 Recognize what research reveals about how humans perceive the attitudes and
behavior of members of their own group compared to members of other groups. (p.
267)
8.12 Recognize the meaning of “scapegoating.” (p. 268)
8.13 Recall the three-step strategy for making the most of diversity recommended by the
authors of your text. (pp. 269-272)
8.14 Recall three strategies for creating learning groups that most effectively promote
diversity appreciation and team learning. (p. 277)
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8.15 Recall why appreciating diversity and combating prejudice in others demonstrates
responsible citizenship in a democratic nation. (p. 278)
Chapter 8
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Humans have been divided into different racial groups based on the color of their skin,
and these divisions have often led to prejudice and discrimination toward certain groups
with certain skin colors. Briefly explain why or how differences in skin color of different
groups of humans developed in the first place.
[Reading objective: 8.3] [Answer: p. 255]
2. The famous American anthropologist, Clyde Kluckholn, once said: “Every human is at
the same time, like all other humans, like some humans, and like no other human.”
Briefly explain how his quote accurately relates to the differences among the following
terms:
(a) humanity
(b) diversity
(c) individuality.
[Reading objective: 8.4] [Answer: p. 256]
3. The ability to read, write, and think have long been considered to be important
competencies for every college graduate to possess. More recently, the term
“multicultural competence” has been added to the list of important competencies that
college graduates should possess. Briefly describe what multicultural competence is, and
why it is a skill that is essential for success in today’s world.
[Reading objective: 8.5] [Answer: p. 258]
4. When people hear the word “diversity,” they often think of it as only a social or
political issue. However, diversity is also an educational issue that can strengthen
academic development, personal development, and career success. Briefly describe how
experiencing diversity can promote an individual’s:
(a) self-awareness
(b) learning and thinking skills
(c) career preparation and success.
[Reading objective: 8.6] [Answer: pp. 259-261]
5. Once an individual becomes prejudiced, that prejudice is often maintained and
reinforced by: (a) selective perception, and (b) selective memory. Briefly explain how
each of these psychological processes serves to support prejudice and keep it going.
[Reading objective: 8.7] [Answer: p. 263]
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6. The roots of prejudice may lie in our evolutionary history and relate to old habits or
tendencies that enabled our early ancestors to survive. Briefly describe how each of the
following factors that were once useful for survival of the human species may now be
contributing to prejudice against members of our own species.
(a) familiarity
(b) stranger anxiety.
[Reading objective: 8.9] [Answer: p. 265]
7. Experiencing diversity can improve our self-awareness, knowledge, and quality of
thinking. Briefly describe the three-step strategy for making the most of diversity that is
recommended by the authors of your textbook.
[Reading objective: 8.13] [Answer: pp. 269-272]
8. Studies show that when students team-up with their peers to form learning groups, they
experience greater learning and greater appreciation of diversity. Briefly describe three
strategies for creating learning teams in way that would maximize learning and
appreciation of diversity.
[Reading objective: 8.14] [Answer: p. 277]
9. One of the major goals of a college education is to develop responsible citizens who
can function effectively in a democracy. Briefly explain why appreciating diversity and
opposing prejudice demonstrates responsible citizenship in a democratic nation.
[Reading objective: 8.15] [Answer: p. 278]
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Chapter 8
True-False & Multiple-Choice Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Which one of the following statements about human culture is not true?
(a) It develops among a group of people.
(b) It means something different than society.
(c) It is learned.
(d) It is genetic (inherited).
[Reading objective: 8.1(a)] [Answer: (d), p. 253]
2. Cultural differences can exist across different nations and within the same nation.
(a) True
(b) False
[Reading objective: 8.1(b-c)] [Answer: (a), p. 253]
3. People who share the same culture are referred to as:
(a) an ethnic group
(b) a race
(c) a society
(d) a nation (country).
[Reading objective: 8.1(d)] [Answer: (a), p. 253]
4. The most accurate way to determine a person’s race is by a genetic test (e.g., DNA
analysis).
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 8.2] [Answer: (b), p. 255]
5. Prejudice refers to an attitude or belief, whereas discrimination refers to an action.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 8.8] [Answer: (a), p. 255]
6. The tendency to view one’s own culture as “normal” and other cultures as “abnormal”
or inferior is known as:
(a) racial prejudice
(b) racial discrimination
(c) ethnocentrism
(d) scapegoating.
[Reading objective: 8.10] [Answer: (c), p. 266]
7. Research shows that if an undesirable behavior (e.g., criminal behavior) occurs at the
same rate among members of a majority group and a minority group, members of the
majority group are more likely to develop negative attitudes (prejudice) toward the
minority group than their own (majority) group.
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(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 8.11] [Answer: (a), p. 267]
8. In Nazi Germany, Adolph Hitler built up national pride and self-esteem by blaming
Jewish people for the country’s economic and political problems. Hitler was using a
psychological process known as:
(a) multiculturalism
(b) ethnicity
(c) tolerance
(d) scapegoating.
[Reading objective: 8.12] [Answer: (d), p. 268]
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Teaching Chapter 9
Finding a Path to Your Future Profession:
Career Exploration, Preparation, and Development
Key Instructional Goal of this Chapter
The primary goal of this chapter is to promote students’ awareness that their future
career success is something that they can influence or control by what they do
strategically while in college, beginning in their very first year.
Rationale for the Placement of this Chapter in the Text’s Sequence of Topics
Some career-related information was presented earlier in the text (Chapter 3:
Educational Planning & Decision-Making) in order to help students with the process of
exploring or confirming decisions about a college major. Information relating to longrange educational planning was presented early in the text because studies show that
students who do not see any connection between their current academic experience and
their future life plans are at risk for attrition.
At first glance, it would appear that the most logical place to position a chapter on
career planning is immediately after a chapter on educational planning and decisionmaking. However, we felt that deciding on a major and deciding on a career are different
decisions, with the former decision taking place much earlier and the latter.
Consequently, we delayed discussion of careers until after students were equipped with
academic-success strategies for handling college-level coursework in their first term (e.g.,
strategies for learning, thinking, test-taking, research, writing, and speaking). The chapter
on diversity serves as a bridge between the academic skill-development chapters and the
career-development chapter because experiencing diversity serves to promotes both
academic success and career success.
Motivating Students for this Chapter
Today’s students tend to be very “career-minded,” so it is reasonable to expect that
your students should be motivated to learn about this topic. However, it’s possible that
some students may perceive career development to be far removed in time and much
lower in priority than other adjustment issues they’re currently experiencing in their first
college term. Thus, it may be necessary to intentionally build a case for the relevance of
this chapter. Here are some points that might be made proactively to initiate student
interest in this chapter:
* Point out that the vast majority of new students are unsure about the career they want to
pursue, and even those who have made a definite choice still need to learn how to best
prepare for, gain entry to, and eventually succeed at their intended career.
* Inform your students that there are many careers available to them that they’ve never
even heard of, and the number of careers that never existed before is growing rapidly due
to the rapid growth of information technology and economic globalization.
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* Remind your students that the skills they are currently acquiring in their “lower
division” coursework and their co-curricular involvement during the first year of college
are as important to their future career success as coursework and co-curricular
involvement completed during their junior and senior year. Reinforce the point that the
skills new students develop in their general education courses are not just academic skills
but are also career-preparation and career-success skills. Furthermore, co-curricular
experiences involving service and leadership that occur during the first year of college
are to be entered on their résumé right now and will remain on there forever.
Key Points to Emphasize in this Chapter
* Underscore the fact that the first step in the process of effective career exploration and
decision-making is self-awareness. Point out that self-awareness precedes and provides
the foundation for prudent selection of career, particularly with respect to:
(a) personal interests—what you like to do,
(b) personal abilities, skills, or talents—what you do well or could do well, and
(c) personal values—what is important to you and makes you feel good about yourself.
* Remind students that the usual relationship between majors and careers is not linear,
i.e., they don’t ride a monorail directly from their college major straight into a career
that’s related to their major. Instead, their major will typically lead to a family or cluster
of careers that can be quite diverse. Point out to your students that when they graduate
from college, they will not only have a college major (academic specialization), they will
also have a liberal arts experience (general education), which will prepare them for many
work tasks that go well beyond their narrow area of academic specialization.
An effective way to illustrate this point is to arrange for some college alumni to visit
your class. Have them describe their career position and have your students attempt to
guess what their major was in college. Although there may some cases where the alum’s
current career can be predicted from their major, the majority of the alums will be
occupying career positions that cannot be readily predicted on the basis of their college
major.
* Remind students that their first career position is not what they will be doing for the
remainder their working life. Research indicates that college graduates change careers
three-to-five times before retiring—and this does not simply mean changing jobs, but
changing professions. Reinforce the fact that a key advantage of general education
(the liberal arts) is its capacity to equip college graduates with transferable work skills
that serve to increase their career versatility and mobility.
* Highlight the differences between career entry, career compatibility and career
advancement.
Careers that are currently “in demand” may allow for easier entry into employment
immediately after college graduation, but easy career entry should not override career
compatibility with personal interests and talents, and career advancement—opportunity to
“move up” at later stages of career development. Thus, choosing a career that’s in
213
demand may be a good short-term (or short-sighted) career decision, but not necessarily
an effective long-term decision.
* Emphasize to your students that probably the single most important thing they can do
while in college to increase their employment prospects after college is to get “real-life”
work experience, such as internships and service-learning (volunteerism).
Rather than simply piling up college credits toward a college diploma, then waiting
and hoping it will eventually translate into career success, students should be reminded
that they can exert more direct and proactive control over their future career success—
starting in the first year of college—by engaging in out-of-class work experiences that
will enable them to:
(1) find out what work is “really like” in certain fields,
(2) “test” their interests and skills for certain types of work,
(3) strengthen their resume by adding experiential learning to their academic learning,
(4) obtain work-related letters of reference, and
(5) network with employers who may recommend them or hire them after college
graduation.
Inform your students that a college diploma is not an automatic passport to a prosperous
and fulfilling career. Instead of focusing on the product of a college education (the
diploma), encourage your students to focus on the process of a college education—on the
things they do while in college to monitor and document their career-development skills,
and to package and market those skills in a compelling manner. Remind students that
career success after college depends more on what they actually do in college than on the
name of the major, or the name of the college, which happens to appear on their diploma.
Exercises for Chapter 9
“Dream Career” Fantasy
Instruction to Students:
1. Take the next couple of minutes to imagine your “dream job.” Don’t focus on any
specific occupation (e.g., doctor or lawyer); instead, let your imagination run wild and
fantasize about doing that you really love doing, even if were not being paid for doing
it.
2. As thoughts and images come to your mind, record them in words or in pictures.
3. Use the following five questions to help guide your career fantasy:
(a) What are you doing—what tasks are you performing?
(b) How are you doing it—what skills are you using?
(c) Where are you doing it—what does the geographical area and physical
environment look like?
(d) Who are you working with (if anybody)?
(e) When are you working—what is your work schedule?
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4. Lastly, think about what you are feeling when (a) you’re getting ready to go to work
and (b) when you’ve finished your work at the end of the day.
Seeking Career Feedback from a Friend
Instructions to Students:
1. Identify two or more people who know you well.
2. Ask these people to suggest what career(s) they think would best meet your needs and
match your interests, talents, and values.
Career-Interview Role Play
Steps:
1. Have each student in class pair-up with another student. (If you have an uneven
number of students in your class, you can serve as a partner for one of your students.)
2. One member of the pair plays the role of being an interviewee for a career position and
the other member assumes the role of interviewer—who poses the common kickoff
questions for an interview: “Tell me about yourself?”
3. In response to this interview question, the interviewee provides a 1- or 2-minute
answer that includes information about:
(a) what personal interests, talents (abilities), and values, s/he would bring to the
position,
(b) what liberal arts (general education) skills or perspective s/he would bring to the
position.
4. Partners reverse roles, with the interviewer now becoming the interviewee and vice
versa.
Reflective Thinking about the Personal Results of Career-Interest Inventories
The following questions may be used to prompt students to think deeply about the results
of any career-interest inventory you elect to have them take.
1. What were the highest career area(s) in your profile?
2. If norms are available to you, how did the score you obtained in your highest area of
career interest compare with the scores of others? In other words, what is your
percentile score—i.e., the percentage of people scoring below you in your highest area
of career interest)?
3. Check the description of the career area(s) in which you scored the highest. Does this
description tend to confirm what you already thought your career interests were, or
were you surprised by the results? Why?
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3. What college majors or minors relate to your highest career-interest area? Do you see
yourself majoring (or minoring) in any of these subject areas? Why?
4. Check the occupations that relate to your highest career-interest area, and list any that
you find appealing.
5. What skills, talents, or abilities do you think are needed for the occupations relating to
your highest career-interest area? Do you feel that they tend to match your strongest
skills and abilities? For example, do they tend to match the ones you reported on the
first day of class—on the “Student Information Card?
Additional Exercises & Assignments in Response to Career-Interest Test Results
1. Have students develop an educational plan for majoring or minoring in one of the
fields of study relating to their highest area of career interest.
2. Have students interview someone in an academic or career field relating to their
highest career-interest score. (The “Information Interview” exercise at the end of
Chapter 9 may be used for this purpose.)
3. Have students investigate volunteer (service-learning) opportunities available through
your college or the local community agencies that relate to their highest career-interest
area. To facilitate this process, you could provide students with a list of servicelearning opportunities offered under the auspices of your college, or provide your class
with a list of local community agencies that welcome student volunteers.)
4. Require students to participate in a service-learning experience relating to their
highest career-interest area, or offer it as an extra-credit opportunity. (For a sample
“Service-Learning Reflection Paper,” see Exhibit #5.)
Career-Related Reflection Exercises Related to the MBTI Inventory
Note: A free online version of the MBTI, and a listing of personality traits associated
with each of its types, is available at: http://www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp
Steps:
1. Note if you have a higher score one or the other letter in each of the following pairs:
E or I = _____
S or N = _____
T or F = _____
J or P = _____
2. Review the personality traits associated with each one of your four highest
letters/types.
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(a) In general, do the characteristics listed under your highest types seem to be true of
you?
(b) List two characteristics associated with each of your four highest types that you
think are most true of you.
(c) Depending on whether your higher score was E or I, go to one side of the room or
the other (e.g., E = left side, I = right side).
(d) Form 3- or 4-member groups with other students on your side of the room who
share the same letter, and brainstorm careers that would be compatible or
consistent with the personality characteristics associated with your letter.
(e) Repeat steps (c) and (d) three more times for each of the other three pairs of letters.
3. Take your higher score for each one of the four pairs and join them to form a fourletter sequence (for example, ESTJ). Review the personality traits associated with
your four-letter sequence.
* In general, would you say that the personality traits associated with your 4-letter
sequence accurately describes you?
* What particular personality traits associated with your 4-letter sequence do you
think best describe you?
* Are your results on this test consistent wit your career interests?
* Do the results of this assessment match or contradict other personality or careerinterest tests that you may have taken previously?
Career Team Project & Presentation
Instructions to Students:
1. You have been assigned to a 3-4 member team of students who share career interests
similar to you.
2. Your team will make a 15-20 minute presentation, with each person speaking for
approximately five minutes about their career interest.
3. Information used in your presentation should be drawn from the following three
sources:
(a) Online: Internet
(b) In Print: Published material (e.g., books or articles)
(c) In Person: Interviewing or “shadowing” a person in the field.
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4. Relate the information you find about your career with the results of your selfassessment tests taken earlier in the course. (For example: Are the career qualifications
and expectations consistent with your personal characteristics?)

5. Submit a one-page outline of the major points and sub-points you will cover during
your part of the team presentation on the class session before your team’s presentation
is due. (Your teammates and the due date for your team presentation are listed on the
following page.)
After each major section on your outline, briefly indicate the research source(s) you
used to obtain information contained in that particular section.
At the end of your outline, list all the sources you used. (This list should contain at
least one source from each of the three types of sources listed above.)
Topics That Could Be Covered During Your Team Presentation
- Nature/Description of work in the career
- Different career branches/specializations
- College majors relating/leading to the career
- Colleges/universities with programs leading to the career
- Employment outlook for the career
- Qualifications (level of education/work experiences) needed for career entry
- Volunteer experiences and internships related to the career
- Skills/abilities needed for career success
- Opportunities for career advancement
- Impact of the career on mental and physical health
- Ethical dilemmas likely to be encountered in the career
* Note: These are merely samples or examples of what could be covered during your
presentation. You are free to discuss other points or issues relating to the career.
Recommended Resources for Your Team Presentation
- Career Resource Section of the College Library
- Computer-Assisted Career Guidance System (Career Center)
- Dictionary of Occupational Titles (Library or Career Center)
- Occupational Outlook Handbook (Library or Career Center)
- Websites:
http://www.collegeboard.org/career/bin/career.pl
http://www.collegeview.com/careers/
http://www.mapping-your-future.org/
http://www.internshipprograms.com/
http://www.jobweb.org/cfairsr.htm
Career Teams & Team-Presentation Dates
Note to Instructors:
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* The career teams listed below were created based on the interests of one particular class
of students. Student in your class may have different career-interest areas, thus resulting
in different career groupings.
* For criteria to evaluate and grade team presentations, see Exhibit #8.
Team #1. FINE ARTISTS & PSYCHOSOCIAL SERVICE SPECIALISTS
Teammates:
______________
______________
______________
______________
Due Date: ________
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Team #2. ENGINEERS, BIOLOGISTS, & OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS
Teammates:
______________
______________
______________
______________
Due Date: ________
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Team #3. CAPITALISTS & CORPORATE ATTORNEYS
Teammates:
______________
______________
______________
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______________
Due Date: ________
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Team #4. TEACHERS & SPEECH THERAPISTS
Teammates:
______________
______________
______________
______________
Due Date: ________
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Team #5. JOURNALISTS & CAREER EXPLORERS
Teammates:
______________
______________
______________
______________
Due Date: ________
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Chapter 9
Reading Objectives
* Note: The reading objectives for this chapter are tied entirely to essay test questions
because the nature of the material discussed in this chapter was not conducive to
multiple-choice or true-false questions.
9.1 Recall and briefly describe the four key steps involved in reaching an effective
decision about a career. (p. 287)
9.2 Recall four personal needs that should be taken into consideration when making a
career choice. (p. 288)
9.3 Recall and briefly describe four key aspects of yourself that should be considered
when exploring and choosing a career. (p. 289)
9.4 Recall four major types of experiences or sources of information for learning about
careers. (p. 290)
9.5 Recall two research findings on the benefits of internships and co-op experiences for
college students. (p. 295)
9.6 Recall how participating in volunteer experiences not only helps your community but
also helps you in terms of your career exploration and development. (p. 295)
9.7 Recall three advantages of gaining first-hand experience in actual work settings
before graduating from college. (p. 297)
9.8 Recall why each of the following statements about careers is a myth:
(a) Once you have decided on a career, you have decided on what you’ll be doing for
the rest of your life.
(b) You need to pick a career that is in demand so that you’ll be able to obtain a
position immediately after graduation. (p. 298)
9.9 Recall three things you should keep in mind about the work conditions of a career
that you are considering. (p. 299).
9.10 Recall how you can use each of the following strategies to prepare for and gain entry
into the career of your choice:
(a) self-monitoring (pp. 301-302)
(b) self-marketing (pp. 303-304).
9.11 Recall three types of courses to have on your college transcript that would be good
selling points to future employers. (pp. 304-307)
9.12 Recall the meaning of the term “portfolio” and three items you can include in it
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during college to improve your employment prospects after college. (p. 307)
9.13 Recall three things you should demonstrate knowledge of in a letter of
application for employment or acceptance to a school. (p. 308)
9.14 Recall three strategies or courtesies that you should use when requesting a letter of
recommendation. (p. 311)
9.15 Recall what studies show are the two key characteristics of students who are able to
successfully convert their college degree into successful into career entry after
college. (p. 313)
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Chapter 9
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
* Note: The reading objectives for this chapter are tied entirely to essay test questions
because the nature of the material discussed in this chapter was not conducive to
multiple-choice or true-false questions.
1. For first-year students, college graduation and career entry are years away; however,
the process of investigating, planning, and preparing for career success should begin
during the first year of college. Briefly describe three key steps involved in the process of
making an effective career choice or decision.
[Reading objective: 9.1] [Answer: p. 287]
2. When making choices about careers, one important aspect of yourself that should be
considered are your personal needs. Briefly describe four personal needs that should be
taken into consideration when making a career choice.
[Reading objective: 9.2] [Answer: p. 288]
3. Self-awareness is critical for making an effective career decision because the career
you choose to pursue says a lot about who you are and what you want from life. Briefly
describe four key aspects of yourself that should be considered when making a career
choice.
[Reading objective: 9.3] [Answer: p. 289]
4. The federal government lists more than 30,000 different career fields, many of which
you may have never heard of, but some of which may be good career options for you.
Briefly describe four types of experiences or sources of information you can draw on to
learn more about different careers.
[Reading objective: 9.4] [Answer: p. 290]
5. Internships and co-op experiences can provide you with an authentic, realistic source
of career information and work experience. Briefly describe two research findings that
point to the benefits of internships and co-op experiences for college students.
[Reading objective: 9.5] [Answer: p. 295]
6. In addition to helping your community, volunteer service can help you. Explain how
volunteer experiences can help you in terms of career exploration and career
development.
[Reading objective: 9.6] [Answer: p. 295]
7. First-hand experience in actual work settings (e.g., shadowing, internships) can equip
you with powerful career advantages. Briefly describe three benefits of gaining first-hand
experience in actual work settings while you’re still in college.
[Reading objective: 9.7] [Answer: p. 297]
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8. Popular myths about careers or career success can sometimes mislead college students,
causing them to make poor career choices and decisions. Explain why each of the
following statements about careers is a myth:
(a) Once you’ve decided on a career, you’ve decided on what you’ll be doing for the rest
of your life.
(b) You need to pick a career that’s in demand, which will get you a job with a good
starting salary right after graduation.
[Reading objective: 9.8] [Answer: p. 298]
9. Besides salary, there are other important aspects or characteristics of a career that
should be factored into the decision-making process. Briefly describe three things you
should keep in mind about the work conditions of a career that you’re considering.
[Reading objective: 9.9] [Answer: p. 299]
10. Whether or not you’ve decided on a career path, you can start preparing for success in
any career field right now. Briefly describe how you can use each of the following
strategies to prepare for and gain entry into a future career:
(a) self-monitoring
(b) self-marketing.
[Reading objective: 9.10] [Answer: pp. 301-302 for (a); pp. 303-304 for (b)]
11. In addition to your course grades, the type of courses you complete in college can
influence employer decisions about whether or not to hire you. Briefly describe three
types of courses that would be good selling points to future employers if they appeared on
your college transcript.
[Reading objective: 9.11] [Answer: pp. 304-307]
12. When people hear the word “portfolio,” they often associate it with a collection of art
work that professional artists put together to showcase their artistic talents. However, a
portfolio has a much broader meaning than this. Explain the actual meaning of the term,
portfolio, and briefly describe three items that college students can include in it to
improve their employment prospects after graduation.
[Reading objective: 9.12] [Answer: p. 307]
13. A letter of application, also known as a “cover letter,” refers to the letter written by an
applicant for a position of employment or acceptance to a school. Briefly describe three
things that you should demonstrate knowledge of, when writing a letter of application.
[Reading objective: 9.13] [Answer: p. 308]
14. Letters of recommendation, also known as letters of reference, can be one of your
most powerful selling points to future employers or schools. Briefly describe three
specific strategies for improving the quality of letters of recommendation that you
receive.
[Reading objective: 9.14] [Answer: p. 311]
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15. When it comes to converting a college degree into successful career entry, studies
show that students who make this conversion most successfully have certain
characteristics in common. Briefly describe what studies show are the two key
characteristics of college graduates who are able to successfully convert their college
degree into successful career entry.
[Reading objective: 9.15] [Answer: p. 313]
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Teaching Chapter 10
LIFE-MANAGEMENT SKILLS:
Managing Time and Money
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
Simply stated, the major instructional goal of this chapter is to promote students’
ability to manage two of their most important personal resources: time and money.
Rationale for the Placement of this Chapter in the Text’s Sequence of Topics
A boxed summary of effective time-management was included earlier in Chapter 2
(“Exercising Personal Freedom Responsibly,” p. 211) with the hope that students would
implement those strategies early in the academic term to get off to a good start in college.
While it makes good sense to introduce practical strategies for time management early in
the term, it has been our experience that students are not typically motivated or “ready” to
learn about time management in depth until later in the term—after they see how easy it
is to fall behind in college and how stressful it is to play catch-up. Thus, detailed
discussion of time management is placed later in the sequence of topics so that it could be
covered soon after midterms—when students are more likely to realize the importance of
time management and more motivated to put effective time-management strategies into
practice. Time-management is covered after chapters on academic-success strategies
(note-taking, reading, studying, etc.) in order to help students actually get done what
they’ve previously learned should be done to achieve academic success.
Money management is joined with time management in this chapter because there are
striking similarities and potential synergy between these two self-management skills. For
example, they both come in finite quantities, so temporal and fiscal decisions involve
long-range planning, budgeting, itemizing, and prioritizing; also, both skills require selfawareness and self-discipline, and both can serve as “windows” into our personal needs
and values. Thus, by combining time and money management in the same chapter, we
hoped to generate symbiotic synergy between the two topics that might multiply their
interest and impact.
Chapter 10 was placed immediately after career development to highlight the fact that
both time and money management are not simply college-success skills but life-success
skills that are critical for occupational and personal success beyond college.
Motivating Students for this Chapter
* Point out to your students that managing time and money are two critical forms of selfmanagement that pose significant challenges for many first-year students, even for honors
students who enter college with academic scholarships. These are self-management skills
that students transitioning from high school to college have had little opportunity to
practice and fine-tune. Their high school schedule often managed time for them, and
being housed and fed at home required little financial self-management. The temporal
and fiscal freedoms encountered in college, along with their accompanying responsibilities,
226
represent significant life challenges for first-term students, no matter how well prepared they
may be for handling the academic challenges of college.
* It’s been our experience that students are intrinsically interested in the topic of money
and how to make the most of it. The motivational challenge in this chapter is more likely
to occur with respect to time management, perhaps because it’s often viewed narrowly as
a “study skill” rather than a life skill. Dispelling this false dichotomy may be the key to
stimulating greater student interest in the topic of time management. Managing time is
much more than a study skill; it’s a life skill that is pivotal for success and happiness
beyond college. It is not uncommon to find people in all stages of life who know what to
do, how to do it, why they should do it, and yet they still don’t get it done! Inviting
students to take a quick look at the number of time-management and procrastinationrelated books in the self-improvement sections of any popular bookstore should convince
them that managing time a skill that remains relevant well beyond college.
Key Points to Emphasize when Discussing this Chapter
* Covering the very practical skills of time and money management can be raised to a
more rigorous intellectual level by encouraging students to identify personal motives and
underlying psychological issues that underlie time- and money-spending habits, as well
as examining how these habits represent overt manifestations of an individual’s covert
priorities and values. Raising these penetrating questions and encouraging causal
analyses should also generate greater student interest in the subject than listening to us
iterate a series of self-management “tips”—which would be better covered (or
uncovered) through textbook reading and small-group discussions.
* Emphasize to students that if they hope to gain greater control of their time and money,
they need to think beyond the present and beneath the surface. Poor decisions about
spending time or money are typically driven by short-sighted or impulsive thinking,
namely: “This is what I want; this is what I want to do; and I want it right now!”) The
chapter lends itself nicely to discussing the deeper issues of being impulsive versus
reflective and seeking immediate versus deferred gratification.
Exercises for Chapter 10
Time Monitoring Exercise
Steps:
1. Have your students go to the following website:
http://www.ulc.psu.edu/studyskills/time_management.html#monitoring_your_time
At this site, students can estimate the hours per day or week they spend doing a variety
of activities (e.g., sleeping, employment, commuting). As students enter the amount of
time they engage in these activities, the total number of remaining hours available in
the week for schoolwork is automatically computed.
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2. Have students submit the results of this self-assessment to you, along with their
answers to the following questions:
(a) After entering the time spent you typically spend on non-academic activities each
week, how many hours per week do you have available for schoolwork?
(b) Do you have two hours available to you for studying outside of class for each hour
you spend in class?
(c) What time wasters could you eliminate or reduce in order to create more free time
for schoolwork or other productive activities?
Master Schedule Jigsaw
Steps:
1. Form four-member teams.
2. Ask the team to divide into pairs. One pair takes on the task of compiling a list of key
academic dates and deadlines for the remainder of the year (e.g., last day to drop
classes, pre-registration for next term’s classes) and the other pair does the same for
co-curricular events (e.g., on-campus workshops, guest speakers, social events).
3. After the pairs have completed their respective assignments, have them reconvene as a
quartet and integrate their respective work in pairs to create a master calendar or key
academic and co-curricular events for their first year of college.
Procrastination Self-Assessment
Steps:
1. As a course assignment, have your students to take a free procrastination selfassessment at either of the following websites:
http://webapps2.ucalgary.ca/~steel//Procrastinus/measure.php
http://discoveryhealth.queendom.com/procrastination_short_access.html
2. Ask your students to submit their scores to you individually.
3. Form groups of three students (triads) that are composed of a student who scored
among the lowest one-third of students in class (least procrastination), a student who
scored in the highest third (most procrastination), and one whose score has about
average.
4. Have the triads brainstorm strategies for combating procrastination.
5. Ask a student volunteer in each group to report their team’s suggestions for beating
procrastination and record them on the board.
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6. After the groups report back their strategies, ask the members in each group who had
the lowest procrastination score to stand. Ask them if they practice any of the strategies
listed on the board that may account for their low procrastination score or any other
strategies they may use that aren’t listed on the board.
Rocks, Sand, & Water: An Exercise for Prioritizing Time & Values (Adapted from
Covey, Merrill, & Merrill, 1994)
Steps:
Materials Needed:
1) Empty vase or a wide-mouth Mason jar
2) Enough small rocks to fill the vase or jar
4) Small bucket of sand or gravel
5) Small pitcher of water
Steps:
1. Tell students to clear their desk because they are about to take a pop quiz on time
management.
2. Pull out the jar or vase and place it on a table in front of the class, and tell your
students that it represents the amount of time they have each week.
3. Put the rocks into the jar, one by one, until you can fit no more. Ask the class: “Would
you say that this jar is full?” (Typically, they’ll say “yes.”)
4. Pull out the bucket of sand or gravel and dump some of it in the jar, allowing it to seep
through the spaces between the rocks. Ask the class: Would you say that this jar is
full? (Typically, they’ll be more tentative this time and say something like: “Maybe
not.”)
5. Grab the pitcher of water and pour it into the jar until it fills to the brim. Ask the class:
“What do you think is the point of this demonstration?”
6. After giving students the opportunity to offer their hypotheses about the message
behind the demonstration, tell them that the message is this: The big rocks represent
the highest priorities in your life (e.g., your life goals, your education, your family). If
you don’t puts the big rock in first, you’ll never get them in at all (i.e., you’ll never
make room or find time for them).
Note: A final (7th) step could be added to this procedure that asks students to think about
what the “big rocks” are in their life, i.e., what they would put into their “jar” first?
Cash-Flow Master Calendar
Steps:
1. Create 4-member teams.
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2. Ask the team to sub-divide into pairs. Have one pair assume the role of researching
different money-making options and their pay dates (e.g., for work-study positions,
campus jobs, off-campus work opportunities, paid internships). The other pair takes
on the task of identifying payment-due dates or deadlines for the academic year
(deadlines for tuition payment, renewal of financial aid, residential bills, etc.)
3. Have the pairs integrate their respective work into a cash-flow master calendar that
includes a timeline of both “money-in” and “money-out” dates for the academic year.
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Chapter 10
Reading Objectives
10.1 Recall two reasons why managing time is a skill that becomes particularly important
when students enter college. (p. 320)
10.2 Recall one strategy for developing greater self-awareness about how your time is
spent. (p. 321)
10.3 Recall how you can use the practice of itemizing to improve time management.
(p. 322)
10.4 Recall two criteria or standards that can be used to determine your highest-priority
tasks. (p. 323)
10.5 Recall three key elements of a comprehensive time-management plan and briefly
describe how each of these elements can be used to develop a time-management
plan for the entire academic term. (p. 324)
10.6 Recognize what percentage of college students consider themselves to be
procrastinators. (p. 327)
10.7 Recall why each of the following statements is a myth:
(a) “People work better under pressure” (e.g., the night before something is due).
(b) “Studying in advance is a waste of time because you’ll forget it all by test time.”
(p. 328)
10.8 Recall how each of the following issues can be an underlying cause of
procrastination:
(a) self-handicapping
(b) fear of failure
(c) perfectionism
(d) fear of success. (p. 329)
10.9 Recall three strategies for breaking the procrastination habit. (pp. 330-332)
10.10 Recall the meaning of “start-up stress” and one strategy for preventing it. (p. 330)
10.11 Recall two ways in which managing time and managing money have a lot in
common. (p. 332)
10.12 Recall two reasons why money management is growing in importance for college
students. (p. 333)
10.13 Recall the meaning of “cash flow” and briefly describe two ways in which it can be
tracked. (p. 333)
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10.14 Recall two strategies for using checking accounts effectively. (p. 335)
10.15 Recall the advantages of a checking account. (p. 336)
10.16 Recognize the meaning of the following terms related to credit cards:
(a) annual percentage rate (APR)
(b) grace period
(c) credit limit. (p. 336)
10.17 Recognize the advantages of credit cards. (p. 337)
10.18 Recall two strategies for using credit cards responsibly. (pp. 337-338)
10.19 Recognize what happens to your grace period for paying back charges to a credit
card company if there is an unpaid balance on your card. (p. 338)
10.20 Recognize the difference between a credit card and a:
(a) charge card
(b) debit card. (pp. 338-339)
10.21 Recognize the major advantage of a debit card. (p. 339)
10.22 Recognize how a money market account differs from a checking account. (p. 340)
10.23 Recall three strategies for developing personal money-saving strategies and habits.
(pp. 340-344)
10.24 Recognize what research has shown to be the best strategy of combining student
loans and number of work hours per week to promote college success. (p. 344)
10.25 Recognize what typically happens to students who decide to work full-time and go
to college part-time so they can avoid taking out student loans. (p. 345)
10.26 Recall why students who decide o work more than 15 hours per week, taking
longer to graduate during college, will actually lose money in the long run. (p. 345)
10.27 Recognize the advantage of student loans over credit-card loans. (p. 345)
10.28 Recognize who the lender is for student loans versus credit-card loans and the
the difference in their motivation for making the loan. (p. 346)
10.29 Recall how incurring debt is not always a bad money-management strategy, but
may sometimes be a good investment. (p. 346)
10.30 Recall two features that managing time and money have in common, which
232
can easily turn these habits into potential problems. (p. 348)
10.31 Recall how the following higher-level thinking skills are necessary for managing
both time and money:
(a) analysis
(b) synthesis. (p. 348)
Chapter 10
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. When students begin college, if often marks the beginning of independent living and
the development of life-management skills, such as managing time. Briefly describe two
reasons why time management is a skill that becomes particularly important for new
college students.
[Reading objective: 10.1][Answer: p. 320]
2. “Where did all the time go?” and “I just can’t find the time” are commonly heard
expressions that suggest humans are not always aware of how their time is spent. Briefly
describe one strategy that may be used to promote greater self-awareness about how you
spend your time.
[Reading objective: 10.2][Answer: p. 321]
3. Itemizing is one strategy for managing time and making sure everything that’s
supposed to get done actually gets done. Briefly describe how this practice can be used to
improve time management.
[Reading objective: 10.3][Answer: p. 322]
4. One strategy for improving time management is to prioritize—deciding on what must
be done first, second, third, etc. Briefly describe two criteria or standards for determining
your highest-priority tasks.
[Reading objective: 10.4][Answer: p. 323]
5. Planning our time increases the likelihood that we can make things happen for us,
rather than allowing things to happen to us randomly or haphazardly. Briefly describe
three key elements in a comprehensive time-management plan, and explain how each of
these elements can be used to develop a time-management plan for an entire academic
term.
[Reading objective: 10.5][Answer: p. 324]
6. For students who procrastinate to have any hope of putting a stop to their
procrastination, they need to let go of two commonly held myths or misconceptions:
(a) “I work better under pressure (i.e., the night or day before something is due), and
(b) “Studying in advance is a waste of time because I’ll forget all that I studied by test
time.”
Explain why each of the above statements is a myth.
233
[Reading objective: 10.7][Answer: p. 328]
7. Sometimes, procrastination can have its roots in deeper psychological issues; people
may procrastinate for reasons not directly related to poor time-management skills, but
due to emotional issues involving self-esteem or self-image. Briefly describe how each of
the following psychological issues can be sometimes be an underlying cause of
procrastination:
(a) self-handicapping
(b) fear of failure
(c) perfectionism
(d) fear of success.
[Reading objective: 10.8][Answer: p. 329]
8. Sometimes, procrastination is nothing more than a bad habit, and like any bad habit,
specific steps must be taken to break it. Briefly describe three strategies for breaking the
procrastination habit.
[Reading objective: 10.9][Answer: pp. 330-332]
9. “Start-up stress” can be a key stumbling block for many procrastinators. Briefly
describe what this form of stress refers to, and describe one strategy for preventing it.
[Reading objective: 10.10][Answer: p. 330]
10. Managing time and managing money are two critical life-management skills, and they
are two skills have a lot in common. Briefly describe two ways in which timemanagement and money-management are similar.
[Reading objective: 10.11][Answer: p. 332]
11. The greater personal independence that accompanies going to college often requires
effective management of personal finances, particularly for today’s college students.
Provide two reasons why money management is growing in importance for college
students.
[Reading objective: 10.12 [Answer: p. 333]
12. Developing effective money-management skills begins with personal awareness of
“cash flow.” Explain what cash flow refers to, and briefly describe two ways it can be
tracked.
[Reading objective: 10.13][Answer: p. 333]
13. Long before credit cards were created, people used checking accounts to keep track of
their money. Briefly describe two strategies for using checking accounts effectively.
[Reading objective: 10.14][Answer: p. 335]
14. Many people continue to use checking accounts in addition to (or instead of) credit
cards. Briefly describe three advantages of checking accounts.
[Reading objective: 10.15][Answer: p. 336]
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15. While credit cards have certain advantages, those advantages can only be reaped if
the card is used strategically. If not, the disadvantages of a credit card will begin to
outweigh its advantages. Briefly describe two strategies for using credit cards
responsibly.
[Reading objective: 10.18][Answer: pp. 337-338]
16. The ultimate goal of money management is to avoid debt and save money. Briefly
describe three money-management strategies or habits that can help you achieve this
goal.
[Reading objective: 10.23][Answer: pp. 340-344]
17. Students who work more than 15 hours per week to earn money while attending
college have been found to take longer to graduate. Explain why these students are
actually losing money in the long-run.
[Reading objective: 10.26][Answer: p. 345]
18. Explain why incurring debt is not always a bad money-management strategy, but
sometimes may be a good investment.
[Reading objective: 10.29][Answer: p. 346]
19. Time and money have a lot in common, including some features that can easily turn
each of these habits into potential problems. Briefly describe two similar characteristics
of spending time and money that can turn them into dangerous habits.
[Reading objective: 10.30][Answer: (a), p. 348]
20. Mismanaging time and money have common causes, but they also have common
solutions. Explain how the following higher-level thinking skills may be used to
effectively manage time and money:
(a) analysis
(b) synthesis.
[Reading objective: 10.31][Answer: p. 348]
235
Multiple-Choice & True-False Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Research indicates that one-third (33%) of college students consider themselves to be
procrastinators.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.6][Answer: (b), p. 327]
Select the term on the top that matches the term on the bottom.
(a) The maximum amount of money a credit card-company will make available to you.
(b) The interest rate you pay for previously unpaid balances on your credit card.
(c) The period of time after you receive your monthly credit-card statement during which
you can pay back the credit-card company without paying additional fees.
2. ___ Credit Limit [Reading objective: 10.16] [Answer: (a) p. 324]
3. ___ Grace Period [Reading objective: 10.16] [Answer: (c), p. 336]
4. ___ Annual Percentage Rate (APR) [Reading objective: 10.16] [Answer: (b), p. 336]
5. Which one of the following is not an advantage of a credit card?
(a) It helps you track your spending habits because the credit-card company sends you a
monthly statement that includes an itemized list of all your credit-card purchases.
(b) It allows you to access cash whenever and wherever you need it because any bank or
ATM machine will give you credit up to a certain limit.
(c) It enables you to establish a personal credit-card history.
(d) It can be used to obtain long-term credit or long-term loan at a low interest rate.
[Reading objective: 10.17][Answer: (d) p. 337]
6. If you keep charging on your credit card while you have an unpaid balance or debt,
you no longer have a grace period to pay back your charges; instead, interest is charged
immediately on all your purchases.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.19][Answer: (a) p. 338]
7. Unlike a credit card, a charge card requires that you pay your full bill at the end of
each month; you cannot carry over debt form one month to the next.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.20(a)][Answer: (a) p. 338]
236
8. A debit card works like a checking account because you cannot borrow money with it;
you can only use money that’s in your account.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.20(b)][Answer: (a) pp. 338-339]
9. A major advantage of the debit card is that it prevents you from spending beyond your
means and accumulating debt.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.21][Answer: (a) p. 339]
10. Just like a checking account, a money-market account allows you to write an
unlimited number of checks each month.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.22][Answer: (b) p. 340]
11. Studies show that borrowing money in the form of a student loan, and working parttime for fewer than 15 hours per week, is the most effective financial strategy for college
students at all income levels.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.24][Answer: (a), p. 344]
12. Studies show that when students go to college part-time so they can work full-time
and avoid student loans, it sharply reduces the likelihood that they will complete a
college degree.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.25][Answer: (a) p. 345]
13. The interest rate for student loans and credit-card loans is approximately the same.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.27][Answer: (b), p. 345]
14. Student loans are provided by the American government with the intent of helping its
citizens become better educated. In contrast, credit-card loans are provided by for-profit
businesses with the intent of helping themselves make money from the high rates of
interest they collect from people who do not pay their debit in full at the end of each
month.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 10.28][Answer: (a), p. 346]
237
Teaching Chapter 11
Interpersonal Relationships:
Communicating and Relating Effectively to Others
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
The primary goal of this chapter is to help students develop effective interpersonal
communication skills that will enable them to overcome shyness, form friendships and
intimate relationships, resolve interpersonal conflicts, and realize their leadership
potential.
Building Student Motivation for this Chapter
Traditional-age students should be intrinsically interested in this chapter because meeting
new people, forming new friendships, and developing deeper relationships are likely to
be among their highest priorities.
Student motivation for this chapter can be further strengthened by pointing out that the
content of this chapter is also relevant to careers success. As documented in chapters 2 &
9, leadership skills, and the ability to collaborate, negotiate, work in teams, and relate to
others with diverse characteristics and backgrounds are highly valued by employers.
Studies of successful people indicate that emotional intelligence (“EQ”)—the capacity to
understand emotions and manage one’s own emotions as well as the emotions of others
(e.g., empathy and social intelligence)— is a better predictor of vocational and personal
success than intellectual aptitude (IQ).
You may also mention that social skills promote the development of effective thinking
skills. As Stephen Brookfield argues in Developing Critical Thinkers, “Listening well is
as important to critical thinking as is contributing brilliantly.” A strong case can and
should be made that the seemingly “soft” skills of interpersonal communication and
human relations are actually “hard core” academic skills that contribute to higher-level
thinking and the acquisition of socially constructed knowledge. Moreover, the knowledge
and thinking skills acquired via effective interpersonal communication can, in turn,
promotes social success by increasing self-confidence and reducing shyness. People
become less shy of others and more interesting to others when are knowledgeable (have
something to say) and when they think at a higher level (making for more interesting and
stimulating conversation).
Lastly, you could highlight the fact that the ability to relate effectively to others and
develop supportive relationships is also important for maintaining physical and mental
health, and for living a longer and happier life, as is documented at the outset of this
chapter and reinforced in chapters 12 and 13.
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Rationale for the Placement of this Chapter in the Text’s Sequence of Topics
Students who become socially integrated into the college community are more likely to
remain in college. Toward that end, a boxed summary of strategies for social integration
was included earlier in Chapter 2 (“Making Key Connections with Other Members of
Your College Community”), with the hope that students would implement those
strategies early in the academic term and reduce their risk for attrition. Also, the exercises
we’ve suggested for the first week of class (e.g., “Student Information Card” and the
“Classmate Scavenger Hunt”) were intentionally created to promote students’ early social
integration and retention. In addition, small-group exercises and assignments suggested
for use with each early unit of the text. Although the content (topic) of social
development is formally covered toward the end of the text, the process of social
integration occurs from the very onset of the term and runs and runs throughout the
course.
For this reason, we thought that the content of this chapter content could introduced
after addressing academic-success strategies and college-motivation issues relating to
educational planning and career exploration. We also thought that the early “honeymoon
period” of going to lots of social gatherings and meeting lots of new people are declining
and being replaced by different social challenges that emerge later in the term (e.g.,
sustaining early friendships, developing deeper relationships, and dealing with increasing
social intimacy) for which students may need timely support.
Discussion Questions for Chapter 11
The following questions may be used to stimulate whole-class or small-group discussions
on the content covered in this chapter.
1. When someone forgets your name, how does it make you feel? Are you affected or
offended in any way?
2. If you see someone whom you met before, but forget the person’s name, do you think
it’s better to ask for the name again or not admit that you’ve forgotten?
3. In this class, do you feel comfortable disagreeing with others’ opinions?
4. If you’re having a conversation with someone whom you’re not romantically involved
with, is it ever appropriate to touch that person? (If so: Under what circumstances and in
what way?)
5. If you’re being treated badly in a relationship and you don’t express your
dissatisfaction to the other person, would you say you’re equally responsible for the
mistreatment?
6. If you were to assume leadership for improving the first-year experience for students
on campus, what would you attempt to change? What specific leadership steps would you
take to increase the likelihood that these changes would actually take place?
239
7. Take a look at the five approaches to dating described on p. 373. Which one of these
forms of dating do you feel most comfortable and least comfortable with right now?
8. Do you generally agree or disagree with the following statement made by a college
sophomore: “I think males and females process information, events, and emotions
differently. For example, males typically would rather “cool-off” and have some alone
time after an argument. Conversely, females typically need to talk it out.”
Exercises for Chapter 11
Paraphrase Passport
This procedure is designed to help students practice and develop active listening skills.
Steps:
1. Students form 3-4 member teams to discuss an issue (e.g., whether men and women
are more alike than they are different).
2. After another group member offers a viewpoints or opinion, the next speaker must
accurately paraphrase or restate the idea of the teammate who’s just spoken.
Note: This procedure can be modified slightly to create the next two procedures.
Affirmation Passport (Kagan, 1992)
Before contributing their own ideas, team members affirm something about the
comment of the previous student—e.g., its clarity, creativity, or its most persuasive point.
Response Gambits (Kagan & Kagan, 1997)
After an idea is shared by a team member, all other team members provide a response
to the teammate’s contribution. (You may provide students with sentence seeds or
sentence starters to prompt specific responses, such as: “One thing I learned from your
contribution was . . .” or, “Tell me more about . . . .”)
Three-Step Interview (Kagan, 1992)
This procedure encourages or reinforces effective listening skills by encouraging
students to focus on and verbalize their partner’s ideas, not their own ideas. It can also be
used as a small-group icebreaker or team-building experience before students engage in a
collaborative learning task.
Steps:
1. Have students form 4-member teams.
2. The team subdivides into pairs and one member of the pair interviews the other.
3. Partners reverse roles, with the previous interviewer becoming the interviewee and
vice versa.
4. Each member of the pair shares information obtained from the partner with the other
two teammates.
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Musical Chair Dialogue
Steps:
1. Make sure there are an even number of chairs in each row of your classroom.
2. After students have been seated, ask them to turn their chairs and face the classmate in
a row next to them. (If there are an odd number of students in class, you can join the class
as a participant in this exercise.)
3. Announce a topic for discussion (for example: “What characteristics of the opposite
gender do you find to be positive or admirable?”). Students in one row are given a
circumscribed amount of time (e.g., one minute) to express their views to the student they
are facing. The role of students in the adjacent row is to listen to their partner without
interrupting and to record the partner’s major ideas.
4. Students reverse roles, such that the speaker now becomes the listener/recorder and
vice versa.
5. After each partner has spoken, students in one of the rows leave their chairs and move
to the next chair in their row to have the same exchange with a different classmate.
6. The process continues until the roving students return to their original chair.
Note: Instead of returning to their original chair in step 6, a 7th step may be added in
which a different topic or a different spin on the original topic is introduced (for example:
“What characteristics of the opposite gender do you find challenging or frustrating?”).
Students in the row who did not leave their seats in the previous round become the rovers
in the second round.
Lastly, have students look at the number of ideas they recorded while listening to
different classmates and tally the number of ideas recorded in their notes. Then ask how
many students in class more than five ideas listed in their notes, more than 10, more than
15, etc. This final step may allow individual students to see how effectively they listened
(and took notes) in comparison with their classmates.
Pyramidal Process (Ellis, 1996)
This is a procedure that helps students practice consensus-building. For it to work
effectively, students may need to be reminded that consensus does not mean voting
(majority rules), averaging, or simply giving in to get the decision over with. Instead, it
means hearing the ideas of all group members and the reasoning behind their ideas, then
trying to reach the highest possible level of agreement in the time frame allotted.
Steps:
1. Students first make an individual decision about the best way to solve a problem or
address an issue (e.g., how to improve campus parking).
2. Following this individual decision, students form pairs and reach consensus on which
of their two solutions is the better one.
3. Two pairs form quartets and attempt to reach consensus on which of their two
solutions is the better one.
4. Two quartets join together to form 8-member groups that also attempt to reach
consensus on which of their solutions is the better one.
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5. This “pyramiding” of group size continues until the whole class becomes the decisionmaking team, and they attempt to reach consensus with respect to the best solution.
Identifying Common Characteristics of Good & Poor Relationships
1. Working individually, ask your students to identify a good relationship they have (or
had) with another person, and ask them to list aspects or characteristics of the relationship
that make it a good relationship.
2. Ask your students to identify a poor relationship they have (or had) with another
person, and ask them to list aspects or characteristics of that relationship that make it a
poor relationship.
3. Have students pair up with a classmate and ask the duo to (a) combine the separate
characteristics they listed for good relationship into one list and (b) combine the
characteristics of their poor relationships into one list.
4. Ask the pairs to underline or asterisk the characteristics on their combined lists that
they both cited on their individual lists.
Gender Stereotyping Exercise
Steps:
1. Project the cartoon (below) onto a screen before class begins so that students see it as
they mill into the classroom.
2. Divide the class in half, with females on one side and males on the other.
3. Ask each group to respond to the following questions about the cartoon:
* Do you find the cartoon offensive in any way?
* Do you think there is anything included in the cartoon that you think is clearly
inaccurate or complete?
* What aspects of the cartoon do you think may be generally accurate or true (if any)?
242
Conflict-Resolution Script
Have students write a short script describing how they would implement the effective
conflict-resolution strategies described on pp. 376-380 to handle one or, more of the
conflicts listed below. You could ask students to choose one conflict from the list that’s
closest to actually taking place in their life right now, or they may address a current
interpersonal conflict that’s not on the list.
1. Your roommate is a slob and the sloppiness is beginning to irritate you.
2. You want to break off a relationship that is no longer working.
3. Your friend owes you money for a long time and you need it back.
4. Your friends are pressuring you to do something that you don’t want to do or don’t feel
comfortable doing.
5. Someone is criticizing you for something that’s not your fault or does not deserve to be
criticized.
6. You receive a grade on an assignment that you think is inaccurate or unfair.
7. You’re working on a group project, and your teammates are not doing their share of
the work.
Rotational Role Play
Steps:
1. Form 4-member teams, and have two members engage in a role play of an
interpersonal conflict, while the other pair serves as observers.
2. Have the characters rotate roles and assume the other character’s role.
3. Have the observers become the role players, and repeat steps 1 and 2.
4. Ask the team to reflect on whether their view of who was most responsible for the
conflict varied, depending on whether they were an observer or a player, or on which
character role they played.
Fishbowl (Aronson, et al., 1978)
243
This is a two-step procedure that encourages students to observe and reflect on the
process of group interaction.
Steps:
1. A small group of students (e.g., 4-6) sits in a circle (“fishbowl”) and engages in a
group task. For example, they could brainstorm ideas about how to improve the
first-year experience on campus, then ask them to reach consensus about how to
prioritize or rank those ideas in terms of their importance or potential impact.
2. The rest of the class sits in a larger circle surrounding the small group in order to
observe and assess the group dynamics and the quality of teamwork exhibited
by the group. The observing students may be provided with a specific checklist of
criteria for assessing the group. (For a sample checklist, see the “Criteria for
Evaluating the Quality of Group Work” listed below.)
Note: A third step may be added to the procedure in which the classmates in the larger
outer circle form small (3- or 4-member) groups to compare their observational
assessments, while the students inside the fishbowl share self-assessments of their
group’s performance, using the same set of criteria.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATNG THE QUALITY OF GROUP WORK
Directions: For each of the following pairs of statements, check the statement you think is
the more accurate assessment of the group you just observed.
Communication
___ Group members displayed a positive attitude (e.g., their nonverbal behavior
indicated interest and enthusiasm).
___ Group members’ nonverbal behavior suggested that they were bored or indifferent
___ Group members expressed their ideas freely and openly.
___ Group members appeared to be afraid of “rocking the boat” or having their ideas
rejected.
___ Group members listened actively to each other.
___ Group members were not fully attentive to other members, interrupted each other, or
attempted to dominate discussion.
___Group members made sure they understood each and related what they say to what
others previously said.
___When a group member spoke, other members seemed like they were just waiting for
their turn to speak and didn’t relate what they said to the idea that was just
expressed by someone else.
Interdependence & Teamwork
___ Different group members seemed to contribute an equal number of ideas.
___ One or two members seem to contribute most of the ideas.
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___ Group members encourage each other to share ideas.
___ Group members seemed unaware of or oblivious to members who were shy and
silent.
___ Leadership was displayed by different group members at different times.
___ One member seemed to take charge of the whole group from start to finish.
___ Ideas of individual members were combined or blended together to create
unified (team) ideas.
___ Ideas of individual members seem to remain separate and disconnected.
Resolving Disagreements & Conflict
___ Group members were willing to negotiate and modify their ideas after hearing the
ideas of other members.
___ Group members tended to stubbornly cling to their own ideas and resist the ideas of
others.
___Group members seemed to trust each other enough to express disagreement openly.
___Group members seemed to hold back and appeared uncomfortable about expressing
disagreement or creating conflict.
Decision-Making
___ The group stayed on track and on target.
___ The group got off track or on tangents, with individuals moving in different
directions.
___The group was able to keep moving forward toward its goal and effectively handle
disagreements that took place along the way.
___The group seemed to get repeatedly slowed down or bogged down by disagreements
and conflicts.
___The group was able to reach consensus and make a final decision that incorporated
the ideas of all group members.
___The group’s final decision seemed to represent the ideas of just one or two members.
Effectiveness
___ The group was productive; it achieved its goal.
___ The group failed to accomplish what it set out to do.
The group’s greatest strength (what it did most effectively) was ________________
What the group needed to improve the most was ______________
245
Group Work Self-Reflection & Self-Assessment
The following questions may be posed to students to promote personal reflection and
self-assessment of their prior experiences with group work in general, or they may be
posed immediately after students complete any (or all) small-group tasks in your class.
Personal Responsibility
1. Did you participate as much as, more than, or less than your teammates?
2. Did you do your fair share of the work? Would you say you carried your load or pulled
your weight?
3. If group meetings were scheduled outside of class, did you:
(a) attend regularly?
(b) show-up on time?
(c) come prepared?
Personal Leadership
1. Did you seek ideas or information from others?
2. Did you encourage quiet or reluctant teammates to participate?
3. Did you help keep the group on track and moving toward its goal?
4. What do you think was the strongest skill or greatest contribution you brought to the
group?
Group Effectiveness
1. Did you feel that working together was more effective than working alone? (Was the
quality of your work product better than what you could have produced on your own?)
2. Did you feel that working in a group was more efficient than working alone? (Did you
accomplish more in less time than you would have by working alone?)
3. What could you do differently in the future to improve your performance or your
group’s performance?
246
Chapter 11
Reading Objectives
11.1 Recall one research finding that indicates how each of the following forms of
intelligence is important for career success:
(a) interpersonal intelligence
(b) emotional intelligence. (p. 356)
11.2 Recall what research shows are two key advantages of having a strong social
support system. (p. 356)
11.3 Recognize the approximate percentage of time each day that college students spend
listening. (p. 357)
11.4 Recall the nonverbal signals of effective listening represented by each letter of the
mnemonic device: SOFTEN. (p. 358)
11.5 Recall two strategies for remembering the names of people you meet. (p. 360)
11.6 Recall three strategies for helping others who come to you for support. (p. 364)
11.7 Recall two strategies for helping a person get professional assistance with a personal
problem. (p. 365)
11.8 Recall three strategies for meeting people and forming friendships (pp. 366-369)
11.9 Recognize the characteristics associated with each of the following “egos”:
(a) egotist
(b) egoist
(c) egocentric. (p. 367)
11.10 Recognize the approximate percentage of Americans who report being shy:
(a) at some point in the life
(b) currently. (p. 369)
11.11 Recall three strategies for overcoming shyness. (pp. 370-372)
11.12 Recognize the types of social situations in which shyness are most likely to occur.
(p. 370)
11.13 Recall the meaning of “self-fulfilling prophecy” and why it may interfere with a
person’s ability to overcome shyness. (p. 371)
11.14 Recall why having a wide base of knowledge in different subject areas, such as the
liberal arts, can help person overcome shyness. (p. 372)
247
11.15 Recall three characteristics of passionate love (infatuation).
11.16 Recall three characteristics of mature love. (p. 375)
11.17 Recognize the differences among the following approaches to dealing with
interpersonal conflict:
(a) passive
(b) aggressive
(c) passive-aggressive
(d) assertive. (p. 378)
11.18 Recall and briefly describe the difference between “I” and “you” messages for
dealing with interpersonal conflict. (p. 376)
11.19 Recognize the following “dirty fighting” (ineffective strategies) for handling
interpersonal conflict:
(a) “crisis tickler”
(b) “withholder”
(c) “irritator.” (p. 380)
11.20 Recall how leadership is defined by the authors of your text. (p. 381)
11.21 Recall the meaning of situational leadership, and describe one leadership role you
could play in college with respect to:
(a) academic leadership
(b) social/emotional leadership
(c) organizational leadership. (pp. 382-383)
11.22 Recall what the ancient Chinese philosopher, Lao Tzu, probably meant when he
wrote: “To lead, one must follow.”
248
Chapter 11
Short-Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Two important forms or types of human intelligence are interpersonal intelligence—
the ability to relate effectively to others, and emotional intelligence—which includes
emotional self-awareness and empathy (sensitivity to the emotions of others). Briefly
describe one research finding that indicates how each of these forms of intelligence is
important for career success.
[Reading objective: 11.1; answer: p. 356]
2. The development of a good social support system is a key factor associated with
personal health and happiness. Briefly describe two key advantages of a strong social
support system for wellness.
[Reading objective: 11.2; answer: p. 356]
3. A good mnemonic device (memory-improvement strategy) for remembering the
nonverbal signals we should send others while listening is the acronym “SOFTEN.”
Briefly describe the nonverbal message represented be each of its letters: S-O-F-T-E-N.
[Reading objective: 11.4; answer: p. 358]
4. Remembering people’s names communicates to others that you know them as
individuals; it sends them the message that they are individuals with a unique identity.
Briefly describe two strategies for remembering names of people you meet.
[Reading objective: 11.5; answer: p. 360]
5. Your friends are likely to occasionally seek your advice or assistance about personal
issues. One characteristic of being a good friend is being willing and able to help a friend
in need. Briefly describe three strategies for helping others who come to you for advice
or support.
[Reading objective: 11.6; answer: p. 364]
6. There may be times when a friend may come to you with a problem that is too serious
for you to deal with and requires help from a professional (e.g., a professional counselor).
Briefly describe two strategies for helping a friend get professional assistance with a
personal problem.
[Reading objective: 11.7; answer: p. 365]
7. An important aspect of the college experience is meeting new people, learning new
ideas from them, and forming new friendships. Briefly describe three strategies for
meeting new people or forming new friendships.
[Reading objective: 11.8; answer: p. 366-369]
8. If you are one of the many people who experience shyness, or if you’re in a position to
help someone who is struggling with shyness, there are specific, research-based strategies
for becoming less shy. Briefly describe three effective strategies for overcoming shyness.
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[Reading objective: 11.11; answer: p. 370-372]
9. Shyness often is related to negative thoughts that lower the shy person’s selfconfidence and self-esteem in social situations. Explain what is meant by the term, selffulfilling prophecy, and describe how it can interfere or prolong with a person’s ability to
overcome shyness.
[Reading objective: 11.13; answer: p. 371]
10. One of the most important components of a college education is the liberal arts,
which expands a person’s knowledge across a wide variety of academic fields and
subjects. Briefly explain why having a broad base of knowledge in multiple subject areas
can help a person overcome shyness.
[Reading objective: 11.14; answer: p. 372]
11. Love may be one of the most controversial and confusing words in the English
language. People talk about “falling in love, “making” love, “giving” love, and “being”
loved. Some song titles make it sound like love is the greatest experience in the world
(e.g., “All you need is love”), while others suggest that it can be one of the most
frustrating or confusing experiences you can possibly have (e.g., “Love stinks”). This
inconsistency about how love is described and felt may be due to the fact that love comes
in different forms or varieties, two of which are: (a) passionate love (infatuation) and (b)
mature love. Briefly describe three characteristics of each of these different forms of
love.
[Reading objectives: 11.15 & 11.16; answer: pp. 373-375]
12. If we are having an interpersonal conflict with someone, we can use either “I”
messages or “you” messages to communicate our feelings about the situation. Briefly
describe the difference between these two types of messages for dealing with
interpersonal conflict.
[Reading objective: 11.18; answer: p. 378]
13. Leadership is a word we frequently hear being used in the field of politics, athletics,
and business. It is a term that often has different meanings to different people. Briefly
describe how leadership is defined by the authors of your text.
[Reading objective: 11.20; answer: p. 381]
14. Research on effective leaders indicates that they often display “situational
leadership.” Define situational leadership, and describe one leadership role you can play
in college that demonstrates:
(a) academic leadership
(b) social/emotional leadership
(c) organizational leadership.
[Reading objective: 11.21; answer: pp. 382-383]
15. The ancient Chinese philosopher, Lao Tzu, once said: “To lead one must follow.”
Briefly explain what Lao Tzu meant by this statement.
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[Reading objective: 11.22; answer: p. 383]
Chapter 11
Multiple-Choice & True-False Questions
1. Studies show that during a typical day, college students spend more than 50% of their
time listening, which is a greater amount of time than they spend on any other type of
communication activity, including reading, speaking, or writing.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 11.3; answer: (a), p. 357]
2. People who are always boasting about themselves are often said to be conceited or on
an “ego trip.” Which one of the following terms best describes individuals who make
sure everyone hears about how great they are?
(a) egocentric
(b) egotistical
(c) egoistic
(d) ethnocentric.
[Reading objective: 11.9(a); answer: (b), p. 367]
3. During a divorce settlement, the wife of a rich and famous British recording artist
accused her husband of not sharing his immense wealth with charities and other
organizations that serve people in need. If this famous rock star were truly guilt of being
so selfish, he would be:
(a) egotistical
(b) egocentric
(c) ethnocentric
(d) egoistic.
[Reading objective: 11.9(b); answer: (d), p. 367]
My (Joe Cuseo’s) father never attended college and never took a course in Child
Psychology, so he never learned what children are capable and incapable of doing at
different ages or stages of development. For instance, my father couldn’t understand why
his 4-year old grandson was not able to sit through a long Italian meal like he does.
Which one of the following perspectives was my father displaying?
(a) egotistical
(b) egoistical
(c) egocentric
(d) geocentric.
[Reading objective: 11.9(c); answer: (c), p. 367]
5. Studies show that 80% of the American population report being shy at some time in
their life, and almost 50% report that they are currently shy.
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(a) True
(b) False
[Reading objective: 11.10; answer: (a), p. 369]
6. In which one of the following situations is shyness least likely to occur:
(a) large social groups where the person is the focus of attention
(b) familiar situations that the person has frequently experienced before
(c) situations in which the person is being evaluated by others
(d) situations requiring assertiveness.
[Reading objective: 11.12(b); answer (b) p. 366-369]
Oscar and Felix are roommates with very different house habits. Oscar is a neat freak
who likes to keep things clean and Felix never cleans up the place and rarely cleans up
after himself. Oscar has repeatedly done all the housework himself and he’s growing
resentful about Felix not doing his fair share of the work, so he decides to confront Felix
about his sloppiness. Oscar is considering four options for dealing with Felix and solving
this interpersonal conflict.
Select the approach to dealing with interpersonal conflict on the top that matches the
option on the bottom.
(a) Telling Felix: “You’re a selfish slob!”
(b) Telling Felix: “I feel that I’m being taken advantage of.”
(c) Getting back at Felix by giving him the silent treatment (not talking to him)
(d) Continuing to do the housework without complaining to avoid making Felix angry.
7. ___ passive
8. ___ aggressive
9. ___ passive-aggressive
10. ___ assertive.
[Reading objective: 11.17; answers: 7-d, 8-a, 9-c, 10-b; p. 378]
Select the “dirty fighting” technique on the top that matches the option on the bottom.
(a) A roommate deliberately makes a lot of noise in the morning to get even with her
roommate for repeatedly having friends over late at night and waking her up.
(b) A student is having trouble hearing her instructor in class because two nearby
classmates keep talking. She says to herself, but loud enough for the talking classmates to
hear her: “I just can’t concentrate in this class!”
(c) A husband walks out of the room when his wife wants to discuss something about
their relationship that’s bothering her.
11. ___ “crisis tickler”
12. ___ “withholder”
13. ___ “irritator”
[Reading objective: 11.19; answers: 11-b, 12-c, 13-a; p. 380]
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Teaching Chapter 12
Health and Wellness: The Physical Dimension
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
There are two major goals of this chapter: (a) to promote student awareness that
wellness means more than merely avoiding illness but represents a state of holistic wellbeing that results in optimal (peak) performance, and (b) to equip students with specific
strategies for attaining wellness during their first term in college and beyond.
Rationale for the Placement of this Chapter in the Text’s Sequence of Topics
Information on how to use biological rhythms and nutritional strategies to promote
academic performance were introduced earlier in the text (“Take-Action Boxes” in
Chapters 4 and 5, respectively). Wellness-related information was included in these
beginning chapters to raise early student awareness that physical factors can affect their
mental performance and academic success in college. Detailed discussion of wellness
was not postponed to the end of the text because is considered to be less important for
college success than topics covered earlier in the book. Since it is impossible to provide
detailed coverage of all topics relevant to college success at the same time, tough
decisions must be made about the order and timing of topic coverage. In-depth coverage
of wellness occurs at a later juncture in the text because we felt that students are likely to
be more receptive to its message as they prepare for the mental and physical challenge
posed by end-of-term projects, papers, and upcoming final exams. Furthermore, we
thought that the holistic and integrative nature of wellness would provide a fitting
conclusion and natural “bookend” to a text that began with coverage of the value of
broad-based, interdisciplinary knowledge obtained through the liberal arts (general
education) for developing the whole person and improving our overall quality of life.
Building Student Motivation for this Chapter
The components of this chapter that new students are likely to be intrinsically
interested in are sleep, sexuality, and substances; the topics of nutrition and exercise are
more likely to pose motivational challenges. What may stimulate greater student interest
in the latter two topics is tying them directly to new students’ first-term experience. This
should serve to differentiate your coverage of these topics from how they were covered
health education classes your students may have taken in high school or will take in
college. Specific chapter sections that you can use to connect nutrition and exercise
directly to the new-student experience include the following:
1) how wellness is relevant to college students (particularly with respect to their
increasing independence and freedom to make their own choices);
2) the “freshman 15” (fact or fallacy)
3) common eating disorders among college students;
4) effects of nutrition and exercise on college students’ mental performance and academic
success.
Also, discussion of effective strategies for nutrition and exercise can take on greater
significance and interest to students if they are related to the role they have played in
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promoting survival of the human species. This evolutionary perspective can add an
engaging anthropological touch to the discussion of these topics, and can also provide a
powerful explanation for why the recommended strategies are effective.
Lastly, discussing how wellness strategies affect the human brain is likely to stimulate
student interest in any topic covered in this chapter. (Brain-related information is
included throughout this chapter.) Make sure your students realize that the brain is a
physical organ of the body, and like any other bodily organ, it requires optimal
nourishment, circulation and oxygenation for it to function at peak levels. Relating
wellness to the human brain gives the topic a concrete, visual dimension; it also enables
students understand the underlying reasons why and how the recommended wellness
strategies are effective.
Showing slides or other images of the human brain while discussing this chapter may
be an effective practice for visually incorporating the brain into discussions of wellness.
Student interest can be heightened further by bringing to class a model of the human
brain, or a real human brain that has been preserved and encased (which may be available
to you through the Biology department).
* When covering alcohol, refer to it as a drug. The commonly used phrase, “alcohol and
drugs” tacitly suggests that alcohol is not a drug, which may send an unintended message
to new students. In sufficient quantities, alcohol contains a psychoactive substance (ethyl
alcohol) that alters the brain’s natural chemicals and produces mind-altering effects, thus
working in a fashion similar to any other mind-altering drug (see pp. 412-413).
Focusing on how alcohol affects the brain can also add motivational interest to
discussion of alcohol use and abuse among college students, and it may help reduce
student resistance or defensiveness about this topic that may occur drinking is examined
exclusively from the perspective of personal responsibility or moral character.
Key Points to Make When Covering this Chapter
* Combat the black-white dichotomy that suggests we are either sick or well. Instead,
promote student awareness that there is a range or spectrum of states between being sick
and functioning at an optimal or peak level. The proactive-through-reactive continuum on
p. 388 could serve an effective visual aid to help you make this point.
* Highlight the fact that the first step toward developing good wellness habits is the same
as it for developing all other good habit discussed in the text, namely: self-awareness
(know thyself)—the cardinal principle of liberal education.
* Underscore the fact that sleep deprivation is a major problem among humans in general
and college students in particular. The amount of sleep an individual needs is strongly
influenced by his or her genetic make-up; we cannot “train” our body (brain) to sleep less
than what it has been biologically-programmed to need. Encourage your students not to
cheat on sleep; shortage of it will eventually catch up with them, resulting in elevated
their stress, impaired memory, and increased susceptibility to colds and infections.
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* Underscore the fact that avoiding risky behavior that threatens physical safety and wellbeing is as important to promoting wellness as eating right and exercising regularly. To
begin discussion of this point, ask students to interpret or react to the following
statement: “Adolescents and young adults often think they are invincible, immortal, and
infertile.”
Exercises for Chapter 12
Health Style: A Self-Assessment
(Adapted from Healthstyle: A Self-Test, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2006)
Directions:
Complete each of the following sections by circling the number under the answer that
best describes your behavior. After completing each section, add the numbers you’ve
circled to get your score for that section and write the score on the line provided at the
end of the section.
Almost Sometimes Almost
Always
Never
Cigarette Smoking
If you are currently a non-smoker, enter a score of 10 for
this section and go to the next section on Alcohol & Drugs.
1. I have stopped smoking cigarettes.
2
1
0
2. I smoke only low tar and nicotine cigarettes.
2
1
0
Smoking Score _______
Almost Sometimes Almost
Always
Never
Alcohol and Drugs
1. I avoid drinking alcoholic beverages or I drink
no more than 1 or 2 drinks a day.
4
1
0
2. I avoid using alcohol or other drugs (especially
illegal drugs) as a way of handling stressful situations
or problems.
2
1
0
3. I am careful not to drink alcohol when taking certain
medicines (for example, medicine for sleeping, pain,
colds, and allergies) or when pregnant.
2
1
0
4. I read and follow the label directions when using
prescribed and over-the-counter drugs.
2
1
0
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Alcohol and Drugs Score _______
Almost Sometimes Almost
Always
Never
Eating Habits
1. I eat a variety of foods each day, such as fruits and
vegetables; whole grain breads and cereals; lean meats;
low-fat dairy products; dry peas; beans; nuts and seeds.
4
1
0
2. I intentionally limit my consumption of fat, saturated fat,
and cholesterol (including fat on meats, eggs, butter,
cream, shortenings, and organ meats such as liver).
2
1
0
3. I limit the amount of salt I eat by cooking with only
small amounts, not adding salt at the table, and
avoiding salty snacks.
2
1
0
4. I avoid eating too much sugar (especially frequent
frequent snacks of sticky candy or soft drinks).
2
1
0
Eating Habits Score _______
Exercise/Fitness Habits
Almost Sometimes Almost
Always
Never
1. I do vigorous exercises for 30 minutes a day at
least 5 times a week (examples include jogging,
swimming, brisk walking, bicycling).
4
2
0
2. I do exercises that enhance my muscle tone for
15-30 minutes at least 3 times a week (examples
include using weight machines or free weights,
yoga, and calisthenics).
3
1
0
3. I use part of my leisure time participating in
in individual, family, or team activities that
increase my level of fitness (such as gardening,
dancing, bowling, golf, baseball).
3
1
0
Exercise/Fitness Score _______
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Safety Habits
Almost Sometimes
Always
Almost
Never
1. I wear a seat belt while riding in a car.
2
1
0
2. I avoid driving while under the influence of alcohol
and other drugs, or riding with someone else who is
under the influence.
2
1
0
3. I obey traffic rules and the speed limit when driving.
2
1
0
4. I am careful when using potentially harmful products
or substances (such as household cleaners, poisons,
and electrical devices).
2
1
0
5. I get at least seven hours of sleep a night.
2
1
0
Safety Score _______
Your Lifestyle Scores
After you have figured your scores for each of the six
sections, circle the number in each column that matches
your score for that section of the test.
Smoking Drinking/Drugs Eating Exercise Safety
10
10
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
Interpreting Your Scores for Each Section
Scores of 9 and 10 = Excellent.
Your answers show that you are aware of the importance of this area to your health,
and you’re putting your knowledge to work for you by practicing good health habits.
You’re also setting an example for the rest of your family and friends to follow.
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Scores of 6 to 8 = Good
Your health practices in this area are satisfactory, but there is room for improvement,
particularly in areas where you answered “sometimes” or “almost never.”
Scores of 3 to 5 = Risky
You’re putting your health at risk in this area. You should make some changes.
Scores of 0 to 2 = Seriously Risky
Your answers show that you may be taking serious risks with your health in this area.
You need to make major changes and make them as soon as possible.
Identify the area in which your score was lowest: _______
1. Were you aware that you needed to improve your health habits in this area?
2. Do you think it is important to improve your health habits in this area (Why?)
3. Do you know exactly what to do to improve your health in this area?
4. What information could you use to help you make positive changes in this area?
5. Who (if anyone) do you think may be in a position to help you make these changes?
6. Do you think you will actually make changes to improve your health in your lowestscoring area? If yes, when do you plan to start?
Health Journal: Possible Entries
* Positive behaviors I currently engage in to promote healthy eating are . .
* Positive behaviors I currently engage in to promote healthy sleeping are . . .
* Positive behaviors I currently engage in to promote healthy exercising are . . . .
* Other positive behaviors I could engage in without much effort include . . .
* Other positive behaviors I could engage in that would take a lot of effort include . . . .
* Negative behaviors I currently engage in that are not healthy include . . . .
* Negative behaviors I could eliminate without much effort include . . .
* Negative behaviors that would take a lot of effort of effort for me to eliminate include . .
* Safe behaviors that I engage in that help me avoid injuries or accidents are . . .
* Unsafe behaviors that I engage in that increase my risk of injury or accident are . . .
* I engage in these risky behaviors because . . .
* Risky behaviors that I can avoid with little effort include . . .
* Risky behaviors that would be very hard for me to give up include . . .
* Exercises that I do at least 3 times per week are . . .
* Exercises I do for 20 minutes or longer at a time are . . .
* Exercise that I get during my daily routines (e.g., by walking from place to place or
climbing stairs) are . . .
Health-Related Personal Interviews
Peer Alcohol-Use Interview
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Directions:
Interview two students you know well about their drinking habits and two who are
merely acquaintances. Before interviewing them, make an estimate or guess about:
(a) how often they drink?
(b) how much they drink at a time when they do drink?
* Did you overestimate or underestimate the amount of drinking reported by your peers?
* Do your friends drink more or less than the other students you interviewed?
Health Event-Planning Exercises
Healthy-Habit Marketing Campaign
Steps:
Form 3 or 4-member teams and ask them to devise a television or newspaper
advertisement that is designed to either: (a) increase college students’ motivation for
engaging in a healthy habit or (b) decrease their motivation for engaging in an unhealthy
habit.
After the teams have completed their task, ask them:
* Why they chose that particular habit?
* What aspects or characteristics of their advertisement (form or content) do they think
will motivate students to change?
* Through what medium should their advertisement be delivered for maximum effect or
impact?
Planning an Alcohol-Free Party
Ask students to form a 3- or 4-member planning team for an alcohol-free party. Have
them consider details such as the following:
* How would they advertise the party to generate the most interest?
* What drinks would be available at the party?
* What would they say to students who want to know why they are not allowing alcohol
at the party?
* What would they do if someone came to the party drunk or with alcohol on their
breath?
Inventories of Campus Resources Relating to Wellness
Health Services Inventory
Ask 4-member teams of students to visit the Health Center on campus. Each team
member takes responsibility for reporting back their findings on one of the following
questions:
* What types of services are provided at the Center?
* What types of health-service specialists or professionals are available to students at the
Center?
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* What topics are covered in the free literature (e.g., pamphlets) available at the Center?
* What are the most common reasons why students visit the Center? (Obtained by asking
a representative of the Center).
Exercise-Opportunities Inventory
Ask 4-member teams to do an inventory of exercise opportunities available to students
on campus, with one member on each team being responsible for gathering information
on:
* Exercise equipment available on campus
* Physical education courses offered by the college on campus
* Intramural sports programs offered at the college
* Health clubs in the community that offer special discounts for students.
Case Study: Substance Use & Abuse
Mike and John are first-year students who were close friends in high school. They both
chose the same college because it was close to home and they arranged to be roommates
in the same campus residence.
Both Mike and John began to drink beer in high school. When they were sophomores,
they started to party occasionally, drinking 3-4 beers on whatever occasion they did
party. By the time they were high school seniors, they were partying once or twice a
week and drinking 5 or more beers per party. Both of them also had experimented with
marijuana; John liked it, but Mike could take it or leave it.
When they got to college, they found it easy to get into the party scene. They were living
on their own; their parents weren’t around to monitor them, and no school officials were
notified if they missed a class or a whole day of classes. Being good-looking and
sociable, the boys became were very popular on campus and were frequently invited to
parties. They got into the habit of partying every Thursday, Friday, and Saturday nights;
on one or two other nights during the week, they drank a six-pack of beer. John also
started smoking pot several times a week.
As the term progressed, their habit of frequent partying began to take its toll on their
academic performance. Mike’s GPA for the first term was 2.1 (barely escaping
probation) and John earned a 1.8 (putting him on probation). Also, money was becoming
a problem for John; his beer-drinking and pot-smoking habits were costing him almost
$100 a week. To help solve his financial problems, John came up with the idea that he
could buy weed in larger quantities, then divide the amount he didn’t use into smaller
baggies and sell them to other students. Since he was very popular and had lots of friends
who were users, he figured that he could sell enough to pay for his own use (and perhaps
make a little extra profit on the side). John thinks that this is such a good idea, he decides
to talk to Mike about it to see if he might be interested in joining him as a partner.
(Courtesy of Dr. David Hill, former Director of Counseling Services, Marymount
College, CA )
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Possible Student Exercises Relating to this Case
* Write what you think is likely to be a bad or sad ending to this story by writing a oneor two-paragraph conclusion, indicating what will happen next to John and Mike with
respect to their future:
(a) academic performance in college,
(b) physical health,
(c) relationship with their friends, and
(d) relationship with their families.
* Write what you think is likely to be a good or positive ending to this story by writing a
one- or two- paragraph conclusion, indicating what will happen next to John and Mike
with respect to their future:
(a) academic performance in college
(b) physical health
(c) relationship with their friends
(d) relationship with their families.
Additional Discussion Questions:
* Do you think that illegal drugs can ever be used responsibly?
* What current laws about illegal drugs would you change (if any)? Why?
Case Study: Sexual Assault
Sue, Carol, and Jane all met for the first time during new-student orientation. Although
they were from different parts of the country, they discovered that they had lots of
common interests, and they quickly became friends.
While returning from shopping at one of the local malls, Jane found a flyer on the
windshield of her car. The flyer advertised a raging party next Saturday, for which there
would be live entertainment, unlimited beer, and no cover charge. Jane scooped up the
flyer and couldn’t wait to share the news with Carol and Sue.
When Sue heard about the party, she was somewhat hesitant about going because she had
heard that flyer-advertised parties could be risky. She also was reluctant to go because
she had a bad experience with alcohol in high school, and promised herself that she
wouldn’t drink in college. However, Carol was excited about going and she and Jane
pleaded with Sue to come along, promising her that they would leave by midnight and
that they would not pressure her to drink; in fact, they would be sure she didn’t drink so
that she could be the designated driver for the evening. Not wanting to seem like a “party
pooper,” Sue agreed to go the flyer party with her two new college friends.
When the girls approached the house at which the party was being held, they couldn’t
believe how many people were there; but when they went inside, they discovered they
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didn’t know a single person. However, everyone seemed very friendly and welcoming,
and there were lots of cute guys there, so they decided to stay.
At midnight, Sue went looking for Carol and Jane because this was the time they all
previously agreed they would leave. Even though Jane was having a good time, she
remembered her promise to Sue that they would leave by midnight, so she reluctantly
went with Sue to find Carol. When they found her, Carol said she didn’t want to leave
because she met a really gorgeous guy who happened to be the host of the party. Since
Carol had been drinking and seemed a bit tipsy, her two friends tried to convince her that
it would be best if she would go home with them. However, Carol insisted that she was
fine, and the guy she met (Paul) told the girls that he would give Carol a ride home later
on. Sue still wasn’t sure this was a good idea, but Jane persuaded her that it was Carol’s
decision to make, so they both left without Carol.
As the night wore on, Paul and Carol continue to converse and continued to drink. Paul
kept complimenting Carol on how “hot” she looked. After a few more laughs and a few
more beers, Carol was beginning to feel drunk. Paul decided to give Carol a tour of his
house, and when they got to his room, suggested that they go in. Carol hesitated for a
moment, but after a little assurance from Paul, she went into his room.
They sat on his bed, but Carol began to fell dizzy and lied down. Paul began to kiss her;
Carol resisted, but his kisses became more insistent. He then took off his shirt and told
Carol that other women had told him that he really knew how to make love. Carol tried to
get off the bed and get out of the room, but Paul easily climbed on top her, and said:
“You know you want this as much as I do or else you wouldn’t have come in here with
me.”
(Courtesy of Joanne Rotbart, former Associate Director of Counseling Services,
Marymount College)
Case-Related Discussion Questions
* What do you predict will happen next?
* Why do you make this prediction?
* What would have to happen for this case to be considered a rape case?
* Rank the following characters in terms of their personal responsibility for the situation
Carol is in (1 = most responsible, to 4 = least responsible):
Paul
Carol
Sue
Jane
___
___
___
___
* Why did you rank the first character as most responsible?
* Why did you rank the fourth character as least responsible?
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Reading Objectives
Chapter 12
12.1 Recall the meaning of the term wellness. (p. 388)
12.2 Recall the meaning of the term “freshman 15.” (p. 390)
12.3 Recall why females are more likely to gain and maintain weight than males. (p. 391)
12.4 Recognize the symptoms (signs) of the following eating disorders:
(a) anorexia nervosa
(b) bulimia nervosa. (p. 391)
12.5 Recall three general types of foods that should be consumed in minimal amounts
because their nutritional value is very low (or zero) and they increase the risk of
heart disease and cancer. (p. 393)
12.6 Recall three nutritional strategies for reducing and controlling weight. (p. 394)
12.7 Recall one reason why each of the following foods is healthy:
(a) fruit
(b) vegetables
(c) grains
(d) legumes. (p. 397)
12.8 Recall two specific reasons why drinking water is good for the human body. (p. 397)
12.9 Recall two strategies for developing greater self-awareness of what you eat. (p. 397)
12.10 Recall two ways in which physical exercise benefits the mind. (pp. 398-399)
12.11 Recall two ways in which physical exercise benefits the body. (pp. 399-400)
12.12 Recall two reasons why dieting alone is less effective for losing weight than a
combination of dieting and exercise. (p. 400)
12.13 Recall three key goals of a comprehensive fitness plan. (p. 401)
12.14 Recall why each of the following statements about strength-building exercise is a
myth:
(a) Extra muscle mass acquired through strength-building exercise will later turn
into fat when you stop training.
(b) Strength-building exercise requires consumption of larger amounts of protein
(e.g., eating more meat). (p. 402)
12.15 Recall the meaning and benefits of cross-training. (p. 403)
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12.16 Recall two strategies for combining physical activity with academic activity to
improve your mental performance. (p. 404)
12.17 Recall three benefits or purposes of sleep. (p. 405)
12.18 Recall two possible explanations why humans sometimes experience creative
breakthroughs while sleeping. (p. 406)
12.19 Recall three strategies for remembering your dreams. (p. 407)
12.20 Recall three strategies for improving the quality of your sleep. (p. 407)
12.21 Recognize foods and substances that interfere with the quality of sleep. (p. 409)
12.22 Recognize what research shows about college student drinking with respect to:
(a) why students drink
(b) whether students drink more in college than in high school
(c) how accurate college students are in estimating the number of their peers who
drink and the amount they drink. (p. 411)
12. 23 Recall why consuming alcohol increases the likelihood that humans will engage in
sexual and aggressive behavior (i.e., what happens in the brain to produce this
effect). (p. 412)
12.24 Recall the definition of rape and the two major forms of rape. (p. 413)
12.25 Recall two strategies that women can use to decrease the risk of rape and sexual
assault. (p. 413)
12.26 Recall two strategies that men can use to decrease the risk of committing rape. (pp.
413-414)
12.27 Recognize the definition and potential signs of an abusive relationship. (p. 414)
12.28 Recognize the effects of the following illegal drugs:
(a) marijuana
(b) ecstasy
(c) cocaine
(d) amphetamines
(e) hallucinogens
(f) narcotics. (p. 414)
12.29 Recognize what routes of drug administration (ways in which drugs are put into the
body) are most likely to result in addiction and why they are more likely to result in
addiction. (p. 415)
264
12.30 Recognize the signs of drug dependency. (p. 415)
12.31 Recognize the following causes or motives for drug use:
(a) recreational use
(b) experimental use
(c) addiction. (p. 416)
12.32 Recall three strategies for drinking responsibly and in moderation. (p. 418)
12.33 Recognize the symptoms (signs) of the following sexually-transmitted infections:
(a) gonorrhea
(b) chlamydia
(c) genital herpes. (p. 420)
Chapter 12
Short Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Health and wellness are terms often used interchangeably, but they actually have
different meanings. Explain the meaning of the term wellness.
[Reading objective: 12.1] [Answer: p. 388]
2. The phrase “freshman 15” has been used to describe what happens to students who
live and eat on campus during their first year of college. Briefly explain the meaning of
this term.
[Reading objective: 12.2] [Answer: p. 390]
3. Studies show that approximately one of three college females worry about their
weight, body image, or eating habits. Briefly explain why females are more likely to gain
and maintain weight than males.
[Reading objective: 12.3] [Answer: p. 391]
4. Consumption of some foods should be kept to a minimum because they have virtually
no nutritional value and they increase the risk of heart disease and cancer. Briefly
describe three general types of foods that should be avoided for these reasons.
[Reading objective: 12.5] [Answer: p. 393]
5. Studies show that Americans are now heavier than at any other time in our nation’s
history; approximately, two-thirds of Americans 20 years of age and older are
overweight. Briefly describe three nutritional strategies (eating habits) that can be used
for weight reduction or weight control.
[Reading objective: 12.6] [Answer: pp. 394-395]
265
6. As a general rule, natural (non-processed) foods that were good for our ancient
ancestors and the survival of our species are good for us now. Briefly provide one
specific reason why each of the following foods is healthy:
(a) fruit
(b) vegetables
(c) grains
(d) legumes.
[Reading objective: 12.7] [Answer: p. 397]
7. Humans need to hydrate their bodies; however studies show that people do not drink
the recommended amount of water each day (seven 8-ounce glasses). Provide two
reasons why drinking water is good for the human body.
[Reading objective: 12.8] [Answer: p. 397]
8. The first step toward effective nutrition management is becoming aware of our current
eating habits because decisions about what we eat are often made without giving them
much thought or careful attention. Briefly describe two strategies for gaining greater selfawareness of what you eat.
[Reading objective: 12.9] [Answer: p. 397]
9. Exercise not only has multiple benefits for the body, it also has numerous benefits for
the mind. Briefly describe two major ways in which physical exercise benefits the mind.
[Reading objective: 12.10] [Answer: p. 398-99]
10. Exercise is good for the mind and body. Briefly describe two ways in which physical
exercise benefits the human body.
[Reading objective: 12.11] [Answer: p. 399-400]
11. Losing weight and not regaining weight that’s been lost are best achieved by a
combination of diet and exercise. Briefly describe two reasons why dieting alone is less
effective for losing weight than dieting plus exercise.
[Reading objective: 12.12] [Answer: p.400]
12. A comprehensive fitness plan should achieve three key fitness goals. Briefly describe
each of these goals.
[Reading objective: 12.13] [Answer: p. 401]
13. A comprehensive fitness plan should include strength-building exercise.
Unfortunately, people sometimes avoid this type of exercise because they believe in the
following myths:
(a) Extra muscle acquired through strength-building exercises will later turn into fat when
the person stops training.
(b) Strength-building requires consumptions of large amounts of protein (e.g., eating
more meat).
Explain why each of the above statements is untrue or inaccurate.
266
[Reading objective: 12.14] [Answer: p. 402]
14. A comprehensive and balanced fitness plan should involve cross-training. Briefly
explain what is meant by cross-training and why it is effective.
[Reading objective: 12.15] [Answer: p. 403]
15. Exercise can be used as a strategy for improving your academic performance. Briefly
describe two strategies for combining physical activity with study activity when preparing
for an upcoming exam.
[Reading objective: 12.16] [Answer: p. 404]
16. An obvious purpose of sleep is to rest and re-energize the body. However, there are
other benefits of sleep that are less well known but are equally important for our physical
and mental health. Briefly describe three benefits of sleep other than to rest the body.
[Reading objective: 12.17] [Answer: p. 405]
17. Research studies and personal reports suggest that humans can come up with
solutions to problems and experience creative ideas during sleep, particularly during
dream sleep. Briefly describe two reasons why humans sometimes experience creative
breakthroughs while sleeping.
[Reading objective: 12.18] [Answer: p. 406]
18. Dreams can sometimes provide us with self-insights and novel ideas. Unfortunately,
we often have trouble remembering our dreams because they take place during a very
deep stage of sleep when our level of consciousness is very low. Briefly describe three
strategies for better remembering your dreams.
[Reading objective: 12.19] [Answer: p. 399-407]
19. Since sleep has powerful benefits for the body and mind, if we can improve the
quality of our sleep, we may be able to improve our physical and mental well-being at the
same time. Briefly describe three strategies for improving the quality of your sleep.
[Reading objective: 12.20] [Answer: p. 407]
20. Alcohol is the world’s most popular drug. It can reduce a person’s inhibitions about
engaging in sexual or aggressive behavior, and it is the drug that is most commonly
associated with sexual and violent crimes. (For example, alcohol is involved in 80% of
campus vandalism, 90% of campus rapes, and 95% of violent crime on college
campuses.) Briefly explain what is happening in brain when humans consume alcohol
that increases the likelihood they will engage in sexual and aggressive behavior.
[Reading objective: 12.23] [Answer: p. 412]
21. Compared to other industrialized countries, the United States has a high rate of
sexually violent crimes, such as sexual assault and rape. Define rape and briefly describe
its two major forms or types.
[Reading objective: 12.24] [Answer: p. 413]
267
22. Women, by far, are more frequent victims of rape and sexual assault than men.
Briefly describe two strategies that women can use to reduce their risk of being
victimized by rape or sexual assault.
[Reading objective: 12.25] [Answer: p. 413]
23. Men, by far, are more likely to be convicted of rape and sexual assault than women.
Briefly describe two strategies that men can use to reduce their risk of committing rape or
sexual assault.
[Reading objective: 12.24] [Answer: p. 413]
24. College students have basically three choices when it comes to alcohol: (a) drink
irresponsibly or excessively, (b) drink responsibly and in moderation, or (c) don’t drink at
all. The first choice is obviously the most dangerous, the last choice is the safest, and the
middle choice can also be safe if students know how to drink responsibly. Briefly
describe three specific strategies that can be used to ensure responsible drinking.
[Reading objective: 12.32(a)] [Answer: (b), p. 418]
268
Chapter 12
Multiple-Choice & True-False Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Unlike anorexia, bulimia is an eating disorder that is difficult to detect because the
body weight of bulimics looks about normal for their age and height.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 12.4(a)(b)] [Answer: (a), p. 388]
2. Alcohol reduces the quality of sleep by interfering with dream sleep.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 12.21] [Answer (a), p. 409]
3. Which one of the following statements about alcohol and college students’ drinking is
not true?
(a) Irresponsible drinking is the number-one substance problem on college campuses.
(b) The most common reason why first-year students consume alcohol is to fit in socially.
(c) College students drink more than they did in high school.
(d) College students tend to underestimate the number of their peers who drink and the
amount they drink.
[Reading objective: 12.22] [Answer: (d), p. 411]
4. An abusive relationship is defined as one partner in the relationship abusing the other,
either physically, verbally, or emotionally.
(a) True
(b) False.
[Reading objective: 12.27] [Answer: (a), p. 414]
5. Which one of the following illegal substances is a depressant or sedative drug that
slows down the nervous system?
(a) ecstasy
(b) cocaine
(c) amphetamines
(d) narcotics.
[Reading objective: 12.28] [Answer: (d), p. 414]
6. Which one of the following routes of drug administration (intake) produces the
greatest risk of addiction because it produces the fastest and most intense effect on the
human brain?
(a) ingestion (swallowing)
(b) snorting (through the nose lining)
(c) inhalation (smoking)
(d) intramuscular (e.g., a shot in the butt)
(e) suppository (i.e., absorption through the anus).
269
[Reading objective: 12.29] [Answer: (c), p. 415]
7. Which one of the following behaviors is not a sign that a drug user is moving in the
direction of dependency or addiction?
(a) using the drug more frequently
(b) increasing the amount (dose) of the drug
(c) difficulty cutting back (reducing) use of the drug
(d) using the drug more in social settings than alone.
[Reading objective: 12.30] [Answer: (d), p. 415]
8. Which one of the following examples best illustrates recreational drug use by a
college student?
(a) Wendy Weed smokes marijuana several times at parties held during the term.
(b) Henry Hippie drops “acid” (LSD) just once—out of curiosity—simply to see what an
acid “trip” is like.
(c) Frat Rat Freddy gets drunk every weekend and cannot seem to break his habit of
drinking at least two beers each day of the week.
(d) Erica Eros takes the drug, ecstasy, every time she makes love so she can lower her
inhibitions and elevate her sensual sensitivity.
[Reading objective: 12.31(a)] [Answer: (a), p. 415]
9. Which one of the make-believe college students in the previous question (#8) best
illustrates experimental drug use?
(a) Wendy Weed
(b) Henry Hippie
(c) Frat Rat Freddy
(d) Erica Eros.
[Reading objective: 12.31(b)] [Answer: (b), p. 416]
9. Which one of the make-believe students in question #8 best illustrates drug addiction?
(a) Wendy Weed
(b) Henry Hippie
(c) Frat Rat Freddy
(d) Erica Eros.
[Reading objective: 12.31(c)] [Answer: (c), p. 416]
10. I am a sexually transmitted infection (STI) that infects more than 10% of college
students. My symptoms include a clear mucous-like discharge and a burning sensation
when urinating. I am:
(a) genital herpes
(b) syphilis
(c) chlamydia
(d) human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
[Reading objective: 12.31(b)] [Answer: (c), p. 420]
270
11. My symptoms include blisters that may itch or burn; these blisters may go away but
can come back again. I can’t be totally stopped or cured, but the frequency and intensity
of my outbreaks can be reduced or controlled by prescription drugs. I am:
(a) gonorrhea
(b) chlamydia
(c) genital herpes
(d) human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
[Reading objective: 12.31(c)] [Answer: (c), p. 420]
271
Teaching Chapter 13
Health and Wellness:
Mental and Spiritual Dimensions
Key Instructional Goals of this Chapter
The primary instructional goals of this chapter are to equip students with strategies for
coping effectively with anxiety and depression, and to develop their appreciation for the
spiritual dimension of wellness.
Rationale for the Placement of this Chapter in the Text’s Sequence of Topics
This chapter is situated at the end of the text for a couple of reasons. First, anxiety or
depression are emotions that may surface toward the end of the term as students deal with
the pressures of final projects and final exams. Second, major holidays (Thanksgiving
and Christmas) occur toward the end of the fall term, which may be accompanied by
emotional adjustments relating to returning home, revisiting family members, and
reliving family conflicts.
The chapter concludes with spirituality—a “big picture” topic dealing with the meaning
of life, which will remain significant to students throughout their college years and
beyond. This topic provides a fitting final chapter to a text that is devoted to promoting
students’ holistic success in college and beyond.
Building Student Motivation for this Chapter
A good way to sell this chapter is to revisit Abraham Maslow’s classic “need hierarchy”
model (Chapter 1, p. 20), which suggests that students cannot reach their academic
potential and achieve peak academic performance until their more basic psychological
needs have been met (e.g., their needs for emotional well-being and self-esteem). Also,
point out how Maslow’s classic model is reinforced by recent research that points to the
importance of “emotional intelligence” for educational, professional, and personal
success.
To short-circuit potential student resistance to discussing emotional issues in a course
designed primarily to promote academic success, point out to your students that there is a
strong connection between emotional states and academic performance. Remind them of
research discussed in the previous chapters on learning, memory, and higher-level
thinking, which indicate that positive emotions (e.g., excitement or enthusiasm) serve to
stimulate thinking and strengthen memory, while negative emotions (e.g., anxiety)
interfere with attention, memory, creative thinking, and test performance.
272
Key Points to Make When Covering this Chapter
Remind students that the goals of a college education include more than intellectual or
academic development. This may be reinforced by reminding them of the goals of a
liberal arts education covered in chapter 2, or by having students look at your college’s
mission statement and educational goals as stated in the College Bulletin. Indeed, the
entire “freshman year experience” movement emerged from the concerns of a college
president (Tom Jones, University of South Carolina) who wanted to create a course that
would educate students as a “whole person,” not just their intellectual dimension. The
president was strongly influenced by a classic book titled, Where Colleges Fail, in which
the author argues that colleges fail educationally whenever they ignore the fact that
effective learning depends on the whole being, not merely on an individual’s “abstracted
intelligence” (Nevitt Sanford, 1968).
Remind students that emotional stress is a very common experience among new college
students and their ability to cope with their emotions will play a key role in their ability to
persist to college graduation. Students should be made aware of the fact that the vast
majority of students who leave college do not do so for reasons that are strictly academic,
i.e., most of them do not “flunk out.” Less than 15% of students who withdraw from
college are on academic probation when they withdraw. More often, leaving college has
to do with personal “issues” that are social or emotional in nature. Even in cases where
students are experiencing academic difficulty at the time of their withdrawal, their poor
grades may be a reflection of social or emotional issues that are interfering with their
performance.
Be sure your students know that experiencing some stress in college is a good thing
because it can provide them with just the right amount of moderate tension and adrenalin
that is needed to energize or stimulate learning. It may be useful to underscore the
distinction between stress and distress (mentioned on p. 430). Also, be certain that
students see the distinction between feeling blue or down and being “clinically
depressed” (see the “Remember” tip on p. 435).
Class Discussion Questions & Learning Exercises
Brainstorming First-Term College Stressors
Ask your students to brainstorm the stressors they have experienced during their first
term in college. By focusing this question on college students in general, students may be
more willing to talk openly. Also, broad-focused questions can give students the
opportunity to hear other classmates reporting stressors that they may be currently
experiencing. This should help students realize that these emotions are not “abnormal, but
a normal part of the college-adjustment process. Furthermore, the stressors that new
students report may provide you with useful information about aspects of the first-term
273
experience on your campus that are excessively or unnecessarily stressful and should
receive institutional attention.
Emotional Experiences Journal: Possible Prompted Entries
* How would you compare your emotional well-being today with how you felt last year
at this time? If your emotional state has changed since then, has the change been for
better or for worse? What do you think has accounted for this change?
* Do you think emotional self-awareness is important for wellness and personal success?
Why?
* The dimensions of wellness are integrated or interconnected, so if one aspect of the self
is affected, other aspects of the self are also affected. Can you think of examples from
your own experience that illustrate the following interconnections?
(a) How your thoughts influence your emotions.
(b) How your mind (thoughts or emotions) influences your body (physical health)?
* You probably heard the following piece of advice: “Don’t let your emotions get the
best of you!”
(a) Are you usually able to follow this advice?
(b) If there were a particular emotion that sometimes “gets the best of you,” what would
it be?
(c) Do you think your family and friends would agree with your answers to the previous
two questions?
(d) Check out whether your answer to (c) is accurate by asking your closest friend or
family member to answer questions (a) and (b) about you. Do they tend to see you as you
see yourself?
Anxiety Self-Assessment
Have your students take the anxiety self-assessment at the following website:
http://psychologytoday.psychtests.com/cgi-bin/tests/anxiety_r.cgi
Ask them to print out their results and respond to the following questions:
* Were you surprised by the results? If yes, why? If no, why not?
* What do you think is the major source of anxiety or tension in your life right now?
* To improve your score (and lower your overall level of anxiety), what could you begin
to do right now?
* There is an old belief that you can really tell a person’s character by the way that person
handles serious stress or an emotional crisis. Would you generally agree or disagree with
this statement? (Why?)
274
* Take the following negative self-talk statements, which tend to put the person in a
stressful or powerless role, and substitute a positive alternative statement that would
decrease the person’s stress and increase the person’s power or control over the situation:
(a) “I’ve got too much to do this term; I’ll never get it done!”
Translation into positive, empowering self-talk:
(b) “I’m not doing as well as I should because it’s so noisy in the dorms that I can’t get
any studying done.”
Translation into positive, empowering self-talk:
* Monitor your stress levels for one week. In your journal, note:
(a) when you experienced the stress,
(b) where you experienced it (the situation),
(c) how intense it was,
(d) how long it lasted, and
(e) why you experienced it (the cause).
At the end of the week, look at the stressors you experienced and divide them into two
groups, depending on whether the stress was avoidable or unavoidable.
For each of the stressors in the avoidable list, note what you could have done to avoid
it.
For each of the stressors in the unavoidable list, note one strategy you might have used
to better cope with it.
Depression Self-Assessment:
Have your students take the depression self-assessment at the following website:
http://psychologytoday.psychtests.com/tests/depression_abridged_access.html
Have them printout their results and respond to the following questions:
* Were you surprised by the results? If yes, why? If no, why not?
* To improve your score (and elevate your mood), what could you begin to do right now?
* What aspect or characteristic of your life now is most likely to get you down (lower
your mood)?
Interviewing Emotionally Upbeat People
Identity two people that you know who rarely or never seem to get down (feel blue).
Interview these people, asking them the following questions:
* Has anyone ever noticed or complimented you about being an upbeat and positive
person?
* Do you think you are naturally upbeat, or is it a habit that you’ve developed with
experience or practice?
275
* Is there anything you consciously do when things go bad that enables you to stay
positive, such as think certain thoughts or engage in certain behaviors?
* If you were to give advice to someone who wanted to be as positive or upbeat as you,
what you recommend that they do?
Satisfaction with Life Scale (Adapted from Diener, et al., 1985)
Use the following scale to indicate how much you agree or disagree with each of the
listed statements.
1
Strongly
Agree
2
Disagree
3
Slightly
Disagree
4
5
Not Sure Slightly
Agree
6
Agree
7
Strongly
Agree
1. ____ In most ways, my life is close to being ideal.
Reason for rating:
2. ____ The condition of my life is excellent.
Reason for rating:
3. ____ I am satisfied with my life.
Reason for rating:
4. ____ If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing.
Reason for rating:
A total score of 13 or above suggests that you are generally satisfied with your life.
A total score was 12 or below suggests that you are generally dissatisfied with your life.
* If you were to single out one aspect of your life that you are currently most satisfied or
happy with, what would it be? Do you see this source of satisfaction or happiness
continuing into the future?
* If you were to single out one aspect of your life that you are least satisfied with and
would like to change, what would it be? Do you think it’s likely that this change will
occur in the near future?
Spirituality Reflections
* Do you think it is possible for a person to be spiritual but not religious? Why?
276
* Do you think it is possible for a person to be religious but not spiritual? Why?
* Would you agree or disagree with the following statement?
“For humans to be truly happy, they have to find meaning in their lives that comes from
recognizing that they must make a commitment to something larger than themselves,
such as humanity, the natural world, or something that transcends human existence.”
___ Agree
___Disagree
* What is the reasoning behind your agreement or disagreement with the previous
statement?
* What do you believe happens to humans after death?
- Do you believe we experience nothingness (lose consciousness forever)?
- Do you believe there is life after death?
- Do you believe in after-life places like heaven and hell?
- Do you believe that after dying we return to life as another human being or in a
different life form?
- How strongly do you hold these beliefs?
- Why do you hold these beliefs? (How do you think you originally developed them?)
- Do you think your beliefs will ever change?
277
Reading Objectives
Chapter 13
13.1 Recall the meaning of “emotional intelligence” and two research findings that
support its importance for personal success. (p. 428)
13.2 Recall two ways in which moderate stress can actually benefit us. (p. 429)
13.3 Recall two ways in which excess stress can interfere with mental or academic
performance. (p. 430)
13.4 Recall and briefly describe three effective techniques for stress-management. (pp.
432-433)
13.5 Recall why reducing consumption of the following substances can decrease stress:
(a) alcohol
(b) caffeine. (pp. 433-434)
13.6 Recall the definition of “clinical depression.” (p. 435)
13.7 Recall three self-help strategies that may be used to reduce feelings of depression.
(pp. 435-437)
13.8 Recall why or how individuals can experience anxiety or depression in their late
teens or early 20’s for the first time, which is related to their genetic make-up, even
though they have never experienced either of these emotional problems earlier in
their life. (p. 437)
13.9 Recall an example or illustration of how our thinking can affect how we feel and
perform by affecting our:
(a) perceptions of current experiences
(b) reactions to previous experiences
(c) expectations of future experiences. (p. 439)
13.10 Recall the meaning of the term “catastrophic thinking” and its following common
forms:
(a) personalizing
(b) pervasiveness
(c) permanence. (p. 441)
13.11 Recall and briefly describe three strategies for replacing negative thinking with
positive thinking. (p. 441)
13.12 Recall three key components or perspectives of a comprehensive definition of
spirituality. (p. 443)
278
13.13 Recall two differences between spirituality and religion. (p. 446)
13.14 Recall three strategies that college students could use to develop the spiritual
dimension of wellness. (pp. 446-447)
279
Chapter 13
Short-Essay Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
* Note: The reading objectives for this chapter are tied entirely to essay test questions
because the nature of the material discussed in this chapter was not conducive to
multiple-choice or true-false questions.
1. Human intelligence comes in many forms other than intellectual ability. One of these
multiple forms of intelligence is emotional intelligence. Define emotional intelligence
and briefly describe two research findings that support its importance for personal
success.
[Reading objective: 13.1; Answer: p. 428]
2. When people use and hear the word stress, they usually associate it with something
negative or non-productive. However, research shows that moderate stress can benefit us
and improve our performance. Briefly describe two ways in which moderate stress can be
productive.
[Reading objective: 13.2; Answer: p. 429]
3. If stress is extreme or excessive, and it continues for a prolonged period of time, it
moves from being an experience that can enhance to an experience that can impair
performance. Briefly describe two ways in which excess stress can interfere with our
mental or academic performance.
[Reading objective: 13.3; Answer: p. 430]
4. If we perceive our level of stress reaching a point where it’s beginning to interfere with
the quality of our performance or the quality of our life, we need to take steps to reduce
it. Briefly describe three effective techniques for reducing or managing stress.
[Reading objective: 13.4; Answer: pp. 432-433]
5. Substances we put into our body can affect us emotionally, either for better or for
worse. Briefly describe why consumption of the following substances can increase our
level of stress:
(a) alcohol
(b) caffeine.
[Reading objective: 13.5; Answer: pp. 433-434]
6. Anxiety and depression are the two most common emotional problems experienced by
humans. It is natural and normal for us to feel depressed or down from time totime,
especially after we’ve experienced some sort of loss (e.g., loss of a loved one or a lost
opportunity). However, psychologists distinguish between “normal” depression from
abnormal depression—which they call “clinical depression.” Describe what is meant by
clinical depression, or what happens to the person who experiences it.
[Reading objective: 13.6; Answer: p. 435]
280
7. Depression can range in intensity from mild to moderate to severe. Moderate and
severe depression may require professional counseling and psychotherapy, but
individuals who experience milder forms of depression may be able to help themselves.
Briefly describe three self-help strategies that can effectively reduce or control feelings of
mild depression.
[Reading objective: 13.7; Answer: pp. 435-437]
8. Depression and anxiety are often related to genetic factors and their symptoms can
appear for the first time during a person’s late teens or early 20’s. Explain why or how a
person with a genetic tendency toward anxiety or depression can be free of any symptoms
throughout their early years and then start to experience these problems later in life.
[Reading objective: 13.8; Answer: p. 437]
9. Since the thinking part of the human brain has connections with brain’s emotional
center, the way we think can affect the emotions we experience. Provide an example or
illustration of how our thinking can affect our emotions or our performance by affecting
our:
(a) perceptions of current experiences
(b) reactions to previous experiences
(c) expectations of future experiences.
[Reading objective: 13.9; Answer: p. 439]
10. Sometimes, situations or experiences can be made worse by the way we interpret and
react to them. Define “catastrophic thinking” and briefly describe or provide an example
of how it is demonstrated in the following ways:
(a) personalizing
(b) pervasiveness
(c) permanence.
[Reading objective: 13.10; Answer: p. 441]
281
Teaching the Epilogue:
A Matter of Principles and Character
Key Instructional Goals of the Epilogue
The key educational goal of the Epilogue is to equip students with two temporal
perspectives that can serve as a source of integration and inspiration:
(1) a retrospective that enables student to look back in time and get an integrative
snapshot of the key success principles and themes which permeated the text, and
(2) a prospective that projects students ahead in time to gain a vision of how the text’s
success principles may become an integral part of their personal character and inspire
them to continue using these principles throughout their future years in college and
beyond.
Exercises for the Epilogue
Brainstorming Characteristics of Successful People
In small groups or as a whole class, have students brainstorm their ideas in response to
the question, “What makes people successful?” (Or, “What personal qualities or
characteristics characterize successful people?”)
If you previously asked your students to answer the question, “How would you define
success?” (Chapter 3) or had them answered this question as part of the student
information sheet (Exhibit 2), have them flash back to their previous definition of success
and compare/contrast it with their answer to the current question about what personal
qualities characterize successful people?
Application of Virtues to Life in College and Beyond
How might the five key virtues in this chapter (wisdom, initiative, motivation,
integrity, civic responsibility) be demonstrated or exhibited in the following situations?
(1) class discussions
(2) study groups
(3) group projects
(4) campus politics
(5) committee work
(6) career(s) you are considering
(7) personal life beyond college.
Assessing First-Term Behavior with Respect to the “Checklist Summary of Key
College-Success Principles and Strategies.”
Either as an in-class exercise or take-home assignment, ask your students to complete
the following survey to assess their first-term behavior in college. This exercise can be
expanded into a narrative report by asking students to reflect on their survey responses
and write a short paper, which identifies: (a) what they think they did well during their
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first term in college, (b) what they should have done better, and (c) what plans they have
for improving their behavior next term.
A CHECKLIST OF KEY COLLEGE-SUCCESS
PRINCIPLES & STRATEGIES
Use the rating scale below to assess your performance this term with respect to the
college-success principles and strategies that were introduced in the first chapter of your
text. Place a numerical rating for each item in the small box that precedes it, using the
following scale:
5 = Consistently
4 = Most of the Time
3 = Sometimes
2 = Rarely
1 = Never
1. ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT
Inside the Classroom:
□Get To Class—treat it like a job—I show up to class like I would show up for work
□Get Involved in Class—I come prepared, listen actively, take notes, and participate.
Outside the Classroom:
□Read Actively—I take notes while you read to increase attention and retention.
□Spend a Significant Amount of Time on Academic Activities Outside of Class—
I make it a 40-hour work week (with occasional “overtime”).
2. UTILIZING CAMPUS RESOURCES
Capitalize on Academic & Student Support Services:
□Learning Center
□Writing Center
□ Disability Services
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□College Library
□Academic Advisement
□Career Development
□Personal Counseling
□ Health Center
Capitalize on Experiential Learning Opportunities:
□Participate in co-curricular experiences on campus.
□Participate in volunteer experiences and internships off campus.
3. INTERPERSONAL INTERACTION & COLLABORATION
Interact with:
□Peers—by joining campus clubs and student organizations.
□Faculty—by connecting with them immediately after class, in their offices, or
by e-mail.
□Academic Advisors—I see them for more than just a signature to register; find an
advisor you can relate to and with whom you can develop an ongoing relationship.
□Mentors—I try to find experienced people on campus who can serve as trusted
guides and role models.
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Collaborate by:
□Forming Learning Teams—not only last-minute study groups, but teams that
collaborate more regularly to work on such tasks as taking lecture notes,
completing reading assignments, editing writing assignments, conducting library
research, and reviewing results of exams and course assignments.
□Participating in Learning Communities—enroll in two or more classes with the
same students during the same term.
4. SELF-REFLECTION
□Take Self-Assessment Tests—to gain greater awareness of your interests, values,
abilities, learning habits, learning styles, self-concept, and personality traits.
□Self-Monitor your learning—maintain awareness of how you are learning, what
you are learning, and if you are learning.
□Reflect on Feedback—seek information from others (professionals and peers) on
the quality of your performance and what specifically you can do to improve it.
□Reflect on Your Future—from time to time, I take time from the daily grind to
project into the future, set long-term goals, and develop strategic plans for your
major, your career, and your life.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------For any item that you rated as “1” or “2,” go back and use the space beneath the
item to indicate why you “rarely” or “never” engaged in the practice, how likely it is
that you will engage in it more frequently in the future, and if are planning to
engage in it more frequently, when you will begin to do so.
(If you need more space, use the reverse side of the paper.)
Advice for Next Year’s Entering Class
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Based on your personal successes and struggles this term, write a short letter or “tip
sheet” of strategies that you would recommend to next year’s entering class of first-year
students. Be sure to include recommendations on each of the following aspects of college
life:
(1) the classroom
(2) course assignments
(3) exams
(4) campus life outside the classroom.
Values Awareness Exercise
To increase your awareness of the pervasive influence of personal values in daily life,
review the major topics covered in different chapters of the text in terms of their
relationship to the five personal virtues discussed in the Epilogue (wisdom, initiative,
motivation, integrity, civic responsibility).
Note: This exercise could be done collaboratively by forming cooperative reading dyads
(Danserau & Associates, 1979), as summarized in the following steps:
1. Students form pairs (dyads) and first review the chapter individually, jotting down
implications they see for one or more of the personal values discussed in the Epilogue.
2. One member of the pair plays the role of initiator who shares ideas first, while the
teammate assumes the role of listener-respondent who jots down any ideas provided
by the initiator that that s/he did not already record .
3. Teammates reverse roles on the next chapter, and continue to alternate roles in this
fashion for each chapter they review.
Self-Assessment Portfolio
Review your answers to the self-assessment exercises you completed in this course
(e.g., interest inventories, self-reflection exercises, journal entries, etc.) and write a short
paper in which you identify any recurrent themes and patterns (or variations and
inconsistencies) that you see in your personal needs, values, interests, abilities or talents.
Discuss why you think these themes or variations emerged and what implications they
may have for your future choices and decisions.
Reflecting on Personal Reflections
Look back at your responses to the “Pauses for Reflection” exercises you completed in
the text throughout the term. Do you detect any pattern of development or change(s) in
your way of thinking that took place over the course of your first term in college?
Course Topics Review & Validation
Steps:
1. Have students flip through their course notes or textbook chapters and jot down topics
that were covered in the course that they found to be particularly interesting or useful.
286
2. Ask for a volunteer to call out the first topic on his or her list and record it on the
board.
3. Ask for volunteers to call out any other topic on their list that does not appear on the
board, and continue adding these topics on the board until all students’ favorite topics
have been listed.
4. Ask students to write a brief, one-sentence statement about why they felt the topic they
chose was particularly interesting or useful.
5. If time allows, ask students to read their one-sentence explanation.
6. Collect students’ favorite topics and written explanations, and save them to share with
next year’s entering class for the purpose of building positive anticipation and
enthusiasm for the course.
Evaluating College Courses and Course Instructors
Share the course-evaluation strategies listed below with your students prior to their
evaluation of the first-year seminar, as well as their other first-term courses. Sharing and
discussing the following series of course-evaluation recommendations with your class
may be critical for obtaining useful feedback about your course because new college
students they had no prior experience with, or preparation for evaluating courses or
instructors. The first-year seminar may be the ideal venue in which to prepare new
students for this evaluative role effectively because the seminar is a course that is
intentionally designed to prepare them to meet the roles and expectations of being a
college student. Discussing the importance of their role as course evaluators, and
preparing them for that role, dovetails nicely with topics discussed in the Epilogue, such
as personal character, integrity, and civic responsibility..
Evaluating Your College Courses & Course Instructors:
Doing it with Integrity and Validity
* Take course evaluations seriously. They represent your right and opportunity to provide
meaningful input that could improve the quality of the course for future generations of
students.
* Put emotions aside; do not let your expected grade in the course influence your
evaluation of the course. Respond rationally and honestly to the course and its
instructor, and do not let your judgment be clouded by how happy or unhappy you are
about the grade you expect to receive.
* Keep in mind how your level of effort may have influenced the particular aspect the
course aspect you’re evaluating.
Do not confuse the quality of the course with the quality of work you put into in the
course. (For example, you shouldn’t say course assignments were “useless” if you
didn’t do them, or if you didn’t do them carefully and completely.)
* Take a comprehensive perspective by considering all elements of the course when you
evaluate it, ranging from the beginning of the term to the end of the term, including
both your in-class learning experiences and out-of-class assignments.
287
* Do not go down the same column, giving the same high or low rating for every item on
the evaluation form, depending on whether you generally liked or disliked the course
content or the course instructor. Instead, respond to each individual item specifically
and separately.
* Although you may be filling out the same evaluation form for all your courses, make a
conscious effort to complete each course evaluation independently and thoughtfully, as
if you were filling out the form for the first time.
* Take the time and make the effort to provide written comments on the evaluation form.
Use your written comments to clarify or justify your numerical ratings. One of the
major purposes for student evaluations is to help instructors improve their teaching and
improve the quality of their courses. Your written comments are more likely to provide
instructors with specific feedback on course strengths, and ideas for course improvement,
than your numerical ratings.
* Be assured that your evaluations will not be seen by the instructor before your grade is
turned in, and keep in mind that your ratings and written comments will remain
confidential.
288
Reading Objectives
Epilogue
* Note: The reading objectives for this chapter are tied entirely to essay test questions
because the nature of the material discussed in this chapter was not conducive to
multiple-choice or true-false questions.
E.1 Recall the four principles of college success identified by the authors of your text,
and explain why each of these principles is important for success in college and life.
(pp. 456-457)
E.2 Recall the meaning of (or an example of) each of the following five virtues:
(a) wisdom
(b) initiative
(c) motivation
(d) integrity
(e) civic responsibility (pp. 459-463).
E.3 Recall the meaning of the following psychological terms, and explain why each plays
an important role in personal success.
(a) internal locus of control
(b) self-efficacy. (p. 459)
E.4 Recall the difference between “inner-directed” and “outer-directed” people, and how
the difference relates to personal integrity. (p. 461)
E.5 Recall the difference between personal identity and personality, and how their
relationship reflects an individual’s level of authenticity. (p. 462)
E.6 Recall the meaning of the following forms of civic responsibility:
(a) civility
(b) civic engagement. (p. 463)
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Test Questions
(Linked to specific reading objectives)
1. Research on human learning and student development point to four powerful principles
of college success, which provided the foundation for the specific success strategies
recommended in your textbook. Briefly describe the four principles of college success
identified by the authors of your text, and explain why each of these principles is
important for success in college and life.
[Reading objective: E.1] [Answer: pp. 456-457]
2. Ultimately, personal success emerges from the inside out. Effective actions and good
deeds emerge from positive attributes or values found within us. A person who possesses
a collection of important virtues is aide to be a person of character. Explain the meaning
of (or provide an example of) each of the following five virtues:
(a) wisdom
(b) initiative
(c) motivation
(d) integrity
(e) civic responsibility.
[Reading objective: E.2] [Answer: pp. 459-463]
3. People with personal initiative have what psychologists call an internal locus of
control, which contributes to the development of another positive trait, known as selfefficacy. Explain the meaning of each of these following psychological terms, and explain
why each plays an important role in personal success.
[Reading objective: E.3] [Answer: p 459]
4. Individuals who possess the virtue of integrity are said to be “inner-directed,” rather
than “outer-directed.” Explain the difference between “inner-directed” and “outerdirected” people and how the difference relates to personal integrity.
[Reading objective: E.4] [Answer: p. 461]
5. People with integrity possess authenticity, which is reflected in the relationship
between their personal identify and their personality. Explain the difference between
personal identity and personality, and how their relationship reflects an individual’s level
of authenticity.
[Reading objective: E.5] [Answer: p. 462]
6. People of character are good citizens. They model what it means to live in a civilized
society by displaying civility and civic engagement. Briefly explain the meaning of, or
provide an example of these two terms.
[Reading objective: E.6] [Answer: p. 463]
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Sample Syllabi for FYE Courses Using Thriving in College
ID 117 – section 04
Dr. Ariane Schauer
Fall 2007
Marymount College
The Art of Being Human
Freshman Seminar
2 units
Class Meets Mon & Wed 9-9:50 am, in C206
Course Description:
A critical examination of the liberal arts and sciences for the purpose of acquiring basic
skills, knowledge, and values for personal, social and physical well-being. We will
explore the personal, intellectual, social, emotional, physical, spiritual, and ethical
dimensions of growth as a whole person. As we discuss the personal and social aspects of
making choices, our emphasis will be on developing strategies for success in college and
beyond. This course is required for graduation, and transfers to UC, CSU, and most
private colleges and universities.
Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs):
1. Explain the aims and values of a liberal arts education.
2. Describe the academic disciplines that comprise the liberal arts & sciences.
3. Complete self-assessment assignments to help identify areas of interest,
strengths and weaknesses.
4. Develop and formulate academic and transfer goals.
5. Produce an educational plan that supports graduation and transfer goals.
6. Prepare a realistic time-management plan.
7. Demonstrate knowledge of available campus resources, including the
library, computer lab, learning center, transfer center, academic advisor,
counseling, and Student Life.
8. Attend a minimum of six co-curricular events at Marymount.
9. Prepare a “College Success” class presentation.
10. Recognize the components of a holistic approach to personal growth & success.
Office Hours:
Mon-Wed 10-12 and Tu-Th 11-12:15
in #219, Building 5, 3777-5501 ext 232
Required Reading:
1. Cuseo, Fecas & Thompson, Thriving in College & Beyond, 2007 (TiC)
2. LASSI Learning & Study Strategies Inventory
291
ID 117 -04
Dr. Ariane Schauer
Attendance:
Marymount College
Fall 2007
REGULAR ATTENDANCE IS MANDATORY.
In-class work cannot be made up.
There will be no make-up exams.
Points will be deducted for Homework turned in late.
Grading:
MIDTERM EXAM –
……………………………..
FINAL EXAM –
…………………………..
In-class work (Journal entries, quizzes, COPS, presentation) …….
Take-home assignments*
……………………………..
50 points
100 points
200 points
450 points
* Take- Home Assignments:
 Six Co-curricular Reflection Papers - 25 pts each - 150 pts
 LASSI Study Skills Inventory Pre-test & Post-test – 25 pts each - 50 pts
 Orientation Verification – 50 pts
 Time Management Plan – 50 pts
 Educational Plan – 50 pts
 4-Year Major Plan – 50 pts
 Alcohol Wise – Certificate - 50 points
Resource: www.studentlifeonline.com
Important Dates:
Last Day to Add/Drop:
Last day to Withdraw:
Group Advising:
Course Regsitration for Spring ’07 begins:
Wed. Sept. 5
Wed. Nov. 14
Mon. Oct. 29
Mon. Nov 5
Accommodations:
Any student who feels he/she may qualify for accommodation for any type of disability
should make an appointment to see me in my office and contact Ruth Proctor in the
Learning center.
Integrity:
Marymount College expects students to take responsibility for their academic and
personal integrity. Attempts at cheating or other forms of academic dishonesty may lead
to a failing grade and reporting to the office of Academic Affairs for further sanctions.
[see Marymount Anchor pp.8-9]
292
ID 117 -04
Dr. Ariane Schauer
Marymount College
Fall 2007
COURSE OUTLINE
Date
Topics
Aug 27
Introduction to the Course.
Aug 29
The College Experience:
Curriculum & Co-Curriculum.
Sept 3
NO CLASS – LABOR DAY
Sept 5
SLOs
1
In Class
Info cards
Minute paper
Assignment
Who’s Who
Scavenger Hunt
-Grid
Attend Sept 6
Club Day
What is a Liberal Arts
Education?
Disciplines, concentrations
1
Sept 10
Planning your future in stages.
The Marymount Catalog.
2, 7
Minute paper
Read Tic ch. 3
Sept 12
CIRP Survey
4
CIRP
Due:
LASSI
Sept 17
The Educational Plan
Transfer Requirements:
Minute paper
Attend Sept 17
Business Open
House if considering
Business major
Read TiC ch. 2
4
Sept 19
Guest Speaker:
Academic Integrity
1, 7,
10
Minute paper
Sept 24
Advisement & Transfer Center
igetc, csu, privates, websites
4, 5
Office Visit
Sept 26
How & Why We Learn.
Gardner’s Intelligence Profiles.
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
3, 10
GE Quiz
Oct 1
CORE Survey
3
Survey
Oct 3
MIDTERM
Exam
Meet Academic
Advisor,
Schedule Ed.
Plan Appt
Attend Sept 25
Bob Hall talk
Due:
Advisor Info
Sheet
Attend Oct 2
College Fair
293
ID 117 -04
Dr. Ariane Schauer
Marymount College
Fall 2007
COURSE OUTLINE (cont.)
Date
Topics
SLOs
In Class
Assignment
Oct 8
NO CLASS – FALL BREAK
Oct 10
Time Management:
Objectives & Strategies.
6, 7
SelfAssessment
Read TiC ch. 10
Oct 15
Guest Speaker:
The Learning Center.
3, 7
Minute paper
Ref: TiC ch. 4,5
Oct 17
Note-Taking. Test Preparation
3, 4
Group
Exercise
Due:
Time Management
Plan
Oct 22
Stress & Stress Management.
3, 10
Journal
Oct 24
Guest Speaker:
7, 10
Minute paper
Due:
Educational Plan
Oct 29
Guest Speaker:
7, 10
Minute paper
Attend Oct 29
Group Advising
Oct 31
Physical Health & Wellness.
10
Health cards
Read TiC ch. 12, 13
Nov 5
Guest Speaker:
7
Discussion
Nov 7
Priorities for the rest of this
Semester.
3
4
10
SelfAssessment
Nov 12
Career Planning & Values.
Major vs. Career.
4
5
“Bubble”
Worksheet
Nov 14
COPS
3
COPS
Due:
LASSI Post -Test
Read TiC ch. 9
Due:
4-Year Plan
294
ID 117 -04
Dr. Ariane Schauer
Marymount College
Fall 2007
COURSE OUTLINE (cont.)
Date
Nov 19
Topics
Interpreting COPS.
SLOs
3
In Class
COPS
Assignment
Due Nov 21:
Individual College
Success write-ups
Use TiC as reference
Nov 21
College Success
9
10
Student
Presentations
Nov 26
College Success
9
10
Student
Presentations
Nov 28
College Success
9
10
Dec 3
College Success
9
10
Student
Presentations
Student
Presentations
Dec 5
The Art of Being Human.
1, 10
Wed.
Dec. 12
FINAL EXAM
4:00 – 5:00 pm
Come
Prepared
To Share
Your
Presentation
&
Listen
To Your
Classmates
CUMULATIVE
295
Montclair State University
Fall 2007 Semester
GNED 199-22 New Student Seminar (1 Unit)
Monday 11:30 – 12:20 a.m.
Instructor:
Office:
Office Hours:
Office Phone:
Email:
Dawn Marie Dowd
Room 101A Morehead Hall
By appointment
973-655-4081 or 973-655-7609
dowdd@mail.montclair.edu
Course Goals
This course will serve as an introduction to the college experience. The goal of this course is to
provide a forum for the development of strategies, skills, and techniques that promote success in
university life. Topics will include: MSU expectations, MSU resources, critical thinking, study
skills, note-taking, choosing courses and careers, diversity, and wellness. Students will develop
skills in oral presentation, written expression, and class participation.
Course Objectives
1. To align you for academic success by developing your skills in critical thinking, note
taking, studying, writing, oral presentation, team projects, using the library and test
taking.
2. To develop your ability to think critically about complex and diverse problems and
implement problem solving strategies.
3. To develop among you and your classmates a community of learners who explore
campus and national issues which have an impact on all students, especially those in
their first year of college.
4. To enable you to learn more about Montclair State University, the University’s history,
expectations, educational opportunities, and available resources.
5. To introduce you to the demands of the university environment and enable you to identify
resources needed to make a successful transition from high school to university life.
6. To promote your understanding of human diversity, values and perspectives as they
relate to overall University life.
Overview
In this course you will be asked to interact with peers, faculty, staff, campus organizations and the
community. The course will require that you take an active role in the educational process, i.e.,
participating in classroom discussions, attending workshops, online readings, and completing
writing projects and presentations as assigned. To attain the goals of this course, New Student
Seminar (seminar vs. lecture course) will integrate the following skills:






Reading and Writing – the text and other assigned readings which may include books,
journal articles, newspapers and/or magazines
Processing Information – collecting, organizing and evaluating data
Self-Actualization – through a series of activities, understanding who I am, how do I
interpret the world around me, and where am I going
Problem Solving – incorporating steps that reduce levels of stress, conflict and course
management
Time Management – maintaining and monitoring the use of time to minimize stress and
maximize success
Teamwork – understanding the principles of completing tasks and projects as a group,
where everyone plays an intricate part in the final project.
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

Critical Thinking – utilizing the principles of knowledge, modeling, reasoning,
synthesizing, analyzing and creativity to work through problems and projects
Technology and Communication – preparing projects and activities that utilize technology
to develop written assignments and presentations
Outcomes
After completing the New Student Seminar course, students should be able to:




Understand their role as an agent for change within the university environment and
community.
Demonstrate effective problem solving strategies when presented with complex
problems.
Implement academic strategies, i.e., time-management, study skills, effective decision
making, etc., which increase academic attainment and improves education outcomes.
Develop an action plan for the next semester and sophomore year.
Textbook/Learning Materials
 Cuseo, J. B., Sox Fecas, V. and Thompson, A. (2007). Thriving in College and Beyond,
Research-Based Strategies for Academic Success & Personal Development. Dubuque:
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
 Student Planner (provided with the text)
 Montclair Experience weekly surveys, Question of the Week, Interactives, etc.
 Montclair State University Undergraduate catalog – available on line
 First Year Student Field Guide
 First Year Success Series (on line)
 Blackboard Community
 Blackboard: http://montclair.blackboard.com – Check announcements and homework
assignments on Blackboard
Evaluation Process and Grading
Attendance and Participation – 200 points
Students are expected to attend class and actively participate in all aspects of the learning
process. This includes class discussions, written work, class activities and the Montclair
experience. Exceeding three absences will result in deductions in the amount of points earned in
the course.
National and local studies have shown a direct correlation between attendance and grade
performance. This is particularly important in the New Student Seminar where learning takes
place through classroom activities and group interaction. Students who miss three or more
classes will limit the points earned for their attendance and participation. Students are
encouraged to maximize their University experience by attending all classes.
Quizzes – 100 points
Periodically brief quizzes may be given to test your knowledge of the reading material and/or
concepts learned throughout the semester.
Writing Assignments – 300 points
1. Journals: You must submit a one-page type-written, journal as a means of reflective
writing. Your journal entries should demonstrate considerable reflection and thought.
Journal Questions are to be found on the Montclair Experience under Question of the
Week. Entries for a particular week are due by the next class. You must think deeply
about the issues presented in the course. Studies show that first-year students who write
297
in a journal cope more effectively with stress and are healthier than those who do not.
This journal will give you an outlet to reflect on your changing circumstance.
2. Reaction papers: You must attend 1-2 events on campus and submit a one-page typewritten reaction paper on each. The event chosen may be a cultural event (such as a
music, dance or theatric performance) or can be any general type of event (such as an
athletic event, club meeting, SGA meeting, Board of Trustees meeting, etc.) and selected
from the New Student Experience First Year Success Series Booklet. Check with your
instructor for approval if you have questions. You must register for an event using the
online form on the NSE website, which features the full list of events.
3. Assignments: Homework assignments may be required to be handed in after an
assigned reading. The submitted homework must be typed.
Team Project (Oral Presentations) – 200 points
The New Student Seminar course incorporates group learning and, therefore, a team project is
required for the course. Each team will be comprised of three or four students. The members of
a team are asked to work collaboratively, sharing duties and responsibilities. Oral presentations
will be approximately 12 minutes per team will require the team members to produce a handout,
use visual aids and to cite referenced readings. More information on the team projects will be
given out and discussed later in the course. All topics must be approved by the instructor.
Presentations will be evaluated using the following guidelines:




Content is presented in a clear and understandable manner.
All members of the team interact with their peers and the professor to answer questions
in an appropriate and correct manner.
The team utilizes technology, articles, audio/visuals, statistics, etc. to support and present
ideas.
The written team project is to be submitted typed, neat, and orderly.
Final Student Portfolio – 200 points
The final student portfolio is an outline of the three basic concepts – Who am I? What do I do
now? Where am I going? The portfolio is to be typed using 12-point font, one-inch margins, and
submitted in a portfolio or three prong folder. ASSIGNMENTS THAT ARE NOT TYPED WILL
NOT BE ACCEPTED. The student portfolio is comprised of the following elements:






Revised and edited autobiography
Resume and Cover Letter
Occupational Outlook and Plan of Study (Works Cited included)
Action Plan
Learning Style Assessment
Other items as assigned by instructor
Grading
Attendance and participation:
Quizzes:
Written assignments:
 Reaction Papers
 Journal Entries
 Discussion Questions
Team Project:
 Written Report
 Oral Presentation
Final Student Portfolio:
Total:
20% (3 or more absences 0 points earned)
10%
30%
10%
10%
10%
20%
10%
10%
20%
100%
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Grading Scale
A-, A
70 – 79
D-, D, D+
90 and above;
B-, B, B+
80 – 89
60 – 69
F
Below 60
C-, C, C+
General Course Policies
1. You are responsible for your own learning and education. All work submitted by you
must be your own.
2. No make-up assignments will be provided. If you are absent from class you are expected
to obtain any class information missed.
3. If you are late for class or leave early you may be considered absent.
4. Assignments more than one-week late will not be accepted. Assignments less than oneweek late will be accepted but will be penalized.
5. Assignments are due at the beginning of the class.
6. All writing assignments must be double spaced, 12 point with Times New Roman font (or
a similar font), and one-inch margins.
7. Please remember to turn off all cell phones, pagers, two-way radios and music devices
prior to the start of class.
8. Plagiarism will not be tolerated. Assignment failure, course failure and/or notification to
the Dean of Students office may be imposed.
*Any student with a documented physical, sensory, psychological or learning disability requiring
academic accommodations should make arrangements through The Office of Services for
Students with Disabilities. (Morehead Hall 305, X5431)
Class Schedule for GNED 199 New Student Seminar
Week 1: September 10, 2007
CIRP Administration
Peer connections and Syllabus Review
Read: Preface, pages xiii – xxiii
Welcome, pages xxvii - xxxi
Chapter 1: Touching all the Bases, pages 1 - 36
September 12th: Last day to make changes to your fall 2007 schedule. Withdrawal deadline
100% refund
Week 2: September 17, 2007:
Review Chapter 1: Touching all the Bases
Read: Chapter 2: The Value of Liberal Arts and General Education, pages 37 - 72
Week 3: September 24, 2007
Review: Chapter 2: The Value of Liberal Arts and General Education
Read: Chapter 3: Educational Planning and Decision Making, pages 73 - 104
Week 4: October 1, 2007
Review: Chapter 3: Educational Planning and Decision Making
Week 5: October 8, 2007
Review: Chapter 3: Educational Planning and Decision Making
Learning Styles: A Tool for Identifying Your Personal Interests and Learning Preferences
299
Read: Chapter 5: Improving Memory and Test Performance
October 9th: 50% refund Withdrawal deadline
Week 6: October 15, 2007
Review: Chapter 5: Improving Memory and Test Performance
Complete Exercise 2 – Mid-term Self-Evaluation on page 177
Read: Chapter 6: Higher-Level Thinking
Week 7: October 22, 2007
Review: Chapter 6: Higher-Level Thinking
Strategies for Developing and Applying Higher-Level Thinking Skills to Improve Academic
Performance
Pages 199 - 209
Mid - term grades given:
Week 8: October 29, 2007
Life Management Skills pages 319-332, Managing Time and Procrastination
Choosing courses and majors
Advising Information, How to calculate your G.P.A., Registration begins Tentatively November 5 th.
Most Freshmen will register between November 15 and 16th via Wess. (Make sure you start to
make your appointments to see your faculty advisor or first year counselor early.)
Week 9: November 5, 2007: Registration for Upper-classmen begins
Team Projects – Oral Presentations by Teams 1, 2, and 3
November 7th: Withdrawal deadline for a fall 2007 course, no refund
Week 10: November 12, 2007:
Team Projects – Oral Presentations by Teams 4, 5, and 6
Read: Chapter 8: Diversity
Week 11: November 19, 2007
Review: Chapter 8 – Diversity
Read: Chapter 11, 12, 13: (TBD by instructor)
November 22nd: Thanksgiving Holiday: no classes
Week 12: November 26, 2007
Review: Chapters 11, 12, 13 Interpersonal Relationships, Health and Wellness (TBD by
instructor)
Week 13: December 3, 2007
Review: Chapters 11, 12, 13 Interpersonal Relationships, Health and Wellness (TBD by
instructor)
Read: Chapter 9: Finding a Path to Your Future Professions
Week 14: December 10, 2007
Review: Chapter 9: Finding a Path to Your Future Professions
Wednesday December 12th: Wednesday designated as a Friday
Thursday December 13: Last day of Class instruction
December 14 – 20th: Final Exam Period
300
Week 15: December 17, 2007
Final class survey
Final Portfolio due – Final Exam
December 20th: End of Semester
301
Appendix A
Lectures:
Why, When, & How?
The FYE seminar is a course that should be taught primarily with student-centered
methods; however, there may be times when you’ll need to make class presentations or
deliver short “lectures.” The following guidelines are recommended for determining
when, why, and how to deliver lectures in the FYE course.
Why Lecture?
Lectures or instructor presentations may serve the following productive purposes:
1) To reorganize information presented in the textbook so that it best meets the goals of
your course and the needs of your students.
2) To make meaningful connections between ideas or concepts presented in different
chapters of the textbook.
3) To apply textbook material to specific situations and issues facing your particular
students on your particular campus.
4) To illustrate theories, concepts, or principles cited in the textbook with concrete
examples to which your particular students can relate.
5) To integrate course content with current events in the world, in the nation, on campus,
and in your academic field that have emerged since the textbook was published.
6) To share personal experiences and insights from your first-year experience in college,
or from your professional experiences working with first-year students.
7) To model problem-solving strategies or higher-level thinking skills for students to
emulate (e.g., thinking your way through a test question that requires critical
analysis, or resolving an interpersonal conflict with a roommate or instructor).
8) To demonstrate enthusiasm and excitement about learning, and serve as a role model
who inspires students and elevates their educational aspirations.
Note: A major advantage of instructor-presented information over information
presented in print is that it’s information presented by a live person who can make
the subject “come alive” and inspire intrinsic interest in learning. This advantage can
be realized if live presentations are delivered with passion and enthusiasm. As
McKeachie notes, “The enthusiasm of the lecturer is an important factor in effecting
student learning and motivation. One of the advantages of live professors is the
tendency of people to model themselves after other individuals whom they perceive
as living, breathing human beings with characteristics that can be admired and
emulated” (1986, pp. 71-72). In fact, research indicates that instructor enthusiasm
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correlate positively with student achievement (Brophy & Good, 1986).
9) To assess and improve students’ classroom-listening and note-taking skills. We
offer the following pair of recommendations for implementing this recommendation:
(a) During class presentations, periodically stop and pose a question that checks for
student comprehension. As Svinicki (1991) notes, “This practice illustrates
comprehension monitoring, an important executive process in learning. In
reading, we have the luxury of interrupting ourselves to check on understanding,
going back and replaying what we have just read to look for inconsistencies. In
classes, however, most students do not have that opportunity, because they are
not in control of the pace of the class; the lecturer controls the pace”(p. 32).
(b) At the end of a class presentation, have students write a one-minute paper to
assess the quality of their note-taking; for example, pose a question such as:
“How would you rate the quality of notes you took in today’s class? Or, “What
(if anything) could have you or I done to improve your note-taking?
(c) At the start of a class session, ask students to individually recall as much as they
can from information presented in the previous class, then have them team-up in
small groups and pool information they recalled on an individual basis. The
resulting discrepancy between the group’s collective memory and the memory of
single individuals should enable students discover first-hand the power of peer
collaboration and teamwork.
.
(d) Occasionally collect students’ notes to check their quality and to assess whether
your key points were identified and recorded. This practice can serve the dual
purpose of providing you with feedback on the clarity of your presentations, while
providing students with feedback on the quality of their listening and note-taking
skills. One college instructor, identified as outstanding by students and peers,
takes this suggestion one step further—requiring students to turn in all their
lecture notes, including a table of contents, before midterms and finals (Davis,
Wood, & Wilson, 1983).
(e) Give an “open notes” quiz question at the end of class.
(f) If you have guest speakers come to class to deliver presentations, you can use
their presentation as a vehicle for assessing your students’ listening and notetaking skills by taking notes yourself on the presentations and having students
compare their notes with your notes.
When Not to Lecture:
* Do not lecture on topics that call for students to make changes in their attitude or
behavior (e.g., self-discipline, personal responsibility, or personal character.)
Being “lectured” by an authority figure on topics such as these can often lead to
student resistance and defensiveness. Instead, attempt to cover (or uncover) these topics
via self-assessment exercises and small-group discussions. Research has repeatedly
shown that students do not change their attitudes, modify their behavior, or develop their
“character” by listening to lectures (Bligh, 2000). These educational objectives are more
effectively achieved when students actively engage in personal reflection and
interpersonal interaction.
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* Don’t lecture on information that students have already been assigned to read.
As Meyers and Jones (1993) point out, there is a dangerous consequence associated
with practice:
If our lectures pretty much repeat what we are asking [students] to read, they
conclude, and justly so, “Why read when I will hear the same thing in class?” As
the semester speeds by, and tests and papers pile up, we begin to wonder, “Are the
students doing any reading at all?” This gnawing question reinforces our need to
spend even more time on lectures to make sure that students get the content we
think they so desperately need. And the more time we spend lecturing, the less time
is available for engaging students in discussion and other activities—a vicious circle
indeed! (1993, p. 124).
Not only does lecturing on already-printed information reduce class time for active
learning and discourage independent student reading, it is a less effective way for
students to learn that information because, unlike information processed aurally,
information obtained through reading can be processed by learners at their own pace and
any segment of it can be re-read if it’s not comprehended initially. As Robert Menges
concludes in his review of research on instructional methods, “For conveying information
and promoting retention [information recall], lectures are more efficient than discussion
but are inferior to the printed word” (1981, p. 568).
* Do not lecture for more than 10-15 minutes in succession.
Research shows that the attention of students, even highly motivated students, declines
when trying to process formal lectures for more than 10-15 minutes in a row (Penner,
1984; Verner & Dickinson, 1967). So, deliver lectures in small doses, and alternate them
with more active, student-centered learning activities.
How to Lecture: Strategies for Improving the Quality of Instructor Presentations
At the start of a lecture or instructional presentation:
* Indicate your goal and objectives.
This practice helps to give students some sense of where you are going and what you
intend to accomplish. One instructor, identified as “outstanding” by both students and
faculty, offers the following advice: “By laying out exactly what you are going to do,
you eliminate a lot of student confusion. You don’t want students spending the hour
wondering, ‘Why is he talking about that?’ or ‘What does that have to do with
anything?’ instead of concentrating on what you have to say” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson,
1983, p. 50).
* Point out how the material you’ll be presenting relates to the syllabus or overall course
plan, i.e., how this particular informational piece fits into the “big picture.”
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* Indicate how the material you’re presenting connects with what was just previously
covered, i.e., build a conceptual bridge between where you’ve been and were you’re
going.
* Provide a preview and overview that give students a mental map for the “whole trip.”
Just as students are encouraged to preview a chapter to get a sense of its overall
structure before they read it, we should provide a preview of classroom-delivered
information that gives students a sense of its overall structure before they hear
it. Research indicates that learning of verbally presented information is enhanced by
means of an “advance organizer”, i.e., preparatory material delivered in advance of
learning which is at a higher level of generality or inclusiveness than more specific and
detailed information that follows it (Ausubel, 1960).
One way to provide organization in advance is to begin each class session by
announcing an itemized list of the major points to be made (e.g., “In the next 15 minutes,
I will be identifying three key issues: Number one . . ., number two, . . .”). Such a list
serves to increase both the instructor and students’ awareness of major points that
sometimes get buried and lost amid specific details of the presentation, and serves as a
“red flag” for information that the instructor forget to state or that students fail to record
in their notes.
Another way to provide an advanced organizer for lectures is through the use of a
concept map that visually organizes multiple points or concepts and depicts the
relationships among them in diagrammatic form. As Donald Bligh notes, “In most cases
it is not enough that information should be organized; it must be seen by the students to
be organized” (1972, p. 103). For example, the holistic development (wellness) wheel can
serve as an effective organizer for a presentation on the dimensions of personal
development. Although we may not be graphic designers, we are capable of
conceptualizing or visualizing basic concept maps (e.g., flow charts, spider-web
diagrams) that could effectively be used to organize multi-faceted or multi-dimensional
course concepts. Once we conceive of a concept map and roughly sketch it out, we could
then turn to our desktop publishing department on campus to help us transform these
sketches into more professionally looking graphic organizers.
During Lecture Delivery:
* Keep students continually apprised of the lecture’s overall organization.
Reviews of research on college students’ note-taking indicate that the more organized
classroom presentations are, the more notes students take, and the notes that they do take
are processed more deeply (Kiewra, 1987). Here are two strategies for keeping students
continually aware of how our instructional presentation is organized:
1) List major points on the left side of the board at the beginning of class and then
proceed from left to right, using the remainder of the board to draw branches that
connect ideas relating to these major points—while you covered them in your
presentation. This will result in a tree diagram that grows “conceptual branches”
from left to right on the board, thus making optimal use of board space which
typically allows you more room to move horizontally than vertically.
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2) Provide students with a detailed handout that lays out the organization of the lecture
content and defines all technical terms.
Distributing to students a detailed outline on which rote information (e.g., technical
terms, statistics) is already typed out, saves valuable class time that you would
otherwise have to devote to recording all this information on the board and waiting
for students to record it in their notes. Photocopying costs m for these outlines may be
reduced or eliminating by printing pages back-to-back, or by posting the outline
online and having students download it and bring it to class.
Detailed outlines also serve to reduce “information overload” created when students
need to keep track of the organizational structure of presentations at the same time
they are trying to understand technical terms. Reducing information overload serves to
opens more “space” in students’ working memory (Ladas, 1980), which can then be
used for higher-level thinking (e.g., application, evaluation). As Bligh notes, when
handouts containing factual information are given before a lecture, their “function is to
relieve students of the psychological pressure of absorbing new information and free
them to think about its application, validity, or relation to other topics” (1972, p. 115).
Moreover, if physical space is left between the points listed on the handout,
students can record notes directly on the handout. Intervening space between points
listed on the handout can serve as a visible cue to students that they should be writing
something in that space, and if nothing appears there by the end of the class, then the
open space can serve as a “red flag” for troubleshooting missing information. This
spaced-outline recommendation is supported by research indicating that students will
take significantly more notes on wide-spaced versus narrow-spaced handouts, even if
they occasionally need to use additional notepaper (Hartley, 1976). Furthermore,
research reveals that students learn or retain information better when they acquire this
information in class along with an instructor handout and later review the notes and
handout later, instead of recording notes without a handout and later reviewing their
notes alone (Kiewra, 1985).
Detailed outlines are also useful for the instructor because they can help you
identify what information should be provided for students, as opposed to ideas
that students should acquire by actively listening to, reacting to, and writing out on their
own. This can allow use to reserve students’ classroom note-taking for concepts that
involve application, evaluation, and other forms of higher-level thinking.
Lastly, providing students with detailed lecture handouts can also serve to improve
your rapport with the class because it reduces the amount of time you spend writing
on the board, thus freeing up more time for you to (a) make better eye contact with
students (b) move around the room while speaking, and (c) move closer to the listening
audience.
* Deliver lecture information in an informal tone that approximates normal conversation.
In addition to using a conversational tone of voice, you can approximate normal
conversation by consciously directing your attention to different sections of the
classroom at different times during the class period, as if you are carrying on a series of
short conversations with different groups of students. (This is a more effective
communication strategy than looking at no one in particular or glancing rapidly and
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randomly around the room, as if often the speaker’s tendency when addressing a large
audience.)
In interviews conducted with college instructors who were identified as outstanding by
both faculty and students, a number of these instructors reported that they “lecture to a
class in the same way they would talk to a few students” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983,
p. 171).
* Allow students to ask questions or contribute ideas at anytime during a lecture, rather
than having them wait until you’ve completed you entire presentation.
As one instructional development specialist puts it, “This reinforces the idea that what
comes from the student is of more use to the class than anything I can say” (Shea, 1988,
p. 17). On the other hand: “Delaying the opportunity for questions fails to take advantage
of the temporary initial interest in a point. Asking ‘Are there any questions?’ at the end,
frequently means the same as ‘If there aren’t any questions we can all go’, and at some
times in the day it takes a strong-willed student to respond” (Bligh, 1972, p. 130).
* Explicitly indicate or verbally flag key information that you want students to record in
their notes (e.g., “You should make a note of this” or, “This is important, please write it
down”).
Consider color coding or otherwise highlighting the most important points in your
lecture notes so you don’t forget to pause and verbally underscore their importance when
delivering them. One college instructor identified as “outstanding” by both colleagues
and students reports using the following practice: “I consciously cue the students to the
most difficult ideas by saying such things as ‘Almost everyone has difficulty with this
one, so listen closely’” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983, p 27.).
Similarly, notify students about any information you are conveying that’s merely
supplemental or tangential (e.g., “This is ‘for-your-information’ only”). Such side-bar
information could be also be noted nonverbally by literally stepping to a side of the
classroom when peripheral information is being delivered. Taking time to help students
distinguish central versus supporting information should also reduce the frequency of
such notorious teacher-directed (and teacher-detested) questions as, “Should we write this
down?” and, “Is this going to be on the test?”
As instructors, we need to remain mindful of the fact that information we deliver orally
in class contains fewer organizational signposts and attention-focusing cues as does
information presented in the textbook. For example, textbooks contain introductions and
summaries; key sections of text material are usually highlighted by boldface heading and
subheadings; transitions between ideas are clearly signaled by paragraphs; and key words
are italicized in the body of the text and often defined in a glossary. These organizational
and communicative aids are not naturally present in spoken language, so we may need to
intentionally build them into our classroom presentations in order to improve their
organization and clarity.
* Increase the clarity of your communication of abstract or theoretical principles by
using the following strategies:
1) Decode or translate technical, academic vocabulary into colloquial language that is
familiar to students. As one instructor identified as outstanding by both faculty
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and students reports, “I have a tendency to say things twice, first formally, and
then colloquially” (Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983, p. 33).
2) Point out the etymological roots or linguistic derivations of technical terms and
academic jargon. The roots, prefixes or suffixes associated with these abstruse
terms are often contained in words that are already familiar and meaningful to
students (e.g., “liberal arts” derives from the same etymological root as
“liberate”—to become free or independent). This strategy is empirically supported
by research indicating that deep learning involves elaboration—a process in which
students incorporate to-be-learned material into their existing, already learned
schemas or cognitive structures (Weinstein & Meyer, 1991).
3) Provide concrete examples. Almost every instructor has had the experience of
students attempting to seek clarification of an academic concept by asking, “Can
you give us an example?” Illustrating the concept with more than one example
serves to: (a) demonstrates the breadth of the concept, thus increasing the students’
ability to transfer the concept to different situations and (b) increases the
likelihood that each student in class will be able to relate to at least one of the
different illustrations provided. Empirical evidence supporting this strategy is
provided by Bjork (1979), whose experimental research reveals that a concept
illustrated in different settings or contexts is better retained than if it is illustrated
in a single context.
* Be expressive when delivering lectures.
Lecture material presented with some gestures, vocal inflection, and eye contact with
the audience (and less eye contact with lecture notes or the blackboard) results in greater
audience retention of the material presented (Coats & Smidchens, 1966). In contrast, the
following non-expressive forms of verbal and nonverbal communication tend to be
negatively associated with perceived teaching effectiveness: (a) reading verbatim from
notes, (b) speaking without modulation, and (c) speaking without movement—for
example, continually standing behind a podium or sitting behind a desk while teaching
(Gorham, 1988; Erdle & Murray, 1986; Murray, 1983). These findings serve to remind us
that instructor presentations are “live presentations,” and we should deliver them in a
manner that suggests we’re alive and vibrant human beings.
* Periodically leave the podium or blackboard and move closer to the class.
This practice not only reduces your physical distance from students, but your socialstatus distance as well.
* Whenever possible, accompany your verbal presentations with visual illustrations.
Make every effort to reinforce your verbal information with visual stimuli (e.g.,
pictures presented on slides or overhead transparencies, video recordings, artifacts or real
objects). Pictures culled from the textbook, magazines, periodicals, newspapers, and the
Internet that may be used to illustrate lecture topics (e.g., a “map” of the brain to illustrate
the concept of multiple intelligences). One element of effective class preparation should
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be the identification and collection of an arsenal of poignant pictures or images that we
may use to reinforce, extend, and enrich our class presentations.
The effectiveness of visual media for promoting learning is well supported by research
reviews, which indicate that use of both still and motion pictures, coupled with
opportunities for learners to actively respond to them, can produce positive change in
students’ attitudes toward the subject matter and enhance their retention (memory) of
material presented in class (Schermer, 1988). In one case study involving classroom
observations of five faculty with records of high student-retention rates in their courses, it
was found that “almost all made some use of media. They usually came at students from
all directions: film clips, recordings, TV, overheads, [and] blackboards filled with
drawings” (Coad, 1995, p, 8).
Using visual illustration serves to convert the abstract into the concrete, giving
invisible ideas a tangible or physical presence. It also promotes dual coding of
information (verbally and visually) (Paivio, 1971), allowing the brain to record memory
traces in two different memory-storage systems (Hand, 1984; Springer & Deutsch, 1985).
At the End of a Lecture or Instructional Presentation:
* Conclude with a short review and summary of its highlights.
For example, if you began class with an itemized list of four major points to be
discussed, then your presentation could end with a summary of those four points. “The
technique of ‘taking stock’ which consists of reviewing what has been said up to that
time, is valuable for setting the next point in its context. It aids learning by showing how
the parts are related to the whole” (Bligh, 1972, p. 102
* Ask student volunteers to provide a quick summary of your message.
For example: “I’m done talking to and at you. Now I need some help in determining
whether I got my major points across. Can anyone recap the highlights of what I just
said?”)
* Give students a minute to review their notes and seek clarification or elaboration.
This note-review session could be done by students individually, in pairs, or in small
groups.
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APPENDIX B
STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING & REMEMBERING
STUDENTS’ NAMES
The importance of remembering a person’s name is poignantly articulated by Dale
Carnegie in, How to Win Friends and Influence People: “We should be aware of the
magic contained in a name and realize that this single item is wholly and completely
owned by the person with whom we are dealing and nobody else. Remember that a
person’s name is to that person the sweetest and most important sound in any language”
(1936, p. 83).
Learning the names of your students as quickly as possible is an effective way to
establish early rapport with your class, thereby laying the foundation for a classroom
environment in which students feel comfortable interacting with you and becoming
actively involved in your course. Listed below is a “top ten” list of strategies for the
effective and expeditious learning of student names.
1. Ask the office of Students Services or Student Affairs if you could review
identification photos of students in your class.
This could be done before the course begins, or whenever class rosters are first
available from the Registrar. Learning to associate or pair faces and names is expedited
if the names are learned prior to making associations with their respective faces. Also,
you can use student-identification photos to selectively review the names and faces of
particular students who you’re having difficulty remembering.
2. Make shorthand comments next to student names when calling roll on the first day
of class. For example, you can record memory-triggering comments referring to the
student’s distinctive physical characteristics or seating location.
Remaining after class for a few minutes to review the comments you made by each
student’s name is an effective memory-enhancement practice because it capitalizes on
the fact that you may still have visual memory for students’ facial features and for the
spatial (seating) position they occupied in class.
Your visual-spatial memory can be improved further if you request some
information from students on the first day (e.g., personal information sheet) and collect
their responses in the same order in which they are seating in class. Moreover, this
quick post-class review tends to combat the “forgetting curve” at a time when most
memory loss tends to occur—during the first 20-30 minutes after new information has
been learned.
3. Take a photograph of the class and have students sign their names by (or on) their
respective faces. Use this as a record to review or rehearse student names until you
have mastered them.
4. Have individual students introduce themselves, and have this class session videotaped
so you may review or rehearse students’ names and faces outside of class time.
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5. Have students submit to you a photocopy of the picture on their student identification
card or driver’s license and use these pictures to help you associate names with faces.
6. Use short icebreaker activities to help you learn student names, and to help students
learn the names of their classmates.
For example, “paired interviews” may be used in which two students interview each
other and then report the other’s autobiographical information to the whole class.
Another effective icebreaker is the “name game” strategy whereby students sit in a
circle or horseshoe arrangement and say their name preceded by an adjective that
begins with the first letter of their name and describes something about their
personality (e.g., “jittery Joe” or “gregarious Gertrude”). In this game, students may
say their names and accompany it by some nonverbal behavior that reflects their
personality. After each student’s self-introduction, ask the next student to recall the
name of the previous student before giving his or her own name.
6. Rehearse student names during periods of “dead time” (e.g., as students enter class
and take their seats, or as you circulate among students during small-group discussions
and exams).
During the first week or two of class, come to class early and remain after class while
students file out. This will provide you with opportunities to rehearse names, one by
one, as students enter and leave the classroom.
8. Frequently assign short reaction papers or minute papers at the end of class during the
first weeks of the term.
This practice will enable you to learn the names of students as they come up (one by
one) to turn in their papers at the end of class, as well at the start of the following
class session when students come up individually to the front of class to pick-up their
papers.
9. Schedule brief, out-of-class conferences with students during the first few weeks of
class so you can meet them one at a time.
This should enhance your ability to learn and remember your students’ names
because it allows for “distributed” practice, i.e., learning small amounts of information
in a series of short separate sessions. For instance, it is easier to associate 21 faces with
21 names if they are learned three per day on seven different days, rather than learning
all 21 of them in one day.
10. Continually refer to students by name after initially learning their names.
For example, always address them by name when you respond to them in class or
when you see them on campus. Better than just knowing students’ names is to show
students that you know them by continuing to use their names when you interact with
them. This practice serves not only to reinforce your memory of each student’s name,
it also repeatedly signals to students that you know them as individuals and are
responding to each of them as unique persons.
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Appendix C
Timing & Tailoring Your Teaching Strategies to the
“Rhythms” of the Academic Term
There may be a natural rhythm of critical stages or “teachable moments” during the
first term of college life that we can capitalize on to guide decisions about our sequence
of teaching tactics in the first-year seminar. If we can anticipate the rhythm or order of
adjustments experienced by new students during their first term of college life, it may be
possible to introduce pedagogical strategies for effectively addressing student needs at
times during the term when students will be most receptive or “motivationally ready” to
receive them. If we can create or at least approximate this synchrony, the educational
relevance and impact of the first-year seminar should be significantly strengthened.
To make this task of timely teaching more manageable, it might be useful to conceive
of the FYE course in terms of three very general stages or timeframes: (a) the beginning
stage (first week of the term), (b) the middle stage (circa midterm-exam week), and (c)
the final stage (last weeks of the term).
The Beginning Stage: First Weeks of the Term
During this formative stage, building class community and course enthusiasm should
be our highest priority. If we view the needs of first-term college students in terms of
Abraham Maslow’s classic need hierarchy model of human motivation, new students’
needs for social acceptance and self-esteem are the most basic needs, and they must be
met before higher-level needs for personal growth and self-actualization can be realized
(Maslow, 1954). Thus, providing opportunities for early interpersonal bonding are likely
to fulfill this primary human need and fulfill it early in the academic term—a time when
new college students are most concerned about “fitting in” and establishing social ties
(Brower, 1997).
The Middle Stage: Circa Midterm-Exam Week
At the midpoint of the term, students are likely to be experiencing their first tidal wave
of exams, assignment deadlines, and feedback about their academic performance. This
stage also marks the end of the “honeymoon” stage for new students, when the thrill or
novelty of simply being in college is replaced by their first encounter with academic
demands and performance-evaluation stressors typical of college life. In their book,
Teaching within the Rhythms of the Semester, Duffy and Jones (1995) refer to this period
as the “doldrums” and describe it as, “A time when the reality of papers, projects, and
exams seem to color every course. More students are absent from class, and those who
are in class frequently appear distracted or overwhelmed” (p. 162).The terms “midterm
slump” and “midterm crunch” have also been coined to capture the stresses associated
with this stage of the academic term. Research supports these anecdotal observations by
demonstrating that student satisfaction with college changes at different times during the
term and an appreciable “dip” in student satisfaction tends to occur at midterms
(Pennington, Zvonkovic, & Wilson, 1989). Thus, midterm may be the ideal time schedule
at least one class session as an open forum, during which students could be encouraged to
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openly express their feelings of dissatisfaction, discuss their sources or causes, and
suggest potential strategies for dealing with them.
Research also suggests that there is a higher risk for attrition among students who
experience academic problems during the first term of college, and among students who
receive feedback about their academic performance that is well below their academic
expectations (Guskey, 1988; Overwalle, 1989). Such negative feedback is most likely to
be initially experienced by new students at midterm of their first term, so addressing the
issue of how to respond constructively to midterm grades, and how to use the results as
feedback to improve future performance, might be a timely topics to introduce at the
midpoint of the first semester.
Taken together, these findings suggest that the middle stage of the term may be an
opportune time to explicitly introduce discussion of such topics as (a) student satisfaction
with the college experience, (b) stress management, (c) self-esteem and self-efficacy, (d)
how to deal constructively with performance feedback, and (e) how to use instructor
feedback to improve academic performance. This may also be the point in the term when
students will be most receptive to learning about key academic-support services on
campus.
The Final Stage: Last Weeks of the Term
Toward the end of their first academic term, most new students have settled in and are
transitioning to concerns about their future (Brower, 1997). Thus, at this time, students
may be most receptive to topics involving goal setting, long-range planning, and
decision-making (e.g., deciding on a major, exploring career options, and developing a
two- or four-year educational plan).
Also, the last week of the term may be the time to promote course synthesis and
closure. Like a well-written paper, a well-sequenced course needs to be anchored by a
strong introduction and a strong conclusion. Thus, the first-year seminar should end with
a true ending—some type of closure or culmination, which is something more than
introducing another course topic that happens to be covered at the end of the term. Rather
than using the last week of class to cover additional content, consider reserving this
segment of the course to help students “tie it altogether” and get the “big picture.”
One way to end the course in such a meaningful manner is to “back off” and take a
reflective, retrospective, and panoramic view of the course, with focus on synthesizing
what already has already been covered and to uncover its overarching themes. This endof-class practice serves to promote course integration by encouraging students “to pull
together” various strategies for success that they acquired in segmented or piecemeal
fashion throughout the term. This synthesis could be organized around a final studentconstructed checklist or inventory of essential things to do to “make the most” of the
college experience. Some first-year seminar instructors use a culminating, reflective
assignment that asks students to write a letter to next year’s entering class, advising these
new students about what to, and what not to do, in order to be successful during their first
term of college life. Students could have this assignment returned to them on the last day
of class, or submit during finals week in a stamped, self-addressed envelope, which you
can mail to them before the start of the next term. This would allow students to save it
and use it throughout the subsequent years in their college experience. Such a practice
enables the last week to function not only as a vehicle for promoting student reflection,
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retrospection and closure, but also as a proactive or forward-acting tool that prompts
students to use what they learned in the course in the future.
Another strategy for using the last week of class for both the retrospective and
proactive purposes is hold a celebratory event on the final day of class that would cofunction as “graduation”—marking completion of students’ momentous first term in
college, and as “commencement”—marking the beginning of their journey through
subsequent stages of the college experience.
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Appendix D
THE ONE-MINUTE PAPER:
An Efficient & Effective Strategy for Promoting Students’ Active Involvement and
Personal Reflection
Introduction
A “one-minute paper” has been defined as a very short, anonymous, in-class writing activity (taking oneminute or less to complete) in response to an instructor-posed question, whose purpose is to provide the
instructor with useful feedback. This strategy was originally developed by a Physics professor at the
University of California, Berkeley (cited in Davis, Wood, & Wilson, 1983), then popularized by Cross and
Angelo (1988) as one of a wide variety of quick “classroom assessment techniques” (CATs) designed to
provide instructors with anonymous feedback on what students are learning in class. For example, students
may write a one-minute paper in response to such questions as, “What was the most important concept you
learned in class today? Or, “What was the ‘muddiest’ or most confusing concept covered in today’s class?”
While the original purpose of the one-minute paper was to assess student learning at the end of a day’s
lesson, I have adapted the one-minute paper for other purposes. In particular, I use minute papers less as a
content-centered, instructional feedback strategy, and more as a student-centered reflection strategy
designed to help students actively discover their own meaning in relation to concepts covered in class, as
well as to build instructor-student rapport. Furthermore, I don’t have students write one-minute papers
anonymously and I do not employ them exclusively at the end of class; I give them at other times during
the class period as well.
The following sections of this appendix focus on describing (a) the types of questions I use as prompts
for minute papers, (b) the times during a class period when I ask for minute papers, and (c) the advantages
I’ve found to be associated with minute papers.
Questions Used as Minute-Paper Prompts
Over the years, I’ve used a wide range of questions as prompts for minute papers. Listed below are some
of my most frequently used minute-paper questions, organized in terms of what educational objective
they’re designed to serve.
Assessing Student Interests:
>Without looking at your notes, what was most memorable or stands out in your mind about today’s class?
>What was the most surprising and/or unexpected idea expressed in today’s discussion?
>Looking back at your notes, what would you say was the most stimulating idea discussed in today’s class?
>For you, what interesting questions remain unanswered about today’s topic?
Identifying Perceived Relevance of Course Concepts:
>In your opinion, what was the most useful idea discussed in today’s class?
>During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as things you could or should put into practice?
>What example or illustration cited in today’s class could you relate to the most?
Assess Student Attitudes/Opinions:
>Would you agree or disagree with this statement: . . .? (Why?)
>What was the most persuasive or convincing argument (or counterargument) that you heard expressed in
today’s discussion?
>Was there a position taken in today’s class that you strongly disagreed with, or found to be disturbing and
unsettling?
>What idea expressed in today’s class strongly affected or influenced your personal opinions, viewpoints,
or values?
Checking Student Comprehension:
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>What did you perceive to be the major purpose or objective of today’s class?
>What do you think was the most important point or central concept communicated during today’s
presentation?
Assessing Conceptual Connections (Cross-Concept Integration):
> What relationship did you see between today’s topic and other topics previously covered in this course?
> What was discussed in class today that seemed to connect with what you’re currently learning or have
previously learned in other course(s)?
Times During the Class Period when One-Minute Papers may be Solicited
There are three key times or junctures during the class period when I use one-minute papers: (a) at the
end of class, (b) at the start of class, and (c) in the middle of class.
Most frequently, I use minute papers at the end of a class to have students reflect back and think more
deeply about the most important concept discussed in class that day. This provides a meaningful sense of
“closure” to the class session and helps students reflect back to the major point or issue addressed in class,
thereby increasing the likelihood that they’ll “consolidate” it into long-term memory. A number of research
studies indicate that if students engage in a short review of material presented to them at the end of a class
period, they retain almost twice as much of its factual and conceptual content when tested for it at a later
point in time (e.g., two months later) than they do without any end-of-class reflection (Menges, 1988).
I also use minute papers at the start of class to activate (“turn on”) ideas and feelings students may
already have about the material to be covered in the upcoming class. For example, if the topic is “Stress,”
may ask them the following questions: (a) “When you hear the word ‘stress,’ what immediately comes to
your mind?” (b) “In 3-4 sentences, tell me what you know about ‘stress’?” or (c) Is there anything about the
topic of ‘stress’ that interests or intrigues you?” This type of anticipatory question serves to activate
students’ prior knowledge and beliefs about the topic to be covered prior to coverage of it; this prepares or
prompts the brain to make connections between the ideas it’s about to encounter and ideas that it has
already stored. As instructors, it also provides us with early feedback about previous knowledge,
preconceptions, or misconceptions students have about the topic, so I can attempt to build on their prior
knowledge and dismantle their pre-established misconceptions.
Periodically, I’ll ask for a one-minute paper during the class period, especially right after discussion of a
key point. This serves to trigger student reflection on that point before another point is introduced, and it
also serves to interrupt or “punctuate” the class presentation with an exercise that has students act on and
do something in response to the ideas they’re hearing. This mid-class interruption of teacher discourse with
an action-oriented task serves to keep students more alert and more mentally active during class, and
intercepts the natural attention “drift” that takes place after they’ve been receiving (hearing) information for
an extended period of time. Research indicates that student attention and comprehension are strengthened
by short pauses that encourage mental activity in the middle of class presentations—for example, by simply
asking that students to “tear out half a sheet of paper and write your reaction to the presentation thus far”
(Bligh, 2000).
Using one-minute papers doesn’t have to be a time-consuming or labor-intensive practice. They do not
have to be used in each and every class session to be effective. I’ve been able to reap the benefits associated
with one-minute papers by using them in about 50% of class meetings in the FYE course. Also, your
written remarks in response to students’ minute papers do not have to be extensive. On average, spend
about one minute responding to each student, and if ’re pressed for time, provide short responses to half
the class (e.g., students with last names from A-M) while providing more extensive responses to the other
half of students in class (last names from N-Z). On the next one-minute paper, I reverse the process and
provide more extensive responses to the half of students who received shorter responses on the previous
minute paper.
One-Dozen Purposes & Advantages of the “One-Minute Paper”
I’ve found the one-minute paper to be a very efficient and versatile instructional strategy, whose
multiple advantages traverse cognitive, affective, and social dimensions of the teaching-learning process.
The educational advantages of the one-minute paper are wide-ranging, some of which re anticipated in
advance and others re discovered serendipitously after implementing them. Described below are twelve
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major advantages of the one-minute paper, which you may be able to harvest by adopting this writing
strategy in your FYE course.
1. One-minute papers can provide a “conceptual bridge” between successive class periods.
At the beginning of class, a quick review of student responses to a one-minute paper answered at the end
of a previous class can provide an effective link or segue to the upcoming class session.
2. One-minute papers can improve the quality of class discussions by having students write briefly about a
concept or issue before they begin discussing it.
I’ve found that using one-minute papers in this manner benefits reflective students by allowing them the
opportunity to gather their thoughts prior to verbalizing them. It also benefits students who are
apprehensive about public speaking by giving them a script to fall back on (or build on) and use as a
support structure for communicating their ideas orally. This “anticipatory” type of minute paper can also be
used to activate students’ interest and perceived relevance of a topic you’re about to discuss (e.g., “Why do
you think this upcoming topic is worthy of our discussion?”)
3. One-minute papers are an effective way of involving all students in class simultaneously.
Asking all students to respond to the same minute-paper question ensures equal participation of each and
every class member, including any student who may be too bashful or fearful to participate orally. This
sends a message of high expectations to all students by expecting that each student is expected to
participate and has something important to contribute—no matter what their cultural background or level of
academic preparedness. To further ensure equal opportunity for participation, I sometimes ask the
following question after class discussions: “During our class discussion today, what thoughts came to your
mind that you did not get the opportunity to share verbally?” (At the start of the next class period, I may
share with the class an insightful response to this question that was written by a verbally reticent student—
to show that student that her ideas are worth hearing, and hopefully, reduce some of her reticence about
expressing them orally in the future.)
4. One-minute papers can be used to stimulate and facilitate discussion of diversity. Sometimes, while
reading students’ minute papers, I’ll look for thematic or distinguishing patterns in the responses of
students of different age, gender, ethnic background, or national citizenship. I’ll report these patterns to the
whole class at the start of the next session, or have students guess what patterns emerged, and then ask
them how they might interpret or explain the differences (and similarities) among the responses of various
groups.
5. One-minute papers can be used to promote class attendance and attentiveness.
I award points for one-minute papers that count toward students’ final course grade, and don’t allow
students to make up one-minute papers they missed if they’re absent from class. I’ll allow students one
“free” or “forgiven” papers per term, so if they are absent on a days when a one-minute papers was
assigned, they will not lose those points. I adopt this forgiving policy simply because students can get sick
(physically and mentally) and can have emergencies (personal and familial) that sometimes compete with
their scholastic commitments. Students who are in class for all papers are allowed to “bank” extra credit for
the one “free” minute paper that they re entitled to, but did not use.
I have found that students are more likely to come to class if they know they are going to gain points.
Even though I do not assign minute papers in every class period, they function as a type of “pop quiz” that
may be “pop up” in any class at any time. For readers familiar with Skinnerian principles of behavioral
reinforcement, periodically assigning minute papers in this manner serves to reward students on a “variable
schedule of reinforcement,” which is known to produce high response rates—in this case, high attendance
rates.
Furthermore, students are rewarded for actually doing something in class, rather than merely “showing
up.” Thus, students are rewarded for their participation in class, and since attendance is a precondition or
prerequisite for this participation, they are also indirectly rewarded for coming to class. In contrast, most
class-attendance policies do not positively reinforce student attendance; instead, they use negative
reinforcement by penalizing students for missing class—i.e., points are taken away (subtracted).
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6. One-minute papers can be used to promote student punctuality.
Sometimes, I ask for one-minute papers at the very start of class to encourage punctuality and
discourage tardiness. If a student is not in class at the time the question is asked, he cannot answer it and
gain the points associated with it. One-minute papers can also be used to increase the likelihood that
students will remain in class for the full duration of the class period. For instance, a colleague of mine has
begun asking for one-minute papers at the end of his biology labs, and this practice had an immediate
impact on reducing the number of students who decided to leave before his 3-hour laboratory period ended.
7. One-minute papers represent an efficient “writing-to-learn” strategy that can be used to promote
writing-across-the curriculum.
The one-minute paper can be viewed as a focused writing assignment that promotes greater reflection
and deeper thinking in the classroom than that which typically takes place when students routinely or
mindlessly record lecture notes. To help develop their writing skills, I insist that their one-minute papers be
written in complete sentences. Before assigning the first one-minute paper of the term class, I point out to
students that a major purpose of this exercise is to develop their writing skills because the quality of their
writing and quality of their thinking are interrelated. When I read their papers, I correct spelling and
grammatical errors, but do not subtract points for such mistakes. I will, however, subtract points if students
do not attempt to use complete sentences. I refrain from subtracting points on their first “offense;” instead, I
just point out that what they should do next time. A “repeat offender” is reminded one more time about not
using complete sentences, and is warned that full credit will not be awarded for a third offense. This
practice has effectively encouraged students to put effort into their in-class writing, without causing them to
feel unduly threatened or unfairly penalized in the process. Naturally, I also try to write positive comments
to students whose answers are particularly well written or whose writing has improved.
8. One-minute papers can function as an ongoing learning log or learning journal for the course.
I have students complete successive one-minute papers on the same piece(s) of paper, so by the end of
the term, they have a consecutive series of entries that approximates a learning log or journal. This also
allows students the opportunity to conveniently review their previous responses, along with my responses
to them, which can sometimes help students see connections across course concepts and help them prepare
for exams.
9. One-minute papers can be used to personally validate students. It is not uncommon to find an example or
experience cited in a student’s paper that poignantly illustrates a course concept. For example, if I ask for
an anticipatory one-minute paper before beginning a new topic, I’ll jot down insightful student responses
on a post-it sticker and quote the student when I get to that point in class. (Naturally, I select quotes that are
poignant and powerful, but not personal.). Students are often touched by this practice because it reinforces
their written contribution and validates them as individuals. I also think that this practice serves to model
thoughtful student answers for other students to view, perhaps encouraging them to write in a similar
fashion.
Periodically, when I receive an especially eloquent or insightful response from a student following
discussion of a course topic, I’ll include the student’s quote and name on an overhead transparency and
project it at the start of the next class period. This has turned out to be a particularly potent way to validate
students; I’ve noticed that they often seem to be visibly flattered when they’re publicly recognized and
when they see their name and words “published” and showcased on screen.
10. One-minute papers can help you identify your most important or significant course concepts by
encouraging you to step back and ask, “What is the most important idea or message that I want
students to think about before they leave class today?”
One-minute papers have encouraged me to think more carefully about how to prioritize course
content and to identify “core” concepts that I want students to reflect on deeply via one-minute papers.
Occasionally, when I ask students if they’ve ever experienced or observed an example of a key concept
presented in class, their minute-paper responses provided me with outstanding illustrations of course
concepts that I’ve since built into my class notes and used in my class presentations. When I use any of
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these student-generated examples in my presentation, I mention to the class that they were provided by
former students. Acknowledging that the example is a student example almost always seems to heighten
class interest, and I think demonstrates to them that I really listen to and value students’ ideas.
11. One-minute papers can help the instructor learn student names if (a) students are asked to come to the
front of the room individually to turn in their papers at the end of class sessions, and (b) students are
called individually by name to come up and retrieve their papers at the start of a class session.
I use one-minute papers more frequently at the beginning of the term, not only to get students in the
habit of regularly coming to class, but also to help me learn their names more rapidly. At the start of the
term, I intentionally assign one-minute papers at the very end of class and allow students to leave the
classroom as soon as they finish writing. Individual students invariably take different amount of time to
finish their papers, so they do not all exit the room at the same time. When students come up to hand-in
their one-minute paper, it gives me the opportunity to view student faces and names (written on the minute
paper) simultaneously, which expedites my learning of student names. Moreover, at the start of the
following class session, I call students by name to come up individually to pick up their one-minute papers
from me, which further strengthens my memory of their names and faces.
12. One-minute papers serve to build instructor-student rapport.
When students get their one-minute papers back, they see that I have responded personally to them. I
always address the student by name in my written response, and I sign my name at the end of my
comments, so that the communication approximates or simulates a personal letter. This enables me to build
instructor-student rapport, primarily because the one-minute paper is not an assignment asking for students
to give a correct answer or perform an academic task proficiently; instead, they are being asked to share
their personal perceptions and experiences. Such questions are non-threatening and the responses students
provide are conducive to my providing a personal reply. (In contrast to tests and term papers, where I must
make evaluative comments on the validity of their answer to justify the grade I’ve given.) I have found that
students will often respond honestly and poignantly to course concepts when their responses are not
evaluated for their factual accuracy or conceptual validity, but for their personal meaning and authenticity.
For instance, I was once discussing the concept of defense mechanisms, and I gave a one-minute paper at
the end of class that asked students if they had ever witnessed or experienced any of the defense
mechanisms discussed in class today. Many of their responses involved sharing personal experiences or the
experience of close family members. In my response to their papers, I express my appreciation for their
willingness to share this information with me, and in some cases, I shared a similar experience of my own.
Other times, I may write back with a short question about their shared experience, asking them to elaborate
a bit on it when they submit their next one-minute paper. (On several occasions over the years, students
have also used the one-minute paper to convey a “call for help,” which alerted me to connect them with a
relevant support service or support person.)
Such personal sharing through minute papers has allowed me to get “closer” to my students and
communicate with them on a more personal, humane basis. I believe that this practice has increased the
warmth and depth of the classroom learning experience for both parties.
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Appendix E
COOPERATIVE LEARNING:
TRANSFORMING GROUP WORK INTO TEAMWORK
Cooperative learning procedures are designed to strengthen the effectiveness of smallgroup work by means of seven key procedural features
1. Positive Interdependence Among Group Members (Collective Responsibility)
2. Individual Accountability (Personal Responsibility)
3. Intentional Group Formation
4. Intentional Team Building
5. Explicit Attention Paid to the Development of Students’ Social Skills
6. Instructor Assuming the Role as Facilitator and Consultant during the Group
Learning Process
7. Attention to Inter-Group Interaction and the Integration of Work Generated by
Separate Groups
What follows is a brief description of these key features accompanied by strategies for
implementing each of them.
1. Positive Interdependence Among Group Members (Collective Responsibility)
Positive interdependence is the quintessential feature of cooperative learning, and it is
the feature that transforms group work into teamwork. It is a feature of group work that
has been emphasized by scholars concerned primarily with promoting students’ academic
achievement and cognitive development (Slavin, 1983; Johnson & Johnson, 1987), as
well as scholars concerned with promoting students’ holistic development, such as Arthur
Chickering (1969), who argues that, in its highest form, the development of autonomy
does not simply involve the development of freedom to choose freely and act
independent of outside influences, but also involves the development of freedom that
recognizes one’s dependence and obligations to others.
The following are some single-step strategies that may be used to promote positive
interdependence among students working in groups.
* The group produces a common, jointly constructed product at the end of the
cooperative learning experience.
In contrast to usual small-group discussions that typically involve informal
discussion of some course-related issue, cooperative learning (CL) groups are expected to
generate a formal product, which represents a concrete manifestation of the group’s
collective effort; for example, the group may complete of a common worksheet, a list or
chart of specific ideas, or an overhead transparency, which can be displayed to other
groups. The objective of working toward a common, tangible outcome is essential for
keeping individual students “on task” and focused on the group goal—the creation of a
unified product that captures the team’s concerted effort.
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This feature of CL is well illustrated by the “Who Should Speak” exercise used in the
new-student seminar at Nassau Community College (New York). The class is divided
into groups of four students whose task is to select speakers for a campus lecture series.
Each group is given the biographies of ten speakers in class and their task is to review
their biographies and reach consensus on what five speakers would be most effective.
The list of speakers they decide upon (the common product) is then presented to the
whole class, accompanied by a rationale for the group’s collective decision (Conway &
Goldfarb, 1994).
* Each group member assumes a complementary, interdependent role with respect to the
group’s final product.
A sense of personal responsibility to the group is increased if each member has a
specific and indispensable role to play in achieving the group’s final goal. For instance,
individuals within the group may be assigned the following interdependent roles:
(1) Function roles whereby each member is responsible to perform a particular functional
duty for the group, such as: (a) group manager who assures that the group stays on task
and that all members actively contribute; (b) group recorder who keeps a written record
of the group’s ideas; (c) group spokesperson who is responsible for verbally reporting the
group’s ideas to the instructor or other groups; (d) group processor who monitors the
social interaction or interpersonal dynamics of the group process (e.g., whether
individuals listen actively and disagree constructively); (e) accuracy coach—who
troubleshoots errors, or (f) research runner—who accesses and retrieves information for the
learning group).
(2) Resource roles whereby each member is responsible for providing one key piece of
information to be incorporated into the group’s final product (e.g., information from one
chapter of the text or one unit of classroom instruction).
(3) Cognitive roles, such as contributing one component or dimension of higher-level
thinking to the group’s final product (e.g., application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation).
(4) Perspective roles whereby each member contributes one important perspective or
viewpoint (e.g., ethical, historical, economic, or global).
Role specialization assures that each individual has a well-defined and well-differentiated
responsibility to fulfill throughout the learning process. A further advantage of such role
specialization is that the quality of each member’s contribution to the final product can be
readily identified and assessed by the instructor, thus ensuring individual accountability
in the grading process.
* Teammates should rely on each other before they rely on the instructor.
This feature may be implemented by using the following strategies:
(1) Redirect student questions directed to back to the students’ team so that teammates
get in the habit of relying on each other, rather than their instructor. (For 4-member
teams, the phrase “3 before me” can serve as a rhythmical reminder of this expectation.)
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(2) Have teams seek help from other teams before seeking help from you.
(3) Have the last team who received help, provide help to the next team who seeks help.
(4) Have group members consistently use team responses (e.g., all teammates raise their
hands if they need assistance from the instructor; teammates provide a choral response to
instructor-posed questions; all teammates sign their names on completed group tasks).
* Providing of individual rewards or incentives to stimulate positive interdependence.
For example, positive interdependence and mutual support can be encouraged among
group members by (a) awarding extra (bonus) points that count toward individual
students’ course grade if each teammate’s performance exceeds a certain criterion (e.g.,
each member achieves a score of at least 90%), or (b) having students’ total grade for
group work equal the sum of their individual score plus their team score.
This has been the most hotly debated strategy for creating interdependence among CL
group members because it involves extrinsic rewards for cooperative behavior. Some
practitioners of CL oppose this strategy because they feel it’s unnecessary; they believe
that students become intrinsically motivated to cooperate and take responsibility for
helping others as long as they are given a well-defined task and the opportunity to work
together. Other critics feel that providing extrinsic rewards to students for helping others
tends to destroy their intrinsic motivation for behaving cooperatively and altruistically.
However, those who do use these incentives feel that, if group-performance rewards are
not large—for example, if they represent only “bonus” points, rather than a significant
portion of the course grade, then such incentives can significantly enhance group
interdependence and promote academic achievement (Slavin, 1989).
Since the issue of whether or not to use extrinsic rewards for promoting interdependent
behavior in CL groups is still unresolved, it is perhaps best to consider this strategy as an
optional rather than essential procedure for promoting group interdependence.
2. Ensuring Individual Accountability (Personal Responsibility)
Research at the pre-college level consistently supports the importance of personal
accountability and individual grading for realizing the positive outcomes of team learning
(Slavin, 1990). These findings are reinforced at the college level by experimental
research in social psychology that has documented the phenomenon of “social loafing,”
i.e., the effort exerted by an individual working in a group will be less than that exerted
by the same individual working alone—if the individual’s effort or output within the
group is anonymous, or not clearly identifiable (Williams, Harkins, & Latane, 1981).
The following are some procedures that may be used to increase individual accountability
in learning groups.
* Assign students’ individual grades when they engage in group work.
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Survey responses from high-achieving students often reveal that they dislike group
projects in which all group members receive the same, undifferentiated “group grade”
because their individual effort and contribution to the group’s final product often exceeds
the efforts and contributions of their less motivated teammates—the “social loafers”—all
of whom inequitably receive the same grade, despite the fact they exerted appreciably
less effort (Fiechtner & Davis, 1991). Although procedures for ensuring interdependence
and cooperation among group members are essential elements of CL, students not receive
the same “group grade” (as is often the case with group projects).
* Prior to discussing their ideas in small groups, give students some private reflection
time to gather their thoughts individually and to record their individual ideas in writing.
These written products can serve as evidence that each student has given thought to
the group task, and they may be collected by the instructor and counted toward the
student’s individual grade (e.g., as points for attendance and participation).
* Have individual members keep an ongoing record of the specific contributions they
make to their team (e.g., recording them in a journal or learning log), and inform students
that you will check this record and count it as part of their course grade.
* Use random response sampling procedures whereby any one person in the group might
be randomly selected to report the team’s response, or provide a summary of their
group’s ideas.
* Have teams turn in their work product with individuals initialing their particular
contribution(s) to it.
* Have students engage in self-evaluation—whereby each member assesses the quality of
his individual effort or contribution to the group
* Have students engage in peer evaluation— whereby each member assesses the effort or
contribution of her teammates (peer evaluation).
3. Intentional Group Formation
Learning teams can be formed on a random basis (e.g., students count off numbers
consecutively from 1to 4 and form groups with other students who have the same
number); or they be formed on an intentional basis, whereby teammates are selected
according to some predetermined criteria that are likely to maximize or magnify the
educational impact of small-group learning. In contrast to traditional approaches to smallgroup formation, in which students often select their own group members or groups are
randomly formed by the instructor, CL begins with the intentional selection of group
members on the basis of certain criteria that are expected to magnify the positive effects
of small-group learning. For instance, groups may be deliberately formed to maximize
diversity of perspectives by grouping students of different: (a) gender, (b) racial, ethnic,
or cultural background, (c) chronological age (e.g., traditional age and re-entry students),
(d) level of prior academic achievement (e.g., based on performance in high school or on
early course exams), (e) learning style (e.g., based on learning-style inventories
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completed in class), (f) personality profile (e.g., based on the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator), or some combination of any of the foregoing selection criteria.
The particular criterion you use to form groups, and whether you decide to place
students in heterogeneous or homogeneous groups with respect to this criterion, will vary
depending on your educational objective. However, a thematic procedural principle of
CL is that group formation should not be left to chance; instead, careful forethought
should be given to the decision about the composition of learning group in order to create
an optimal social environment for learning.
4. Intentional Team Building
CL incorporates specific procedures designed to create a feeling of group identity
among students, such the following practices.
* Before students launch into the group-learning task, allow them to take some time to
engage in team-building activities that can foster social cohesiveness. For example, you
can (a) have students participate in icebreaker (warm-up) activities when they first form
their group (e.g., name-learning, personal information-sharing), and (b) encourage group
members to engage in practices that promote team identity (e.g., team photo, team name,
team symbol, team mascot, team cheer, team handshake).
The educational objective of these team-building activities is to create a socialemotional climate conducive to the development of an esprit de corps and sense of
intimacy among group members, enabling them to feel comfortable in future group
activities that may require them to express their personal viewpoints, disagree with each
other, and reach consensus in an open (non-defensive) fashion. Since small-group
learning involves both cognitive and social risk-taking, students are more likely to take
such risks in an interpersonal climate characterized by group cohesiveness, mutual trust,
and emotional security.
* Have students consistently use team language in the classroom (“We” and “our” vs. “I”
“me” or “mine”).
* Allow for continuity of group interaction among teammates across different class
periods.
In contrast to traditional small-group discussions or “buzz groups,” which usually
bring students together sporadically for a relatively short period of time (e.g., a single
class period or portion thereof), CL groups may meet regularly over an extended period
of time (e.g., every class period for five weeks or more). This allows for continuity of
interaction among group members and opportunity for social cohesion and group bonding
(emotional ties) to develop among group members. In this fashion, CL groups are given
the time needed to evolve into a tightly knit social network or social-support group.
5. Explicit Attention Paid to the Development of Students’ Social Skills
In contrast to the exclusively academic or strictly cognitive objectives of most smallgroup work in higher education, a major objective of CL is the intentional development
of students’ interpersonal communication and human relations skills. Rather than simply
placing students in small groups and hoping they will act like a team, CL involves
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intentional preparation of students for teamwork. To achieve this objective, you can use
the following procedures.
* Provide students with explicit instruction on effective skills for communicating and
relating to others prior to, and in preparation for, their involvement in small-group
learning work. This instruction may include explicit strategies for:
(a) encouraging and supporting other group members,
(b) listening actively,
(c) learning to disagree constructively,
(d) resolving conflict, and
(e) building consensus.
Thus, students receive some preparation and guidance for handling the social and
emotional demands of small-group work, rather than being left entirely to their own
devices. (Information included in Chapter 11 of the text may be used to help prepare
students for group work.)
Explicit attention to the social and emotional foundations of effective small-group
interaction may serve to increase students’ social integration into the college
community—a variable that is strongly correlated with student retention (Pascarella &
Terenzini, 2005).
* Intentionally recognize and publicly reinforce effective interpersonal behavior
displayed by students within groups, so that all students are exposed to exemplary
behavior and models that may be emulated in their group work.
During CL, you should not only be alert not only to the cognitive aspects of group
work, but to the social aspects as well. Be ready to identify and praise specific instances
of effective interpersonal communication exhibited by students in their learning groups.
* Encourage students to reflect on, and to evaluate the social-interaction process.
Students’ social awareness is encouraged by having them assess their group
interaction with respect to principles of effective interpersonal communication and
human relations. In addition, you can ask students to reflect on how their social dynamics
of their group interaction affected their individual learning. For example, students may be
asked how effectively they were able to (a) verbalize their thoughts to other group
members, (b) question the reasoning of other group members, and (c) express personal
disagreement with their teammates.
The importance of reflecting on group-learning experiences for first-year students is
underscored by Erickson & Strommer in Teaching College Freshmen:
The distinction between learning what to think and learning how to think is a subtle
one for freshmen; it takes some time to get it. Until they do, reviewing what students
gain by participating in these [collaborative] exercises at least reminds them that
have a clear purpose in mind to aid and support their learning (1991, pp. 120-121).
6. Assuming the Role as Facilitator and Consultant during the Group Learning
Process
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In contrast to most small-group discussions and group projects, where students are left
on their own to verbalize their ideas and conduct their work, the instructor has role to
play in CL as a group-learning facilitator and consultant. Though you shouldn’t “sit in”
on individual groups (such intrusiveness might disrupt the student-centered advantage of
group learning), you should circulate actively among the groups to:
(a) offer encouragement,
(b) reinforce positive instances of cooperative behavior,
(c) clarify task expectations,
(d) catalyze dialogue, or
(e) issue timely questions designed to promote cognitive elaboration and higher-level
thinking.
As Erickson and Strommer suggest, “Students often need step-by-step prompts, hints, and
feedback when they first encounter problems or situations that ask them to think. In fact,
we recommend that initial practice exercises be done in small groups in class where
instructors are available for such guidance” (1991, p. 76).
Although care should be taken not to be overly directive or authoritative, you can still
can play the role of a learned peer or collegial coach while student work in groups,
interacting with them in a much more personal, informal, and dialogic fashion than would
be possible in the traditional lecture or whole-class discussion format. Interacting with
students in this fashion not only benefits the learner, it also benefits the instructor by
enabling you to know your students better (e.g., their names, their ways of thinking, and
their styles of communicating or relating to others).
7. Promoting Inter-Group Interaction and Integration of Work Generated by
Separate Groups
The issue of fostering communication between different learning groups and
effectively synthesizing their separate work products is an important one because of it has
the potential to (a) bring a sense of closure to the group-learning experience (Millis,
1998), (b) promote potentially powerful synergy across the work generated by separate
learning teams and (c) create a feeling of class community or solidarity whereby students
perceive the class as an interrelated and unified “group of groups.” Though there may be
many occasions where small-group work is an end in itself and cross-group interaction is
unnecessary, at least periodic attempts should be made to transform the separate
experience of small, isolated subgroups into a larger, unified class community. The
following practices are offered as strategies for making this transformation.
* After completing small-group work, one student from each learning group plays the
role of “plenary reporter” whose job is to share the group’s main ideas with the entire
class. The instructor can use the blackboard to record the main ideas reported from each
group, validating their contributions, and identifying important themes or variations that
emerge across groups.
* Following completion of the small-group task, one “roving reporter” from each team
can visit other groups to share her team’s ideas. Remaining members of her team stay
together and play the role of “listener-synthesizer” by actively listening to the ideas
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presented by successive roving reporters from other groups, and attempting to integrate
these ideas with those generated by their own group.
* Following completion of the small-group task, each learning team rotates clockwise
and merges with another small group to share and synthesize their separate work. This
share-and-synthesize process continues until each group has had a paired interaction with
all other learning groups in class. The last step in the process is for each team to generate
a final product, which reflects an integration of their own work with the best ideas
gleaned from their successive interactions with other groups.
These different types of between-group interaction strategies have the following
objectives and advantages: (a) they provide meaningful synthesis and closure to the
group-learning experience, (b) they promote class synergy by harnessing and pooling the
ideas generated by separate learning groups, and (c) they allow students to meet and
collaborate with other classmates beyond those who comprise their small group. In this
fashion, team building that occurs in small groups is augmented by class building,
allowing a class of students that was initially “deconstructed” into separate and isolated
subgroups to be “reconstructed” into a single, interdependent learning community.
The foregoing seven features of CL, taken together, distinguish this instructional
method from traditional forms of small-group work and collaborative learning in higher
education (Cuseo, 1992). Large-scale, meta-analyses of hundreds of studies at the
precollege level provide overwhelming empirical support for the cognitive, social, and
affective benefits of small-group work—when its implementation is consistent with the
most of the seven key features of CL (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1990).
Research on CL in higher education is much less extensive, but data collected thus far
are very consistent with those gathered in precollegiate settings (Cooper & Mueck, 1990;
Cuseo, 1996; Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1992). For example, in one meta-analysis of
the effect of CL on college students’ academic performance in science, math, engineering
and technology conducted by the National Institute for Science Education, it was found
that CL had a “robust” positive effect on such educational outcomes as (a) academic
achievement, (b) student retention, and (c) attitude (liking) of the subject matter (Cooper,
1997).
Thus, it is reasonable to expect that careful application of the seven procedural features
of CL should ensure that its potential positive outcomes are realized in the first-year
seminar as well. By engaging students in carefully crafted small-group learning
experiences in the first-year seminar, we can provide new college students with a
welcome pedagogical alternative to other first-year introductory or survey courses that
rely almost exclusively on the traditional, teacher-centered, lecture method of instruction.
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Appendix F
A TAXONOMY OF SPECIFIC
COOPERATIVE-LEARNING STRUCTURES
Purposes of the Taxonomy
There is a wealth of structures or formats for enabling student to work cooperatively
in small groups. This section of the Manual attempts to classify this variety of formats
into a meaningful taxonomy. The taxonomy itself is included as a separate unit of this
Manual so that it can serve as a stand-alone “procedural index file” of team learning
strategies comprised of specific, step-by-step practices that you can access easily and
implement expeditiously.
The practices cited in the proposed taxonomy are referred to as structures—a term
devised by Spencer Kagan, a veteran cooperative-learning researcher and practitioner.
The term stems from his observation that teachers find numerous ways to repeatedly use
these structured procedures in different curricular areas throughout the academic year—
unlike instructional “activities” that are often content-specific and get “used up” after one
or two applications (Kagan, 1992). Millis and Cottell (1998) define these “structures” as
“essentially content-free procedures that can be used in a number of settings for a variety
of purposes” (p. 40).
Each structure described in the taxonomy was deliberately divorced of any specialized
content to which it may have been originally tied. This “evisceration” was done
deliberately to abstract and expose the structure’s skeleton of essential procedural steps,
making them more clearly identifiable and potentially transportable for use in different
contexts or settings.
Organization of the Taxonomy
The proposed taxonomy embraces approximately 90 structures that are organized into
seven broad categories and 12 subcategories, as outlined below.
1. PAIRING STRUCTURES: DYADIC (TWO-MEMBER) TEAMS
1.1 Lecture-Processing Structures
1.2 Discussion Structures
1.3 Reading and Writing Structures
1.4 Peer Tutoring Structures
2. SMALL-GROUP STRUCTURES: 3-4 MEMBER TEAMS
2.1 Brainstorming Structures
2.2 Within-Team Pairing Structures
2.3 Writing Structures
2.4 Information-Processing & Studying Structures
3. STRUCTURES EXPLICITLY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE POSITIVE
INTERDEPENDENCE
3.1 Team-Building (Icebreaker) Structures
3.2 Listening Structures
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3.3 Resource-Sharing & Information-Integration Structures
3.4 Studying & Test-Taking Structures
4. STRUCTURES EXPLICITLY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE INDIVIDUAL
ACCOUNTABILITY
5. STRUCTURES DESIGNED TO FACILITATE TEAM FORMATION
6. STRUCTURES DESIGNED FOR TEAM RESEARCH & TEAM PROJECTS TO BE
COMPLETED OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM
7. STRUCTURES DESIGNED TO PROMOTE BETEN-TEAM INTERACTION AND
WHOLE-CLASS SYNERGY
Each category in the taxonomy is introduced with a short rationale highlighting its
educational significance. The categories comprising the taxonomy are not mutually
exclusive, so a structure listed in one category may contain elements that might also
qualify it for inclusion in another category.
Why Are So Many Structures Included in the Taxonomy?
The sizable number of structures included in the taxonomy is not intended to
overwhelm you with a dizzying and paralyzing array of procedural decisions. Instead, the
large number is intended to provide you with multiple choices and a wide margin of
freedom to “pick and choose” those procedural options that most closely match your
students’ needs, your course objectives, and your educational philosophy. My working
assumption was that the larger the total number of specific, practical procedures
identified and classified, the greater the probability that you would make at least one
“hit”—i.e., find at least one strategy that might be instantly adopted or quickly adapted
for use in your class.
A second motive for loading the taxonomy with a large supply of strategies was to
allow you the opportunity to use collaborative learning exercises regularly throughout the
academic term. If you are equipped with a fully stocked arsenal of potential procedural
weapons to choose from, you’re better equipped to provide your students’ with multiple
opportunities for group work that do not quickly become repetitive, thereby allowing
your students to experience a rich variety of team-learning formats. Just as lectures can
be overused to the point of becoming a redundant and numbing experience for students,
so too can repeated exposure to group work—especially if there is little variation in the
nature or form of small-group work throughout the academic term. If you intend to make
frequent use of collaborative and cooperative learning in the first-year seminar, the
breadth of structures contained in the taxonomy should provide you with a rich reservoir
of procedures from which you may draw.
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A Taxonomy of Cooperative Learning Structures
1. PAIRING STRUCTURES: DYADIC (TWO-MEMBER) TEAMS
Pairing structures are both an effective and efficient means for promoting student
collaboration. As a general rule, the amount of involvement and interaction that occurs in
a group is inversely related to the group’s size. Since a group of two represents the
smallest possible group size, dyads are most likely to generate the largest amount of faceto-face interaction and student involvement. In addition to being effective, pairing
structures are also efficient. They have the practical advantage of being amenable to
quick and easy formation (e.g., forming pairs by having students turn to the person on the
right/left or front/back) without requiring movement of furniture (desks) or movement of
bodies (students).
The large and varied number of structures listed within this category serves as
testimony to the effectiveness, efficiency, and popularity of pairing as a format for
promoting collaborative learning.
1.1 Lecture-Processing Structures
Active Knowledge Sharing
Before a lecture, students are provided with a list of questions relating to the subject
matter to be covered (e.g., words to define, people to identify, pretest of facts or
concepts). Students then pair up to answer the questions as best as they can, after which
they mill around the room to find other pairs who may have answers to questions they’re
unable to answer (Silberman, 1996). This procedure also serves the important purpose of
pre-assessing and activating students’ prior knowledge (and latent misconceptions)
before the learning process begins.
Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs
At a designated point during a lecture, students pair up and ask each other questions
such as: “What have you got in your notes thus far?” or, “What are the most important
points that have been presented?” Each member of the pair must take something from the
other’s notes to include in his own (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1995).
Scripted Cooperation
At a key point during the lecture, students form pairs and one member assumes the role
of summarizer—who attempts to summarize the information the instructor has presented
without looking at his notes, while the other assumes the role of listener—who provides
feedback about its accuracy and completeness. Then partners elaborate on the
information by personalizing it, relating it to previously learned information, or creating
mnemonic devices to remember it (O’Donnell, 1994).
This structure and the preceding one (“Cooperative Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to
intercept long periods of information processing during lectures, and the attention loss
that normally accompanies this passive process, by engaging students in tasks that
requires them to actively process the information they have received.
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Closure Note-Taking Pairs
At the conclusion of a lecture, one partner summarizes his notes for the other—who, in
turn, corrects any mistakes and adds any missing information. Each member must take
something from her partner’s notes and include it in her own (Johnson, Johnson, &
Smith, 1991).
Pair Review
At the end of a lecture, students are presented with a list of topics that have been
covered and form pairs whose task is to recall as many things as they can remember
about each topic (Silberman, 1996).
This structure and the preceding one (“Closure Note-Taking Pairs”) serve to summarize
and bring closure to the learning process, ensuring that students reflect on and consolidate
the information they’ve received.
1.2 Discussion Structures
Pairs Compare
Students pair-up to generate ideas, then each pair joins another pair to compare the
ideas they have in common and the ideas that are unique to each pair (Kagan, 1992).
Think-Pair-Share
Students are given a specified period of time in class to think individually about some
concept or issue that has been presented to them by the instructor, then each student
pairs-up with a neighboring student to discuss their respective thoughts, listening
carefully to their partner’s ideas so that they can jointly construct a composite response
that builds on their individual thoughts. Students are then asked to share their pair’s
thoughts with the whole class (Lyman, in Kagan, 1992).
Think-Pair-Square
Students first think alone about a question or issue, then pair-up with a nearby student
to discuss their thoughts, and then the two pairs join together to form a “square” (4member team) to discuss or integrate their ideas (Kagan, 1992).
1.3 Reading & Writing Structures
Cooperative Dyads
Working in pairs, each partner reads a passage. One member first assumes the role of
recaller—who attempts to summarize the essential elements of the reading, while the
other member plays the role of listener/facilitator—who corrects any errors in the
recaller’s summary and offers additional strategies for organizing and retaining the justread material. The partners then read a second passage and reverse roles, with the
previous recaller now becoming the listener/facilitator and vice versa (Dansereau &
Associates, 1979).
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Paired Annotations
Individually, students read an article or chapter and prepare a reflective commentary
on it—using a double-column format—in which they list on the left side the major points
gleaned from the reading and, on the right side, their reactions to these points, (e.g., their
questions, interpretations, and perceived connections with other readings or lecture
material). Students then form pairs and the partners read one another’s reflective
commentaries, noting similarities and differences, after which they construct a composite
annotation that integrates their thoughts and summarizes the reading (Millis & Cottell,
1998).
Reciprocal Letter Writing (a.k.a., Responsive Written Exchanges)
Students form pairs and the two members, working independently and simultaneously,
write a personal letter to their partner based on sentence stems provided by the
instructor. All writing assignment sheets begin with a salutation, “Dear . . . .” and end
with the P.S., “One personal thing about me you may not know is . . .” The partners
exchange letters, read them independently, and then write a response to their partner’s
letter that is focused on the issue introduced by the sentence stem. In addition,
respondents may also elect to write a P.S. in response to the P.S. (personal comment)
made by the letter sender. Students can keep these letters, or more commonly, the letters
are collected by the instructor who reads them informally, then returns them so students
can include them in an ongoing class journal (Fulwiller, in Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Dyadic Essay Confrontation (DEC)
In response to an assigned reading, students: (a) construct an integrative essay
question that compares the reading with previously covered material, and (b) write a
model answer to this question.
Then, during class time, students (a) exchange essays questions with another student
and write a spontaneous essay in response to the question they receive, then (b) compare
their spontaneous answer with the model answer, noting similarities and differences
(Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993).
Pair Paper Swap
Pairs of students exchange papers and evaluate them, using a checklist of criteria
provided by the instructor. If some elements of the paper do not effectively meet the
evaluative criteria, partners assist each other in making necessary revisions (Medina,
1997).
1.4 Peer Tutoring Structures
Peer Coaching
Working in pairs, one member attempts to solve a problem while the other member
serves as coach—observing and providing feedback on each step involved in the
problem-solving process (Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Drill-Review Pairs
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Partners first adopt either the role of: (a) explainer—who provides a step-by-step
explanation while solving a problem, or (b) checker—who confirms that the explanation
is correct and provides coaching if needed. The partners then alternate roles on the next
problem. After two problems are completed, the pair checks their solutions with another
pair. If the two sets of pairs do not agree, they attempt to reach consensus about the
correct answer; if they agree, each pair moves on to the next problem (Johnson, Johnson,
& Smith, 1991).
Havru “Companionship” Method
An Israeli approach to peer tutoring (“haver” means “friend” in Hebrew) in which
students are pre-tested for performance in a specific skill or content area and the
instructor forms dyads comprised of students who differ in their level of achievement or
performance on the pre-test. Students are then presented with a learning task (or a series
of learning tasks) relating to that content or skill, and they work together on the learning
task until each one of them understands and masters it. Each partner is then tested
individually on a post-test.
Grades are determined on the basis of three components: (a) the individual’s score on
the post-test, (b) bonus points achieved, based on the gain score between pre- and posttest—with maximum bonus points awarded if there are gains by both students, fewer
bonus points awarded if either the tutee or tutor achieve a gain, and no bonus points
awarded if neither the tutee nor tutor achieves a gain, and (c) the pair’s score on a jointlyproduced, cooperative product—with both students receiving the same score (HertzLazarowitz, 1990).
2. SMALL-GROUP STRUCTURES: 3-4 MEMBER TEAMS
While pairing structures serve to maximize face-to-face interaction, larger groups
provide more diversity of student perspectives and backgrounds. If exposure to multiple
viewpoints and appreciation of diversity are among the intended objectives for the
learning task, groups of at least three members are needed.
Although there is still debate about what should be the maximum and optimal size of a
“small group,” there appears to be an emerging consensus among leaders in the field of
cooperative and collaborative learning that group size should not exceed 3-4 members.
One e-mail survey of experienced cooperative learning practitioners, researchers, and
consultants revealed that the majority of respondents favored group sizes ranging
between 2-4 members (Cooper, 1996). However, if pairs are not a viable option for the
learning task or its objectives, most respondents preferred a group size of four. The
survey respondents offered different reasons for their preference of 4-member teams,
which included the following: (a) Four-member teams are large enough to provide
sufficient diversity, yet small enough to minimize feelings of anonymity. (b) Four is an
even number that avoids the “odd man out” scenario that can arise in a group of three. For
example, evenly balanced, heterogeneous 4-member teams can be formed with respect to
gender (2 males, 2 females), minority-majority status (2 underrepresented students, 2
majority students), or ability level (2 high, 2 low). (c) Groups of four can be periodically
subdivided so that students may work in pairs within the team; in fact, six different
pairing combinations are possible within a single 4-member team. (d) Four-member
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teams can be conveniently constructed after students have first gained collaborative
experience working in pairs, and after the instructor has observed these pairings to
determine what combination of pairs might result in the best 4-member teams.
The effectiveness and popularity of 4-member teams is reflected by the fact that, among
those small-group structures cited in this category (below) that explicitly designate group
size, the size consistently designated is four.
2.1 Brainstorming Structures
Unstructured Sorts
This is a team brainstorming structure in which teammates, working individually,
generate ideas on separate slips of paper or index cards. Then all their ideas are laid out
on a table so that they can be read by all teammates. Lastly, teammates work together to
sort the separately brainstormed ideas into conceptually similar categories (Kagan,
1992).
Affinity Diagram
Similar to the above structure, team members first think individually about possible
solutions to a problem and record their ideas on separate Post-It notes. After members
run out of ideas, all their individual solutions are posted across a blank wall or on a large
piece of paper. Teammates then work collectively, attempting to group all their
individually-generated ideas into team-generated categories and subcategories (Ray,
1994).
2.2 Within-Team Pairing Structures
Three-Step Interview:
Four-member teams subdivide into pairs and one member interviews the other (step 1),
then they reverse roles—whereby the previous interviewer becomes the interviewee and
vice versa (step 2); finally, each member shares the information obtained from her
partner with all team members (step 3) (Kagan, 1992).
A key advantage of this structure is that it encourages and reinforces the development
of listening skills because students are held accountable for reporting their partner’s
ideas, not their own ideas. This structure can also function as an icebreaker or teambuilding experience prior to engaging in cooperative learning tasks by having students
share autobiographical information with their partner, who then shares it with the 4member team.
Within-Team Jigsaw
Pairs within a four-member team join together to work on two separate parts or pieces
of a larger task; then the pairs reunite and combine their separate pieces to complete the
total task (Kagan, 1992).
Pairs Think – Turn Teach
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Teams of four subdivide into two sets of pairs, and each pair learns one-half of an
instructional unit or textbook chapter. Then each pair turn-teaches its half of the unit to
the other pair (Kagan, 1992).
Pairs Check
Four-member teams break into two sets of pairs and one member from each pair works
on the same problem while the partner observes and coaches (if the latter is necessary).
Partners check their final answers for agreement, and if they do not agree, they may
check or consult with the other pair on their team. If the 4-member team cannot come to
full agreement on the correct answer, all team members raise their hands and this serves
as a team signal to the instructor that the group needs assistance (Kagan, 1992).
Team-Pair-Solo
Students first solve a problem in a team of four. Then the team splits into pairs and
each pair works on a similar problem, with the option of consulting with the other pair if
they run into difficulty. Finally, students work solo (individually) to solve a similar
problem on their own.
This structure provides what may be called a “social scaffold” for student learning
because social support and assistance is initially provided, then is gradually cut back until
the learner is able to master the task independently.
Constructive Controversy (a.k.a., “Structured Controversy”)
Pairs form within 4-member teams and are given the assignment of researching or
reviewing opposite sides of a controversial issue. After the pairs complete their work,
each pair presents the evidence or arguments it has gathered for its assigned side of the
issue. (The purpose of this sharing is to marshal all the information available on behalf of
the position—not to “defeat” the opposing position.) After each pair has presented its
information on the side of the issue it was assigned, the pairs then switch sides and
research and develop further arguments for the position opposite to the one they initially
endorsed. Finally, all four teammates generate a synthesis of the best arguments for both
points of view (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1993).
This procedure assures that students hear and carefully consider arguments on both
sides of a controversial issue.
Partners: Four-member teams subdivide into pairs, with each pair moving to a different
side of the room to work on a different topic. All pairs on the same side of the room work
on the same topic and may consult with other pairs on that side of the room. After a
designated period of time, pairs return to their 4-member team and share what they
learned with the other two members of their team (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Term Teaming
Four-member teams are given a list of four terms to research, define, and self-teach.
Members of each team are assigned a number—1, 2, 3, or 4, and all students with the
same number are assigned the same term. Students research their individual terms (e.g.,
by using their textbook), then the “number-one” students pair up with the “number-two”
students and teach them what they have learned. The “number-three” students do the
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same for the “number-four” students. Then roles are reversed, so that students with
numbers two and four do the teaching. Lastly, partners rotate (e.g., 1 & 3, 2 & 4) and
continue to rotate until all four terms have been taught to all four team members (Dentler,
1994).
2.3 Writing Structures
Team Statement
All team members first construct individual position statements about a topic or issue;
then teammates join together and attempt to integrate their separate sentences into one
unified statement (paragraph), which attempts to capture the essence of the team’s
collective thought (Kagan, 1992).
Team Journal
In this structure, the audience for the journal is a peer group of students who comprise
the writer’s learning team. (In contrast to the traditional journal, for which the target
audience is either the student herself or the course instructor.) First, student teams create
a name for their journal, record their name on the outside cover of a team notebook, and
list the names of all team members on the inside cover. The journal is stored in a place
where all teammates can readily access it (e.g., library reserve). Then once per week,
team members record their own entries to the journal and respond to the entries of their
teammates. The instructor does not respond to or grade student entries, but simply spot
checks the journals at the end of each week to ensure individual accountability (Renfro,
in McQuade et al., 1991).
Specialized Term-Paper Evaluation
Working in teams of four, all group members bring four copies of a term paper that
they complete individually, plus four copies of a peer-evaluation checklist of criteria that
have been provided to them by the instructor. All group members receive a copy of their
teammates’ term papers, then using the instructor-provided checklist of criteria, each
member assumes the role of an evaluation specialist who focuses on one criterion or
related set of criteria for evaluating their teammates’ papers (e.g., mechanics,
organization, clarity of writing style, or supporting evidence). Evaluation specialists take
turns providing feedback sequentially to their teammates on how well their papers meet
each specialized set of criteria and provide suggestions for improvement (Medina, 1997).
Simultaneous Group Term-Paper Evaluation
A variation of the above structure in which all team members focus simultaneously on
the same set of criteria, and continue this process until all separate sets of criteria have
been discussed and applied to the evaluation of the teammates’ term papers (Medina,
1997).
Assembly-Line Term Paper Evaluation
A variation of the above structure in which separate teams specialize in evaluating
their classmates’ term papers with respect to one set or cluster of criteria, then papers are
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passed successively from one team to the next—in “assembly line” fashion—until all
papers have been evaluated with respect to all sets of criteria on the checklist (Medina,
1997).
2.4 Information-Processing & Studying Structures
Notes Rotation & Consolidation
First, working individually, students review and neatly recopy their lecture notes, then
join four-member teams. Each student retains his original set of notes and passes along
the recopied set to a teammate on the left while receiving a recopied set of notes from a
teammate on the right. The receiving student quickly writes down any information from
the sender’s notes that are not already recorded in his own notes. This note-passing
process is repeated for three more rotations, by which time each team member has
reviewed the notes of all three of his teammates and received back his own set of
recopied notes. The last step in the process if for each student to incorporate all the new
information acquired from the notes of teammates that was missing from his own original
set of notes (Cuseo, 2000).
PIG (Particular pieces of important information are identified and then Inductive
reasoning is used to formulate a Generalization that states the relationship among the
pieces)
This structure is designed to promote student identification of important information
from textbook reading, and student use of inductive reasoning with respect to this key
information. It is a multi-phase structure that includes the following steps:
(1) The instructor identifies a textbook reading assignment that contains three or more
specific facts, concepts, or examples that relate to a particular generalization. For each set
of generalizations identified, the instructor lists three related items of information and an
unrelated piece of information (a foil).
(2) Students read the text individually with the objective of discovering the
generalization that unifies the three related items and eliminating the foil. Using their
own words, the each student constructs a written statement that captures the
generalization among the related items. Students are also asked to locate additional ideas
found in the text that relate to the generalization statements they have constructed.
(3) Students join teams to compare their individually completed PIGs, set by set,
reconciling differences and reaching consensus on the generalizations they identified and
the foils they eliminated (Watherbie, 1995).
Cooperative Concept Mapping
Teammates first discuss how lecture or textbook material on a particular topic might be
graphically organized or “mapped” in a way that best captures key concepts and the
relationships among them. Teammates then work individually, either inside or outside of
class, to construct concept maps on which key concepts are displayed in different nodes
(boxes or circles) that are connected by specific links—which indicate the nature of the
relationships between concepts. The last step is for teammates to reunite, compare their
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separately constructed maps, and attempt to integrate them into one global, “team map”
(Abrami, 1995).
3. STRUCTURES EXPLICITLY DESIGNED TO PROMOTE
POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE AMONG GROUP MEMBERS
3.1 Team-Building (Icebreaker) Structures
Team Portrait
Teammates answer individually a few instructor-posed questions about themselves
(e.g., academic major, career interests, personal interests). Then teammates convene and
integrate their personal information into a composite team portrait or profile that may be
depicted in narrative or visual-spatial form—e.g., an emblem, mascot, or coat of arms
(Ellis, 1996).
Team Vision Statement
A variation of the above structure, in which teammates write individual statements
about what they hope their team experience will be like, then unite to integrate these
individual vision statements into one team-vision statement (Silberman, 1998).
Card Sort
This structure serves a class-building function because students circulate around the
room and interact with other students in class. First, each student is given an index card
that contains an illustration or example that fits within a general category (e.g., category
of living things, food types, or media modalities). Students then move around the room
and try to find other students whose card contains an example relating to the same
category as their own. When students think they have found all other classmates carrying
cards with examples from the same category, they present themselves to the class as a
team.
If the categories used for this task are relevant to the course’s content, then this
structure may also double as a learning exercise, in which case the instructor assesses the
accuracy of students’ classifications and provides explanations or additional information
if needed (Silberman, 1997).
3.2 Listening Structures
Paraphrase Passport
A structure that requires team members to correctly paraphrase or restate the idea of
the teammate who’s just spoken, before they can contribute any ideas of their own. This
can also be slightly modified to create a different structure called “Affirmation Passport,”
whereby team members are expected to affirm something about the comment of the
previous student—e.g., its clarity, creativity, or most powerful point—before contributing
their own idea (Kagan, 1992).
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Response Gambits
This structure represents a modification of the above structure (“Paraphrase Passport”),
whereby each team member provides a response to her teammate’s contribution before
being allowed to share her own idea. The instructor may go one step further and
designate specific responses for students to use, via sentence starters, such as: “One thing
I learned from your contribution was . . .” or, “Tell me more about . . . .” (Kagan &
Kagan, 1997).
3.3 Resource-Sharing & Information-Integration Structures
Jigsaw
Teams are assigned a general topic and each teammate assumes responsibility for
becoming an “expert” on one subtopic or piece of this general topic. Then members leave
their teams to join members of other teams who are also “experts” on the same subtopic.
After meeting in different expert groups, students return to their home team and teach
their individual area of expertise to their teammates. The final outcome of this process is
the piecing together of separate subtopics (like a “jigsaw” puzzle) to create
comprehensive coverage and understanding of the whole topic (Aronson, et al., 1978).
Jigsaw II
A slight modification of Jigsaw in which the final step in the process is for team
members to take an individual quiz or test on the material they have taught each other
(Slavin, 1980).
Double Expert-Group Jigsaw
Another variation of the original Jigsaw in which expert groups with the same subtopic
split in half, creating “double expert” groups. This structure enables experts to meet in a
smaller group setting, and adds an “Experts Consult” option whereby members of the
two expert groups can consult with each other before returning to their teams to complete
the jigsaw (Kagan, 1992).
Cooperative Graffiti
Each team is given one large, butcher-block sized piece of paper on which teammates
individually record as many ideas as possible—using different colored pens. After
completing this individual brainstorming session, teammates work together and attempt
to organize their multi-colored collage of ideas into meaningful categories (Abrami,
1995).
3.4 Studying & Test-Taking Structures
Learning Tournaments
Student teams review and study course material provided by the instructor and then
teammates take an individual test on that material, which is comprised of easy-to-score
test questions (e.g., true-false, multiple-choice, or fill-in-the blank questions). Students’
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individual test scores are tallied, and then the test scores of all individuals on the same
team are pooled to obtain a single “team score.” These team scores are announced and a
winner is declared. This procedure can end here, or be continued in successive “rounds”
comprised of additional material to be studied and additional sets of tests questions
(Silbereman, 1997).
Cooperative Study Groups
Students form 4-6 member study groups and register their group with the instructor by
providing their names and student identification numbers. (Groups may release or add a
new member by unanimous vote; however, if group membership falls below four, the
group is considered disbanded until members vote in a replacement). Students who are
members of registered study groups receive bonus points for each course assignment,
provided that their group has registered prior to the assignment’s due date. The bonus is
based on an average of all individual grades received by group members, according to the
following formula: If the average grade is A, all members receive three percentage
points; if the average grade is B, they receive two percentage points; and if the average
grade is C, they receive one percentage point. If an individual student receives an A on
the assignment, but the group average is C, that student still receives a bonus of one
percentage point (Robinson, cited in Weimer, 1991).
Team Learning
This structure involves the following four phases:
1) Prior to class, students complete a reading assignment (e.g., a textbook chapter).
2) Individually, students take a closed-book quiz on the assigned reading.
3) Students take the same quiz as a team, attempting to reach consensus with respect to
the correct answers for all test questions, and this “team quiz is also submitted to the
instructor, with all teammates receiving the same “team score.”
4) Each student’s individual quiz score and team quiz score are counted equally toward
the student’s final course grade (Michaelsen, 1992).
Group Exam
Students meet in small groups periodically throughout the term. For midterm tests and
the final exam, each student first submits a completed exam that is taken individually;
then group members assemble and complete a single answer sheet for the same exam. If
the group score is higher than the individual score for any individual group member, the
group earns bonus points that are added to each member’s test score. The total number of
bonus points awarded is determined by subtracting the highest individual score from the
group score, with the maximum bonus being 10% of the total exam score (Keyworth,
1989).
In a variation of this procedure, students keep a copy of their individual exams for
reference during the team test. To ensure individual accountability, the instructor
distributes a special-colored pen (e.g., purple) for students to use during the individual
exams and these pens are collected before students assemble for the team exam, thus
ensuring that students’ individual test score and team score are clearly differentiated
(Creed, in Millis & Cottell, 1998).
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Test Review-&-Troubleshoot Teams
After taking exams individually, students are given a copy of the test questions and
form teams whose charge is to locate the source of information where the correct answer
to the test question was found (e.g., instructor’s lecture notes, handouts distributed in
class, or assigned readings). Teams return the exam to the instructor after they have listed
next to each test question the information source from which they think the answer to that
question was drawn or derived. Bonus points are awarded to individual team members
based on the total number of correct sources identified by their team (Cuseo, 2000).
4. Structures Explicitly Designed to Promote Individual Accountability
Numbered Heads Together
The instructor poses a question to 4-member teams of students with the directive that
they should put their “heads together” and make sure that every member on the team
knows the correct answer or solution. After the team reaches consensus on what they
think is the correct answer, students number-off within their teams (i.e., each student
takes either the number 1, 2, 3, or 4). The instructor then randomly calls one of these
numbers to check for comprehension, and only the student with that number responds on
his or her team’s behalf (Kagan, 1992). Because the answer is team-generated and the
individual student is reporting a team answer, there is much less anticipatory anxiety or
apprehension about giving the wrong answer, and much less embarrassment experienced
if an incorrect answer happens to be reported (Millis & Cottell, 1998).
To add some drama and game-like atmosphere to this structure, the rolling of a die
could be used to randomly identify the student number that will be called (Cuseo, 1997).
Also, this structure may be conveniently adapted to for use with pairs of students,
resulting in a structure that’s called, “Paired Heads Together” (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Think-Heads Together
This structure represents a minor modification of “Numbered Heads Together” in
which students are allotted a preparatory period of private, individual think time to
incubate about the correct answer or solution before joining the team discussion (Kagan,
1992).
STAD (Student Teams Achievement Division)
Teammates collaborate on a given topic and complete a work product pertaining to that
topic (e.g., a worksheet of answers or problem solutions); then team members are
assessed individually on their mastery of the topic (Slavin, 1995).
Timed Pair-Share
A topic is presented to a pair of students and one member shares her ideas for a
designated amount of time (e.g., one minute) while the partner listens; then roles are
reversed and the partner shares his ideas for the same amount of time (Kagan & Kagan,
1998).
Talking Chips
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Each team member is given a symbolic “talking chip” (e.g., a checker, coin, or pen)
and is expected to place the chip in the center of the team’s workspace when she makes
an individual verbal contribution to the team’s discussion. Teammates can speak in any
order, but they cannot speak again until all chips are in the center—an indication that
every team member has spoken. After all chips have been placed in the center, team
members retrieve their respective chips for a second round of discussion—which follows
the same rules of equal participation (Kagan, 1992).
Response Mode Chips
This represents a modified version of the above structure in which the instructor
provides chips that designate different types of responses from teammates—e.g., a
“continue brainstorming” chip, a “summarizing” chip, or an “evaluation” chip (Kagan &
Kagan, 1998).
Guided/Reciprocal Peer Questioning
Students listen to an instructor’s presentation and individually generate 2-3 relevant
questions pertaining to the presentation, using question stems designed to elicit higherlevel thinking that have been provided to them by the instructor—for example: “Why is
____ important?” (analysis), “What would happen if .. .?” (hypothetical reasoning) or,
“What are the implications of. . .?” (inferential reasoning). Students then form teams and
one team member adopts the role of questioner who poses a higher-level thinking
question while teammates adopt the role of explainer or respondent. Different teammates
successively assume the solo role of questioner, while the remaining teammates continue
to function as explainers/respondents (King, 1990, 1995).
Roundtable
Teams are provided with a single pen and a single piece of paper (or transparency).
One teammate records a contribution on the paper and then passes the paper and pen on
to another teammate who does the same. The paper and pen are passed progressively
around the table until all team members have recorded an idea (Kagan, 1992).
Roundrobin
This is a variation of the above structure whereby individual contributions are
expressed orally, rather than in writing (Kagan, 1992).
Simultaneous Roundtable
A variation of Roundtable in which two or more large, butcher-block sized papers—
each with a heading relating to a different topic—are passed around the table
simultaneously (e.g., three papers relating to three different theories); each member
records an idea on the paper before passing it on an adjacent teammate (Kagan & Kagan,
1998).
5. Structures Designed To Facilitate Team-Formation
Mix-Freeze-Group
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Students are instructed to leave their seats and circulate randomly around the room,
and then the instructor suddenly calls out the word: “Freeze!” Upon hearing this
command, students stop moving and immediately form teams with other students who are
in the same vicinity (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
This structure allows for random group formation, which is more likely to result in the
creation of teams that are more diverse or heterogeneous than the more commonly used
practice of forming teams among students sitting near each other in class. This commonly
used more likely to result in the non-random formation of homogeneous teams comprised
of students who (a) already know each other (friends tend to sit together), (b) already feel
comfortable with each other (due to the familiarity that grows among students who tend
to occupy the same seats from class to class), or (c) have similar characteristics (e.g.,
students with higher levels of motivation tend to sit in the front of class). This is an
ineffective team-formation practice for realizing one of the major goals of collaborative
learning: Enabling students to interact interdependently with others who have a diversity
of backgrounds, abilities, and interests.
In addition to facilitating random formation of more diverse groups of students, other
advantages of the mix-freeze-group structure are (a) the movement involved may serve to
energize students prior to group work, and (b) if the structure is used consistently
throughout the academic term, it ensures that students will have multiple opportunities to
work with a variety of classmates in different team setting. The mix-freeze-group
structure can also function simultaneously as a class community-building structure by
having students quickly share one personal tidbit of information with each student as they
mill around the room (e.g., place of birth, or favorite fun activity) before the “freeze”
command is delivered.
Corners
Students move to one corner of the room based on personal choice, preference, or
individual characteristic. For instance, students may move to a corner of the room that
represents their: (a) choice of an answer to a multiple-choice test question, (b) level of
agreement with respect to a particular issue or statement (strongly agree – agree –
disagree – strongly disagree), (c) preference or interest in a particular topic, or (d)
personal characteristic (e.g., learning style, academic major, age group).
The instructor then forms smaller groups or teams of students, either from within the
corner of the room they occupy—creating homogeneous teams, or by mixing students
from different corners of the room—creating heterogeneous teams (Kagan, 1992).
Value Line
Students form a human line across the room, taking a position on that line which
corresponds to a conceptual position, i.e., how strongly they agree or disagree with a
particular position or statement. The instructor may then ask students on opposite ends of
the line to join together—a procedure referred to as a “folded value line”—which results
in the creation of heterogeneous teams comprised of students who most strongly agree
and students who most strongly disagree with the position or statement.
A “split value line” procedure may be used whereby the value line is split in half, at
the middle, creating two separate lines. These two lines can then be slid together in such a
fashion that students who occupied a middle position—who may are likely to hold a
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balanced viewpoint that reflects appreciation of both sides of the issue, are teamed with
students occupying the end positions—who hold a more polarized perspective and are
more likely to view the issue in black-and-white terms (Kagan, 1992).
Forced Debate
All students who agree with a proposition sit on one side of the room and all who
disagree with that proposition sit on the opposite side; then teams formed among students
who find themselves on the same side of the room, and the instructor unexpectedly
“forces” them to argue for the position opposite to the side they’ve chosen (Kalish, 1996).
This structure requires students to actively attend to, and think through, opposing
arguments rather than defensively denying them or summarily dismissing them.
6. STRUCTURES DESIGNED FOR TEAM RESEARCH AND TEAM
PROJECTS THAT ARE COMPLETED OUTSIDE THE CLASSROOM
Learning teams that conduct their teamwork outside the classroom can be used in
addition to classroom-based teams, thus serving to extend the time and potential impact
of collaborative learning. Or, they may be used in lieu of classroom-based teams, thereby
preserving more class time for more instructor-guided learning and whole-class
discussions. Recent advances in technology-mediated communication may make out-ofclass collaboration more feasible because students now have the convenience of
interacting asynchronously with respect to time and place.
However, since instructors cannot directly observe and monitor groups who meet outside
of class, it is recommended that before students are launched into independent, out-ofclass group work, they should be provided with specific guidelines on how to work
effectively in teams. One simple strategy is to provide the groups with some opportunity
to work together in class, during which time the instructor observes their patterns of
interaction, and provides them with constructive feedback that may proactively intercept
or “short-circuit” problems before they emerge in unsupervised out-of-class settings.
Listed below are a variety of formal, multi-step structures that are designed to provide inclass preparation for group research and group projects that students will work on outside
the classroom.
Co-op Co-op
The first step in this structure involves a whole-class discussion during which students
identify and divide a learning unit into separate topics. Different teams are formed to take
responsibility for each of the separate topics identified. Within teams, students subdivide
their topic into subtopics or mini-topics (based on personal interest) and individual
teammate becomes experts with respect to their chosen subtopic. These experts research
their subtopics individually and present the results of their findings to their team. Lastly,
the team synthesizes these individually completed reports into a single group product and
makes a team presentation on this product to the whole class—using whatever format
they prefer (e.g., oral, written, audio-visual, multi-modal). The quality of student work on
subtopics is assessed individually by the instructor (Kagan, 1985).
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Co-op Jigsaw
This is a variation of the above structure whereby each teammate becomes an expert on
one topic and meets with experts from other teams who are working on the same topic.
After discussing the topic, these expert groups make presentations to the entire class.
Lastly, experts return to their home teams and integrate their separate work into a unified
team product (Kagan, 1985).
Co-op Jigsaw II
This is a modification of the above structure, in which teams first present to the class
on different topics. Students then leave their teams to join expert groups who focus on
the learning of some transferable skill (e.g., writing, speaking, audio-visual presentation,
dramatic delivery, or discussion leadership). Finally, experts return to their home teams
and apply these skills to the team product (Kagan, 1992).
Group Investigation
In response to an instructor-posed issue or question, students work in small groups and
reach consensus on what particular aspects (subtopics) of the issue they will investigate
and the manner in which the group’s investigation will be conducted (e.g., collectively or
by division of labor). After the group’s investigation is complete, its members decide on
how their completed work will be presented to the entire class (Sharan & Sharan, 1992).
Team Anthologies
This is a multi-stage structure involving the following steps:
1) Four-member teams decide on a topic to research and each teammate individually
constructs a bibliography of important sources relating to this topic and submits it to the
instructor.
2) Teammates convene to construct a composite bibliography that builds on the
individual research conducted by each team member.
3) Team members work individually to prepare a reflective commentary on a different
bibliographic source, using a double-entry format—whereby major points identified in
the reading are listed on the left, and personal reactions to these points are listed on the
right.
4) Two teammates join together and read each other’s articles, preparing a double-entry
journal response that is submitted to the instructor.
5) The paired teammates read each other’s reflective commentaries on the same article
and then jointly construct a composite annotation that summarizes the reading.
6) Pairs reconvene in four-member teams to complete an annotated bibliography of all
articles they’ve reviewed, and include it in a final product also includes a cover sheet, an
introduction, and conclusion (Millis, 1994).
Workstation Jigsaw
Members form in teams and after engaging in some team-building activity, they leave
their “home team” to work on separate subtopics or issues in expert groups—who do not
use the textbook or lecture notes for information; instead, each expert group accesses
alternative sources of information (e.g., original books, recent research articles, Internet-
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accessed information, or personal interviews). Members then return to their home team
where their expert findings are integrated into a composite team product (Kagan &
Kagan, 1998).
7. STRUCTURES DESIGNED TO PROMOTE BETWEEN-TEAM
INTERACTION AND WHOLE-CLASS SYNERGY
Rotating Review
This is a brainstorming structure that starts with exposing students to different topics
that are written atop different pieces of chart paper and posted around the room. Student
teams move from topic to topic and are given one minute to record as many ideas as they
can on that topic before rotating to the next topic (chart). When they rotate to the next
topic, teams are given two minutes to read, discuss, and take notes on the ideas written by
the previous team; then they are given one minute to write additional information before
rotating to the next topic. This process continues until all teams rotate back to the first
topic they encountered (Kagan (1992).
Gallery Tour
Teams first complete a collective product (e.g., chart, poster, concept map, or artistic
depiction), then they rotate around the room to view the completed products of other
teams before returning to their own team product to incorporate any new ideas acquired
during the tour. To expedite the process, teammates can be asked to split up—with
different members going to view different products—and then reconvening to share the
information they gleaned on their separate tours (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
With this structure, teams are explicitly encouraged to create products in creative
ways, because the variety of products that are subsequently created can often visually
illustrate to students how the quality of creative thinking is enhanced by interdependence
and teamwork (Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Carousel Feedback
This represents a slightly modified form of the above structure in which teams rotate to
view other teams’ products and also record their reactions or comments on a feedback
sheet that is posted by the product (Kagan, 1998).
Conference Poster Session
This structure represents modification of the Gallery Tour, whereby one or two
members of the team remain by their own team-posted product in order to explicate or
elaborate on its contents and confer with touring teams who come to view it (Cuseo,
2000).
Product Rotation
Each team passes its product clockwise to another team while simultaneously
receiving and reviewing a product from an adjacent team. This rotational process
continues until the team’s original product is returned to them (Cuseo, 2000).
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Rotational Graffiti
Separate topics or issues are written atop separate pieces of chart paper that are
presented to different teams. In response to the topic on their sheet, teammates
individually write “graffiti” (i.e., their reactions, interpretations, or free associations) for
a designated period of time, after which they rotate their sheets clockwise to another
team who adds their own graffiti on the topic—without looking at the ideas already
recorded. This rotational procedure continues until each team receives back the sheet
(topic) they started with, thus ensuring that all teams have written graffiti on all topics.
Finally, each team works independently to integrate or categorize all the ideas expressed
by different teams on their particular topic and presents their summary to the whole class
(Abrami, 1995).
Send-a-Problem
This is a multi-phase structure that involves the following steps:
1) In response to instructor-posed problems that are posted on a flip chart, blackboard or
transparency, teams select different problems or issues to address.
2) Each team brainstorms as many solutions as possible to the problem and records them
on a sheet of paper that is placed inside a folder.
3) After completing its brainstorming on the problem, the folder is passed on to another
team who, upon seeing the to-be-addressed problem written on the outside of the folder,
begins to generate as many solutions as possible—without opening the folder to see the
solutions generated by the previous team.
4) The folders are passed on to a third team who is allowed to review the proposed
solutions generated by the previous two teams; their major task is to identify—by
consensus—the two most effective solutions to the problem from among those already
listed, or create more effective solutions by combining and consolidating different ideas
on the list (Millis, 1997).
Three-Stray, One-Stay (a.k.a., Teams Tour)
Three members of a 4-member team stray (rotate) to an adjacent group while one
student stays seated to explain his team’s product to three rotating “strays” from another
team. After the straying students return to their home team, a second teammate stays back
while the other three rotate two teams ahead. Then the third teammate stays back while
the others rotate three teams ahead, and finally, the fourth teammate stays back while the
other three rotate four teams ahead. When this four-step rotation is complete, each team
member will have seen three different products generated by other teams. Teammates
then remain together to discusses the differences and similarities among the products they
have observed and use this information to improve their own team’s final product
(Kagan, 1992; Millis & Cottell, 1998).
Half-Stay, Half-Stray
A slight modification of Three-Stay, One-Stray structure that includes a between-team
pairing structure by having one pair of teammates from the home team stay to receive a
pair of strays from another team, while the second pair strays from the home team to visit
with a pair from another team (Cuseo, 2000).
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Cooperative Exam Critique:
Another variation on the Three-Stay, One-Stray structure, whereby students complete
am exam individually and then are given the opportunity to gain additional points by
retaking the exam in small groups. This structure consists of three basic phases:
1) Teams retake the exam with a group reporter who records the team’s responses.
2) A “Three Stay, One-Stray” procedure is followed in which the team reporter—armed
with her team’s answers—strays clockwise to join another group to compare the two
teams’ answers to the same test questions.
3) Reporters rotate back to their home groups to discuss their comparative findings.
4) Teams finalize their test answers and submit them to the instructor who adds bonus
points to individual students’ test scores for items missed on the individual test that are
correct on the team test (Cottell, 2000).
Roving Reporters
While different teams work on the same task, one of its members roves among other
teams to obtain ideas that may be added to those generated by her home team (Kagan,
1992).
Carousel Brainstorming
Teams are given different colored magic markers and a poster on which they are to
record their ideas in response to a specific issue or dilemma. Teams then rotate clockwise
from one poster to the next and add a different idea to each poster, being sure not to
duplicate what another team had already written (Millis, Sherman, & Cottell, 1993).
Blackboard Share
Students in different teams generate ideas with respect to the same topic or issue, and
as each new idea is generates, a member of the team goes to the front of the room to post
it. As each new (not already posted) idea is generated by a team, a different team member
goes to the board to post it (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
Thus, individual teams work independently, yet each time sees what other teams are
producing while and simultaneously working on their own ideas. This can serve to enrich
work within teams and exert synergistic effects across teams because separate teams can
piggy-back on each other’s ideas.
Team Stand & Share
One team stands and a team member reads her favorite item from the team’s list of
ideas; other teams check it off if they already have it, or add it to their list if they don’t
already have it. After the first team member reads her favorite item, the list is passed to
another team member who reads his favorite unmentioned idea. This process continues
until all items on a team’s list have been shared. The team then sits down, and a new team
stands and shares its unmentioned ideas. This process continues until all teams have stood
up and the distinctive ideas of all teams have been shared (Kagan & Kagan, 1998).
In a less time-consuming version of this structure, each team decides on which one of
their ideas is best and only shares their best idea before another team takes its turn
(Kagan, 1998).
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Stand & Share
This is modified version of the above structure (“Team Stand & Share”) in which
individual members from different teams successively stand to share one idea generated
by their team, while being sure not to repeat an already-shared idea. This rotational
process continues with a new member from each team standing and reporting on
successive turns—until all unique or distinctive ideas generated by each team have been
reported to the whole class (Kagan, 1992).
Rapid Report Wave
A slightly modified version of the above structure in which students are encouraged to
stand and share their ideas in rapid, round-robin fashion that simulates the “wave”
displayed by spectators at sporting events (Cuseo, 2000).
Representative Reporting Groups
One representative from each group volunteers (or is randomly selected) to share her
team’s ideas as part of a panel of representative reporters who occupy seats in front of
class. Two additional chairs may be included at the front of the room—one chair for any
student who would like to come up and ask a question or request clarification on the ideas
presented by the panelists, and one chair for the instructor—who may moderate the panel
or highlight key differences and recurrent themes expressed by the group representatives
(Abrami, 1995).
A minor modification in this structure can be made to simulate the TV game show,
Who Wants to be a Millionaire, in which panelists are allowed to seek “lifeline”
assistance by calling a “friend” (teammate) or polling the audience.
Fishbowling
A structure designed to encourage observation of, and reflection on, the process of
group interaction. The procedure involves having one team sit in a small circle
(“fishbowl”) and engage in a group task, while their classmates sit in a larger
surrounding circle, observing and assessing group dynamics and the quality of teamwork
exhibited (Aronson, et al., 1978).
Pyramidal Process
A consensus-building structure in which students first make an individual decision
with respect to a problem-solving option they think works best. Following this individual
decision, students form pairs and reach consensus on their choice of the best option; then
pairs form quartets and attempt to reach consensus, followed by quartets who join
together to form 8-member groups that also attempt to reach consensus. This
“pyramiding” of group size continues until the whole class becomes the decision-making
team and attempts to reach consensus with respect to the best option (Ellis, 1996).
For this structure to work effectively, students may need to be reminded that consensus
building does not mean averaging, voting (majority rules) or horse-trading. Instead, it
means trying to reach the highest possible level of agreement among group members—a
demanding social and conceptual task that requires maximum participation, patience, and
perseverance.
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Conclusion
The diverse structures cited in this taxonomy possess a high degree of flexibility,
giving them the potential for application in multiple contexts in the first-year seminar.
They are versatile enough to be used in virtually any setting where two or more students
are processing the same information, experiencing the same event, or working on a
common task. It may be said that structures display five different forms of flexibility:
(1) Content flexibility—they can be applied to different topic or content areas.
(2) Task flexibility—they are capable of being used in conjunction with all major types of
important academic tasks that college students are expected to perform, such as: listening
and note taking, reading, writing, research, studying, test taking, and test review.
(3) Pedagogical flexibility—they may be used in conjunction with any instructional
methods (e.g., lectures and other types of instructional presentations, class discussions,
seminars, case studies, role plays, games, or simulations).
(4) Temporal flexibility—they can be implemented at different times and stages in the
learning process, namely: (a) at the start of the learning process—to create a positive
anticipatory set toward the material to be learned and to activate learners’ existing
knowledge (or naive misconceptions) about the to-be-learned material, (b) during the
learning process—to interrupt or “punctuate” long periods of passive information
reception with interactive experiences that can intercept attention loss and promote active
involvement in the learning process, and (c) at the end of the learning process—to
promote reflection on, consolidation of, and closure to the learning experience.
By their intentional design, these cooperative-learning structures serve to elevate group
work to a higher level that approximates true teamwork. In so doing, they have the
potential to provide a truly transformative learning experience for first-year students—
one that reforms higher education’s traditional tendency to treat student learning as a
passive, isolated, individualistic, and competitive process—and transforms it into an
active, interactive, and interdependent experience.
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Appendix G
Specific Reading Objectives:
A Strategy for Focusing Student Reading & Preparing Students for
Reading-Based Exams
Research indicates that when students are given specific learning objectives before they
process information, they display more intentional learning than do students who do not
receive learning objectives (Bligh, 2000). There is also a solid body of empirical
evidence demonstrating that when students are provided with specific reading objectives
or questions to help guide their reading, their retention and comprehension of the material
they reading is significantly enhanced—compared to students who read the same material
without reading objectives (Anderson & Pearson, 1984; Pressley et al., 1988; Winograd
& Hare, 1988). The advantage of reading objectives is particularly pronounced when they
are used for required reading that is clearly connected to course exams and graded
assignments (Bischoping, 2003).
If students are provided with reading objectives, their written responses to them may
be collected and credited toward their final grade. Or, reading objectives may simply be
disseminated to students as study guides, and students could be strongly encouraged to
use them to prepare for upcoming quizzes or exams—which would contain questions
directly linked to the reading objectives. Providing reading objectives for students gives
them a purpose for reading and an incentive to read. For new college students who often
lack experience with the type of reading they are expected to do in college, reading
objectives can play these inexperienced students with the supportive structure they for
meeting the challenge of college-level reading. As Meyers and Jones point out, “Reading
is such a fundamental learning activity that we need to guide students’ reading efforts and
provide some structure to those reading assignments. Too often we expect that by simply
having students do a certain amount of reading, our objectives will be successfully
accomplished. That is usually not the case” (1993, p. 28).
Do not be fearful that providing students with reading objectives will “give away the
answers” to your exam sand lead to rampant grade inflation. That has not been my
experience; instead, what they will do is reduce the risk that highly motivated students
will spend their test-preparation time studying the wrong reading material or studying it
the wrong way and getting a poor test grade. You will find that even with reading
objectives, there will still be a “distribution” of test scores: some higher, some in the
middle, and some lower. However, what you will find are fewer students on the very low
end of the spectrum who totally “bomb” the exam because they either failed to read the
material or their method of reading and retaining it failed to match your testing focus and
method. In other words, a normal distribution curve of scores will still take place, but the
range of scores will be less extreme (e.g., test scores ranging from A to C, rather than A
to F). For the first-year seminar, this is a desirable range of scores because the course is
intended to promote student success, not to “spread out” or “flunk out” students. Thus,
refraining from using reading objectives over concern that they will result in inflated
course grades doesn’t seem justified in an FYE course comprised of first-term students
who have little or no experience with college-level reading or college-level tests.
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Any perceived disadvantages associated with providing students with specific reading
objectives are far outweighed by their multiple educational advantages, such as those
listed below.
For students, specific reading objectives serve to:
* Increase student motivation to read because expectations of what is to be learned from
the reading are clearly specified.
If students know where to focus the brunt of their reading efforts, and when they
know that there will be a direct relationship between their reading and their grade,
students become more motivated to read. Perhaps nothing can be more un-motivating
disheartening for students than to study hard, and to realize later that they “studied the
wrong things.”
* Better enable students to self-monitor their learning and troubleshoot concepts they
don’t understand prior to exams.
If students are able to answer the questions related to the reading objectives, then
they know they’re extracting and understanding the most important concepts from the
reading and are learning what they are expected to learn. In this fashion, specific reading
objectives facilitate early self-diagnosis, helping students to identify and troubleshoot
their learning difficulties before their course grade is adversely affected.
* Lower students’ test anxiety by clarifying test expectations and providing them with
some organization and structure for test preparation.
Research on performance anxiety indicates that less anxiety is experienced when the
expectations of a performance task match the reality of the task (Tracey & Sherry, 1984).
Using specific reading objectives can reduce student anxiety triggered by uncertainty
about what they’re expected to know (and should reduce instructor anxiety or irritation
triggered by the perennial student questions such as: “Do we have to know this?” or,
“Will this be on the test?”).
For instructors, specific reading objectives serve to:
* Clarify instructional priorities about what is most important for students to learn by
specifying course concepts that are central or essential, versus those that are merely
peripheral or tangential.
Not all information in any reading assignment is equally important for students to
know. Reading objectives serve to increase the likelihood that, amid the wealth of
information presented in the textbook, students will expend effort on learning what you
think is most important for them to know. By identifying high-priority concepts via
reading objectives, you are assured that your students spend their out-of-class time
learning time on material that is critical, not trivial. While there continues to be a raging
debate about whether teachers should “teach to the test,” we do know that whether or not
instructors decide to teach to the test, their students will “study to the test,” i.e., they will
study what they expect will be on the test (Frederiksen, 1984; Gamson, 1993). So, rather
than leaving student expectations to chance, let us intentionally steer their expectations in
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a direction that increases the probability that students will read and study what we expect
them to read and study.
* Increases the test validity of course exams.
When reading-based test questions are drawn from the same pool or population of
reading objectives that students are learning, this increases our test’s “content validity”—
defined by measurement scholars as the congruence or consistency between content
learned and content tested (Gronlund, 1985).
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Exhibit 1.
Blueprint for Constructing a Comprehensive Course Syllabus:
Checklist of Key Elements & Components
1. Instructor Information
___ Instructor’s name
___ Educational background and/or professional qualifications
___ Office location (building & room #)
___ Office hours
___ Office phone number
___ E-Mail address
___ Fax number (if any)
___ Home e-mail
___ Home phone number (If included, you could specify acceptable hours)
2. Practical Course Details
___ Course title and number
___ Name of college
___ Academic term during which the course is being taught
___ Class time: days of week and time of day when class meets (include any scheduled
out-of-class meetings, if applicable)
___ Class location (campus building and room #)
___ Course units (# of credits)
___ Degree requirement fulfilled by the course (if any)
___ Course prerequisites or co-requisites (if any)
___ Dates through which students may add/drop, or withdraw without receiving a “W”
___ Disability statement (e.g., “Any student who feel he/she may qualify for
accommodations for any type of disability, make an appointment with Disability
Director in the Learning Center.”)
___ Statement reminding students to save the syllabus. (Recommended particularly for 2year college students to ensure or negotiate transfer credit at 4-year institutions).
3. Course Description
___ Narrative course description—which is consistent with the course catalogue
description—but expands on it and provides students with a more complete view
of what the course is about than the abbreviated edition tailored to fit within the
spatial limits of the course catalogue.
___ Statement of course relevance—how students will benefit from the course (e.g.,
personally and professionally; now and in the future).
4. Course Goals
Broad, visionary aims or purposes of the course that are designed to stimulate and
motivate learning, giving students something to strive for and something they would
be proud to achieve, such as course goals that relate to:
___ students’ holistic (whole-person) development (for examples, see pp. 52-54 of the
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text)
___ development of lifelong learning skills (for examples, see pp. 46-48 of the text)
___ purposes of liberal (general) education (for examples, see pp. 57-62 of the text)
___ mission and philosophy of the college
___ goals of the program, department or division in which the course is housed.
6. Course Objectives
Objectives may be defined as having a greater degree of specificity than general goals.
Decisions about what specific objectives to include in the syllabus should derive from,
and be guided by, the course goals. Course objectives should refer to intended outcomes
or expected results that focus on what the learner should be able to know, do, or possess
at the end of the course, rather than focusing on the subject matter—e.g., what content
will be covered, or the teacher—e.g., what instructional methods will be used.
___ Include cognitive objectives that go beyond factual or knowledge-level outcomes—
i.e., higher-level thinking objectives that are designed for students to do more with
information than memorize it, such as apply, integrate, or evaluate it. (See pp.
82-183 of the text for definitions of seven major forms of higher-level thinking.)
___ Include objectives that go beyond just the cognitive domain to include other
dimensions of holistic development (For examples, see pp. 52-53 of the text for key
skills and specific abilities related to different dimensions of holistic development.)
___ Include attitudinal objectives (e.g., attitudes toward diversity or general education)
___ Include behavioral objectives (e.g., frequency of participation in campus services or
programs)
7. Outline of Course Content
___ List of major course topics—indicating breadth of coverage, and subtopics—
indicating depth of coverage and topic infrastructure. (For ideas on deciding what
textbook topics to include in your type of FYE course, see the unit of the Instructor’s
Manual, titled: “Tailoring the Text to Your Course.”)
___ Topic timeline/schedule—which identifies dates when specific course topics will be
covered during the semester. (An alternative approach is to indicate a tentative
timeline that is subject to change, depending upon the progress of the class.)
8. Instructional Methods & Materials
___ Classroom teaching philosophy or major strategies with a short rationale explaining
why they are being used.
___ Required textbook & other reading sources (e.g., articles; teacher-constructed
materials).
___ Supplemental reading list (including books/periodicals available in the college
library or placed on library reserve).
9. Methods for Evaluating Student Performance
___ Assignments (nature, number, format, due dates, and their relative point value or
percentage of student’s final course grade)
___ Exams, tests, & quizzes (nature, number, format, due dates, and their relative point
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value or percentage of student’s final course grade)
___ Date of final exam and/or final project
___ Grading scheme/system (It is recommended that grades be criterion-referenced—
i.e., based on absolute standards, rather than norm-referenced—i.e., grading “on a
curve”).
___ Policy regarding missed or late tests/assignments
___ Policy concerning class attendance, punctuality, & classroom decorum
___ Policy on academic integrity (e.g., cheating and plagiarism—which is consistent
with any college-wide policy that may be in place).
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Exhibit 2.
THE STUDENT INFORMATION SHEET:
A Proactive Strategy for Initiating Teacher-Student Rapport
The first and foremost goal in the FYE course should be to establish rapport with your
students. Meeting students’ need for acceptance and validation is a necessary
precondition for establishing the social-emotional foundation needed for subsequent
learning and personal growth. It has been my experience that students begin to care more
about learning and become more committed to the learning process when they sense that
their instructor cares about them.
One way to gain and maintain instructor-student rapport is through use of what I call
the “Student Information Sheet.” The sheet contains questions for students to answer,
which I’ve divided into six general areas: (1) personal background, (2) future plans, (3)
personal abilities, achievements, and distinctive qualities, (4) personal interests, (5)
personal values, and (6) course expectations, expectations and interests. (See the list of
questions at the end of this exhibit for a specific list of questions relating to each of these
six categories.)
On the first day of class, I distribute the course syllabus, but do not spend class time
systematically reviewing it. Instead, I tell students that their first assignment is to read the
syllabus for the next class session and that I prefer that our first meeting together should
focus on people, not paper. I tell my class we’re going to take some time to learn about
each other before we attempt to learn the subject matter, then project questions related to
the aforementioned six areas. I reveal one question at a time, and have students record
their answers to each question on a sheet of paper. At the same time students are
recording their answers, I write my answers on the board to the same questions (except
for those questions that are student-specific, such as class standing). By answering the
questions along with your students, I show my class that I trust them well enough to
reveal something personal about myself, which in turn, makes them feel more
comfortable about revealing more of themselves to me. Also, my answering the questions
with them serves to validate the exercise, suggesting that it’s worthy of my time and
effort as well.
This exercise typically takes about one minute per question, i.e., 40 questions takes
approximately 40 minutes. I typically use no more than 30 of the questions, because I
want to reserve some class time to collect the information sheets and review students’
names. I like to keep the process moving fairly quickly by advising students that they can
use short sentences or single words and phrases to answer the questions (as I do on the
board). Also, short and fairly quick responses often seem to capture students’ true
thoughts or feelings in response to the question (their “free associations”), as opposed to
calculated, socially acceptable responses.
After the exercise is completed, I collect each student’s information sheet and use it in the
following ways to promote rapport with the class throughout the term.
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1. On the first day of class, after I’ve collected all the information sheets, I call-out the
names of individual students, asking them to raise their hand when their name is called so
I can associate their name and face. As I call out their names, I very rapidly jot down a
quick word or abbreviated phrase next to the student’s name for later review (e.g.,
something about a distinctive physical feature or seating spot that can help me remember
the student’s face and name).
2. Before the next class meeting, I read all student responses to the questions and
highlight one from each student’s sheet that is thought-provoking or stimulating. I come
to the second class session with something highlighted on each student’s sheet, and I start
class by calling out each student’s name and ask each student in class for a brief
elaboration on the item I’ve highlighted (e.g., When did you move from New York to
California? When you worked with handicapped children, what type of assistance did
you provide?) This shows all students that I’ve taken to time to read their information
sheets and am taking an individual interest in each one of them. The short verbal
interchange I have with each student also helps me immensely in learning their names,
because it allows more eye-contact time than that which occurs during a simple roll call,
and it provides a distinctive event or interactive “episode” to which I can relate
(associate) their face and name.
3. Throughout the term, I use the information sheet to actively involve individual students
in the course. I identify topical interests that individual students mentioned on their
information sheets during the first day of class, record the student’s name on a post-it
sticker, and then stick it onto my class notes—next to the topic or subtopic that relates to
the student’s interest. When that particular topic is covered later in the term, I introduce it
by mentioning the name of the student who had expressed interest in that topic on the
first day of class. It has been my experience that students perk-up when I mention their
name in association with their preferred topic, and they are often amazed by my apparent
ability to remember the interests they expressed on the very first day of class at much
points later on in the term. Students rarely ask how I managed to remember their personal
interests, so they remain unaware of my “crib sheet” strategy. Consequently, they tend to
conclude that I have extraordinary social memory and social sensitivity (which is
perfectly fine with me).
I also use the student information sheet for the following purposes.
4. To make final decisions about what particular topics to cover in the course.
I’ll use student interests expressed on the information sheet to help select course topics
and subtopics. Although I decide on a set of core concepts or topics to be covered in the
course, I use information gleaned from students’ sheets to decide on what other
“supplemental” topics I’ll cover. I inform the class that I’ve used their input to help me
decide on what topics to include in the course, which gives them a sense of course input
and course ownership, which I think serves to enhance their intrinsic motivation.
5. To make personal connections with non-participative or “detached” students.
For example, before class, I may strike-up a conversation with a shy student about
something from her information sheet. Or, as students leave the classroom at the end of
class, I typically stand by the door as they depart. When a quiet or non-participative
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student is leaving, I’ll quickly ask that student something relating to his information
sheet.
6. To connect the course with other courses that students are taking in the same term.
One question on the information sheet asks students for their current class schedule. I
make note of other courses that students are taking and attempt to relate material in the
FYE seminar to their other courses. For instance, when I’m covering mnemonic devices
in the seminar, I will use examples for improving memory that apply to content they may
be learning in their other classes.
7. To intentionally form small groups or learning teams.
For example, I may create homogeneous groups consisting of students with the same
career interests, or heterogeneous teams comprised of students from different
geographical areas or cultural backgrounds.
8. To personalize written feedback I give to students during the term.
For example, if a student initially expressed an interest in joining a student club or
finding an on-campus job, I’ll ask about that when I’m providing written feedback on a
student’s journal entry or one-minute paper.
9. To prepare for and personalize students’ scheduled office visits.
I will look over a student’s information sheet prior to an office visit and refer to
something mentioned on the sheet during the student’s office visit.
10. To personalize and enliven the process of returning student assignments in class.
Periodically, I look over my students’ information sheets just before going to a class
session when I’ll be returning student assignments, and instead of calling out the names
of students to come up and retrieve their assignments, I’ll call out some piece of
information I remember from their information sheet. For example, I might say: “Will a
future occupational therapist from Maryland please come up and pick-up your
assignment?” (This demonstrates to students at later points in the term that I still know
them well.)
11. To showcase articulate comments and insightful ideas generated by students.
I will look for comments and ideas shared by students on their information sheet that
may relate to a course topic and display them on a transparency when we get to that
particular topic in class. For example, there is a question on the information sheet that
asks students for their favorite quote. One student wrote: “When you point your finger at
someone else, there are three fingers pointing back at you.” This succinct saying artfully
captured the gist of projection—a defense mechanism that I cover in class under the topic
of self-efficacy. When I reached the point in the course when I discussed that defense
mechanism, I created an overhead transparency that contained the student’s quote along
with her name and used it to introduce the concept of projection. This practice serves to
validate students’ ideas, plus I’ve found that students really seem to get a charge out of
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being quoted; perhaps it makes them feel like an important person whose ideas are
worthy of public announcement and consumption.
12. To personalize test questions that I use on exams.
I use the information sheets to construct test questions relating to individual students’
interests. For instance, in a first-year seminar test covering the topic of major/career
choice, I include student names on questions that relate to their particular major or career
interest (e.g., “Jennifer P. is interested in both Art and Business, so she decides to major
in Art and minor in Business. Approximately how many courses in Business will she
need to complete a minor in this field?”).
Conclusion
It’s been my experience that when students are aware that you care about them, they
care more about you and what you’re trying to teach them. Caring about your students
also tends to help them become more intrinsically motivated, more actively involved in
the learning process, more willing to take intellectual risks, and more likely to respond
positively (less defensively) to your constructive feedback. The student information sheet
has proven to be my most effective strategy for demonstrating to students that I care
about them as individuals. It has proven to be well worth the “sacrifice” of lost content
coverage on the first day of class because it creates a much more favorable first
impression of the course than rushing into the course content. It is also a teaching tool
that has the versatility to be used in multiple ways—throughout the term—to connect
students with the course material, with the course instructor, and with their classmates.
(See how The Student Information sheet may be used to create a “Classmate Scavenger
Hunt”—Exhibit 3.)
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STUDENT INFORMATION SHEET
Potential Questions
PERSONAL BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1. Your name (as you prefer to be called)?
2. Phone number/E-Mail number (optional)?
3. Place of birth? Places lived? Presently living on campus (where) or commuting (from where)?
4. What is your class schedule for this term? (Course titles and times)?
5. How many college credits have you completed? (Freshman, sophomore, junior, senior?)
6. Why did you choose this college? (What brought you here?)
7. Have any of your friends or family attended this college?
8. Have you attended any other colleges? (If yes, where and when?)
9. What jobs or volunteer experiences have you had?
10. Will you be working or volunteering this term? If so, how many hours per week? On or off campus?
11. Will you have family responsibilities this term?
12. Has anyone in your immediate family (parents or siblings) graduated from college?
FUTURE PLANS
13. Intended major (already decided or being considered)? How sure are you about this choice? (What lead
you to this choice?)
14. What are your plans (definite or tentative) after graduating from this college?
15. Intended career? (If already decided or being considered) How sure are you about this choice? What
lead you to this choice?
PERSONAL ABILITIES, ACHIEVEMENTS, & DISTINCTIVE QUALITIES
16. What are you really good at? What comes easily or naturally to you?
17. What would you say are your most developed skills or talents?
18. How do you think you learn best?
19. What would you say has been your greatest accomplishment, achievement, or success story in your life
thus far?
20. What three words do you think best describe you?
21. What would your best friend(s) say is your most likable quality?
22. What would you say are your personal strengths right now? What personal areas you would like to
work on or improve?
PERSONAL INTERESTS
23. What sorts of things do you look forward to, and get excited about?
24. What sorts of things capture and hold your interest?
25. What would you say have been your most enjoyable & least enjoyable learning experiences?
26. What are your hobbies? Fun activities?
22. How do you relax and unwind?
27. If you had a day, week, or year to go anywhere you wanted and do anything you liked, where would
you go and what would you do?
28. What do you like to read?
29. When you open a newspaper, what section of it do you turn to first?
30. What’s your favorite movie and/or TV program (if any)?
31. What’s your favorite music or musical artist(s)?
32. Is there anyone dead or alive, real or imaginary, whom you’ve never met but would like to meet and
have a conversation with? (Why?)
PERSONAL VALUES
33. What’s very important to you?”)(What matters to you the most?)(What is something you really care
about?)
34. When you have free time, what do you usually find yourself doing?
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35. When you have extra spending money, what do you usually fin yourself spending it on?
36. Is there a motto, quote, song, symbol, or bumper sticker that represents something you stand for or
believe in?
37. If there is one thing in this world you could change, what would it be?)
38. How would you define success? (What does “being successful” mean to you?)
39. Do you tend to daydream about anything in particular?
40. Do you have any heroes? Is there anyone you admire, look up to, or feel has set an example worth
following? (Why?)
41. Who or what would you say has had the greatest influence on your life thus far? (In what way?)
42. If there is anything in your life you could change or do over again, what would it be? Why?
43. What would you like to be said about you in your obituary or at your eulogy?
COURSE EXPECTATIONS, ATTITUDES, & INTERESTS
44. Why are you taking this course?
45. When you hear “[title of the course]” what’s the first thing that comes to your mind?
46. What information or topics do you think will be covered in this course?
47. Have you had any other courses or learning experiences in this subject area?
48. Do you have any course expectations or goals? Anything that you hope will be covered or discussed in
this class?
49. Right now, how do you feel about taking this course—positive, negative, neutral? (Why?)
50. Is there anything else about the course, or about yourself, that I haven’t asked, but you think would be
interesting or useful for me to know?
362
Exhibit 3.
The “Classmate Scavenger Hunt”:
A Strategy for Promoting Peer Connections and
Creating Class Community
This classroom exercise is designed to introduce students to each other, reduce students’
social anxiety, and build a sense of group trust and class cohesiveness. Step-by-step
student instructions for this exercise are provided at the end of this Exhibit.
In short, the Classmate Scavenger Hunt is an in-class exercise that asks all students to
get up from their seats, move around the room, and discover the names and interests of
their classmates. Each student is given a “scavenger list” containing personal (selfdescriptive) statements, including one of their own and one from each of their classmates,
which I’ve drawn from the information sheet I ask student to complete on the first day of
class. When constructing the classmate-scavenger list, I intentionally select student
statements that are distinctive and/or humorous, but not too personal or private. (See the
sample list at the very end of this Exhibit.) Serendipitously, I’ve discovered that students
are almost always delighted, flattered, and apparently validated to see something they
wrote about themselves appear in print.
Students take the list and circulate throughout the room to find each classmate whose
personal statement appears on the list. They do this by pairing-up with one classmate at a
time; each member of the pair takes turns trying to identify the personal statement on the
list that belongs to his or her partner. If the first guess does not produce a match, then the
student continue to take turns attempting to identify their partner’s statement. They
continue to alternate this question-asking role until a match is found for each partner, at
which time the pair concludes their interaction and each member looks for another
partner.
Before beginning the classmate hunt, I provide oral directions prior to starting this
exercise, and I model what students are expected to do by engaging in a short role-play of
the exercise with a student volunteer. I also project a printed version of the directions on
an overhead transparency at the front of the room. I leave the transparency projected
during the exercise, so the directions can be easily checked by anyone who is initially
unsure or eventually forgets what to do. (I find that this is a useful strategy for any multistep class activity.)
Prior to starting the exercise, I acknowledge that people who are shy (like me) may feel
a little uncomfortable at first, but assure them that previous students have responded very
positively to this exercise. Even those students who felt a little uncomfortable initially
have told me that they quickly became comfortable once the exercise began and they got
into it. I also provide the class with a rationale for why I’m asking them to participate in
this exercise, namely: The goal of the classmate scavenger hunt is for every student to
connect with every one of their classmates and learn something about each of them. It has
been my experience that such early peer interaction helps to create a classroom climate
that enables students to feel more comfortable in class, and helps promote class
participation and teamwork.
363
I also inform the class that I’ll be participating in the hunt with them. (I add a personal
statement about myself to the scavenger list.) Lastly, I thank them in advance for working
with me on this exercise and remind them that they will receive course credit for the final
product they submit following its completion. The final product turned-in by each student
is a completed list, which contains the names of all their classmates (and their instructor)
recorded next to their personal statements. If there is class time remaining after
completion of the exercise, students are asked to personally reflect on the process, briefly
describing the nature of their interactions or their feelings about the exercise. For
example, I’ve asked such reflection questions as the following:
1) How did you feel about participating in this exercise when I first described it?
2) In the middle of the exercise, did you feel differently about it than you did at first?
3) Were you able to predict or guess what statements belonged to different individuals
based on their appearance and behavior, or were you frequently surprised? Why?
4) Were others able to predict or guess what statement belonged to you? Why?
5) Did you find any personal statement on the list to be particularly interesting,
intriguing, or memorable? Why?
6) Did you meet anyone in class whose interests or experiences were similar to yours? If
so, can you remember who that person was and what you had in common?
The time needed to complete the classmate scavenger hunt typically turns out to be about
a minute-and-a- half (90 seconds) per student. For example, in a class of 20 students, the
hunt takes approximately 30 minutes; in a class of 30 students, it takes about 45 minutes.
If there isn’t enough class time remaining following the exercise to answer the personalreflection questions, I ask students to complete them as a take-home assignment.
I’ve found that it is well worth “sacrificing” one class session for the classmate
scavenger hunt because it enables each student in class to meet and interact with every
other student. It helps create the feeling among new students feel like the seminar is the
course where everybody knows their name, and that they know everybody else’s name.
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Student Directions for the Classmate Scavenger Hunt
GOAL: To find classmates who are associated with the personal statements listed on the
“classmate scavenger list” that I’ve provided for you.
STEPS:
1. Pair-up with a classmate. One of you takes the role of questioner—who attempts to
find the partner’s description on the list—by reading one description at a time until you
find the correct “match.” The other person assumes the role or respondent—who answers
either “yes” or “no” to the description read by the questioner.
2. Alternate roles (questioner become respondent and vice versa), and follow the same
process described in step 1.
3. Continue alternating roles until one of you finds the statement that matches the
respondent. Then ask for the person’s name and record it next to his or her personal
statement on your copy of the scavenger list.
4. After the first member of your pair finds the statement that belongs to the partner, the
second member continues to play the role of questioner until s/he finds the first
member’s matching statement.
5. After both of you find each other’s matching description, move on to join another
partner, and continue this pairing-up process until you have met and obtained the
signatures of all students in class next to their correct self-description.
IMPORTANT REMINDERS:
*
only say “yes” or “no.”
Please do not tell your partner the statement that describes you, or take your partner’s
copy of the list and sign your name to it until your partner has discovered and stated your
description.
* After your partner finds the statement that matches you, do not take your partner’s sheet
and write your name on it; instead, please say your name and have your partner record it.
* When trying to find your partner’s personal statement, try to pick statements that you
think relate to that person, rather than just randomly going down the list. In other words,
let’s see how good you are at guessing or predicting people’s interests based on their
appearance or behavior. (Take a look at the list now to get an idea of the different
descriptions you’ll be looking for.)
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Sample “Classmate Scavenger-Hunt” Sheet
1. A sarcastic, former swimming instructor and future nurse, who intends to transfer to
Loma Linda University: _______________________________________________
2. A beach volleyball player who’s good in math and would love to take a spontaneous
trip to Ireland:___________________________________________________
3. A volunteer coach and future teacher, who loves watching live bands and may
transfer to the University of Hawaii:______________________________
4. A fire-eating stunt man who would love to go scuba diving and glacier walking in
Antarctica:________________________________________________
5. A former scorekeeper and assistant trainer who’s into sports management,
philosophy, and USC (Trojans)____________________________________
6. A Hawaiian surfer and future sonographer who plans to attend Seattle University:
__________________________
7. A computer graphics major who’s good at math, loves the arts, and would like to
become a cartoonist:______________________________________________
8. A former swim instructor, lifeguard, and peer mediator, who wants to work with
kids—as a child psychologist or teacher.:________________________________
9. A criminal justice major who intends to transfer to Sacramento State University, and
would love to go to Japan to party with family (relatives):______________________
10. An outstanding water polo player from Sacramento who digs “wild paintings” and
punk music:____________________________
11. An animal lover who’s almost always smiling, and would love to be a zookeeper in
San Diego:_______________________________
12. A dance major and business minor who hopes to own her own dance studio
someday:_________________________________
13. An extremely ticklish journalism major who’s into science fiction and the
Simpsons:________________________________
14. An actor who wants to study film and theatre, and who’s good at riding any type of
board on any type of surface (e.g., water, cement, or snow):____________________
15. Enjoys extreme sports and Italian beaches, but hates gossip and men who wear
loafers: _________________________________
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16. A jazz and opera singer who would love to live in Florence, Italy: _______________
17. An introspective person who has worked at the Tournament of Roses and who loves
to talk about politics or history ____________________________________
18. Has done volunteer work at a home for battered families, and lives near
Occidental College: _____________________________________________
19. A lover of movies and fashion shows, who would like to transfer to New York
University:__________________________________________________
20. A bilingual future nurse who digs salsa and meringue music:__________________
21. A future film director with a wide range of musical interests, who admires Walt
Disney and unwinds by playing golf:__________________________________
22. A ballistics weapons expert with great running speed, who has worked as an assistant
manager of a film company: _____________________________________________
23. Comedian Rodney Dangerfield suddenly appeared at this person’s house one day and
asked if he could put a billboard on the roof:________________________________
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Exhibit 4.
Sample Calendar of Co-Curricular Experiences
for First-Year Seminar Credit
60 Total Points of Co-Curricular Experience Required by End of the Semester
At Least 20 Points of Co-Curricular Experience Required Per Month
(Note: Points attained beyond 60 will count as extra credit—up to 100)
OCTOBER
Oct. 5: Bob Hall: “Dialogue on Sex, Conflict, Alcohol, & Intimacy” (Aud., C-hr.)(20
pts.)
Oct. 6: “Ethics in Journalism” Lecture, 7 PM (15 points)
Oct. 6: “Nuts & Bolts of Leadership,” 5:30-6:30 (20 points)
Oct. 8: Video, “Reducing Test Anxiety” (Learning Center, 12 PM) (10 points)
Oct. 9: Leadership Retreat, 10-3 (25 points)
Oct. 13: “Nuts & Bolts of Leadership,” 5:30-6:30 (20 points)
Oct. 13: Movie, “Freedom from Despair,” 7 PM (Auditorium) (20 points)
Oct. 14: Faith Connection (10 points)
Oct. 15: Cultural Dinner (10 points)
Oct. 16: MOVE Event, “Operation Teddy Bear” (25 points)
Oct. 19: Alcohol Awareness Event, Chapel Circle, C-hour (15 points)
Oct. 20: Academic Integrity Forum, 7 PM (15 points)
Oct. 20: Business Roundtable, 8 PM (Auditorium) (15 points)
Oct. 20: Nuts & Bolts of Leadership, 5:30-6:30 (20 points)
Oct. 21: Recovery Panel, 7 PM (15 points)
Oct. 22-23: Catalina Service Trip (25 points)
Oct. 23: National Leadership Retreat in Long Beach (25 points)
Oct. 27: Nuts & Bolts of Leadership, 5:30-6:30 (20 points)
Oct. 30: Faith Connection (20 points)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Note: * Co-curricular events and point values for the month of November will be
distributed at the beginning of next month.
* See “Student Activities Calendar” for a snapshot of all events for the Fall
semester. (Events that are circled will count for credit in this course.)
* Other scheduled events may be added to the calendar as the semester progresses.
368
Exhibit 5.
SERVICE-LEARNING EXPERIENCE
SAMPLE REFLECTION PAPER
Name________________________
Date of Experience______
Name/Nature of Experience_______________________________________
Experience Location_____________________________________________
After participating in a service-learning event or experience, respond to the following
reflective questions. To receive credit for this assignment, please submit your answers to
these questions within one week of the experience.
1. What did you think was the educational purpose or objective of the event/experience?
2. What was your reaction to the event experience?
3. How would you characterize the reactions of others to the event/experience?
4. Did you learn anything from the event/experience? Did it have any impact on you in
any way?
5. Could you relate this event to your learning in the classroom? Did the experience
connect with, or illustrate any concepts being discussed in your courses?
6. Did the event/experience help you clarify possible major, career, or life goals? (If yes,
in what way?
369
Exhibit 6.
CO-CURRICULAR EXPERIENCE
SAMPLE REFLECTION PAPER
EVENT ATTENDED _________________________
EVENT LOCATION _________________________
NAME_______________
EVENT DATE_________
After attending this Marymount College Event/Activity, please respond to the following
reflective questions. To receive full credit, answer all parts of the questions and submit
this sheet within one week after the event was attended.
1. What did you think was the educational purpose or objective of this event/activity?
2. How did you react to the event? What (if anything) did you learn from it? Did it have
an impact on you in any way?
3. Was the event well attended? How would you characterize the reaction of others who
attended the event?
4. Would you recommend that this event or presentation be conducted on campus next
year? If yes, why? If no, why not?
5. Additional Comments? Insights? Recommendations?
370
Exhibit 7.
PROMPTED JOURNAL ENTRIES TIED TO THE
“RHYTHMS” OF THE ACADEMIC TERM
“The Beginning”
(At least 3 complete sentences per question please)
You’re just about to start your first semester in college. Right now, what are you most:
(a) excited about?
(b) concerned or worried about?
“First Impressions”
(At least 3 complete sentences per question, please)
You’ve completed your first week at Marymount College . . .
(1) What is your first impression?
(2) What are you the most excited about or satisfied with thus far?
(3) What are you the least excited about or satisfied with thus far?
(4) What have you encountered thus far in college that was least expected or most
surprising?
(5) Do you feel comfortable here at this point?
(6) Is there anything you need more information on, or help with right now?
“Midterm Reflections”
(At least 3 complete sentences per question, please)
1. Compared to my first few weeks on campus, my stress level now is . . . .
2. Compared to the grades I received, I expected my midterm grades to be . . . .
3. What has hurt my grades thus far has been . . . .
4. What has helped my grades thus far has been . . . .
5. The best thing I could do to improve my grades between now and finals is to . . . .
371
6. What I could use the most help with right now is . . . .
“Flashbacks”
(At least 3 complete sentences per question, please)
Look back at the previous journal entries you have made throughout this course:
1. Do you see any consistencies or recurrent themes in your attitudes or behaviors? (If
yes, why? (If no, why not?)
2. Do you see any patterns of personal change or development across the semester?
(If no, why not?)(If yes, would you say these changes have been positive or negative?)
3. What (if anything) have you learned from this journaling process, or from any other
experiences you’ve had this semester, which you think will promote your future
success?
372
Exhibit 8.
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING GROUP-PROJECT PRESENTATIONS
1. PREPARATION
1.1 Is your team on time and ready to go at its scheduled starting time?
1.2 Does everyone seem to know what they’re going to say and the order in which
they’re going to say it?
1.3 Is what you actually present consistent with what you said you were going to do in
your outline?
1.4 Are the individual presentations well rehearsed so that there is little stopping & restarting, stumbling & bumbling, or confusion about what’s supposed to happen next?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. ORGANIZATION
2.1 Does the first speaker provide an introduction, overview, or preview of what the team
will be attempting to do?
2.2 Are the separate parts of the presentation logically connected?
2.3 Does each speaker make a smooth transition that “connects” with the previous
speaker and the speaker who follows?
2.4 Does the final speaker (“anchor”) provide a summary or conclusion that “wraps up”
or “ties together” the team’s total presentation?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. DELIVERY
3.1 Do the presenters make at least periodic eye contact with the audience, rather than
reading word-for-word from their written notes? (Note: Notes may be used as an
outline or reminder for key points to be made, but should not be used as a script to be
read verbatim.)
3.2 Is the total time taken by your team consistent with the recommended time (i.e., about
15-20 minutes long)?
3.3 Do all individuals contribute about equally to the team presentation? (i.e., Does each
member speak for about the same amount of time (about 5 minutes)?
3.4 Is the presentation delivered in an interesting, attention-grabbing, or creative manner
(e.g., visual aids; audience involvement)?
373
HOW YOUR OVERALL GRADE WILL BE CALCULATED
* Your overall grade for this project will be based on two separate grades:
1) An individual grade to ensure personal responsibility—each person in
the group will receive a separate grade for his/her outline and
individual presentation—so each person must carry his/her “own
weight.” This will carry the most weight in determining your grade.
2) A group grade to ensure collective responsibility—all members will
receive an additional grade for the overall quality of the group
presentation—so a good “team effort” will raise your individual grade.
REMINDERS
* Sorry, but no extensions can be granted—all presentations need to be
made at their assigned times. Thanks.
* If you need help, don’t hesitate to ask.
* You can check with me beforehand to see if you’re “on the right track.”
GOOD LUCK!
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GROUP PROJECT:
INSTRUCTOR EVALUATION FORM
RESEARCH & DOCUMENTATION
Comments:
1. Supporting evidence/references
2. “Tie-in” with information presented in class
3. Inclusion of information from assigned readings
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ORGANIZATION
Comments:
1. Introduction/Preview
2. Parts logically connected
3. Conclusion/Summary
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DELIVERY
Comments:
1. Information presented in a clear & understandable manner.
2. Information presented is up-to-date & accurate.
3. Total presentation time is within stipulated range.
4. Information delivered in an interesting and/or creative manner.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------TEAMWORK
Comments:
1. Members contribute equally.
2. Individual members relate own ideas to ideas presented by teammates.
3. Smooth, coordinated transitions from one member to another.
4. Individual parts are joined together to form a unified whole.
375
FINAL COMMENTS ON THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS:
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------FINAL COMMENTS ON THE OVERALL QUALITY OF THE TEAM
PRESENTATION:
376
Exhibit 9.
- Directions to Students USING READING OBJECTIVES AS A STUDY GUIDE FOR COURSE EXAMS
Test questions from your assigned reading will be tied to specific reading objectives that
are provided on the following pages. Note that reading objectives containing the word
“recognize” will appear as true-false and multiple-choice questions on the exam. As is
discussed in chapter 5 of your text, these types of test questions require recognition
memory, so these test questions will ask you to identify and select the correct answer
from choices that are given to you; you do not have to recall and write out the answer on
your own. The best study strategy for “recognize” reading objectives is to highlight its
answer in the text and just be familiar with the answer so that you will be able to
recognize and select it when it appears on the test in the form of a multiple-choice or
true-false question.
Reading objectives that contain the word “recall” will appear as short essay questions on
the exam. These questions will ask you to provide the correct answer in writing. Since
these questions require you to recall the information on your own (not just recognize it),
the best study strategy for these objectives is to write out the answers to them and
practice rehearsing the correct answer without looking at it. (For example, put the
reading objective on one side of an index card and the correct answer on the flip side; this
will allow you to practice rehearsing and recalling the answer without being able to see
it—just as you will be expected to do it on the exam).
Thus, for tests based on the assigned reading, the reading objectives serve as a complete
study guide, enabling you to know what information to study and how to study it (to
recognize it or recall it)
You will find that answers to the reading objectives appear in the same order in the
textbook chapter as they are listed on the sheet of reading objectives. For example, the
answer to reading objective #1 will appear toward the very beginning of the chapter; the
answer to reading objective #2 will follow a little later in the chapter, and the answer to
reading objective #3 will come after the answer to reading objective #2 etc. Thus, a good
reading strategy would be to look at the first reading objective, read the chapter until you
come to information relating to that objective and then stop your reading to highlight the
answer to it if it’s a recognition objective, or write out the answer to it if it’s a recall
objective. Then look at the next reading objective and continue reading until you reach
the information relating to it, answer it, and continue this way until you have answered all
the reading objectives that have been assigned. You can use the reading objectives in this
way to guide your reading from start to finish of the chapter.
To maximize your performance on reading tests or quizzes, it is recommended that you
do the reading and answer the reading objectives on your own, and then team-up with
other classmates to double-check your answers to the reading objectives. This two-stage
377
process should ensure that you have acquired all the information you need to know from
the reading prior to taking exams or quizzes that include questions based on the reading.
378
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