Neolithic Revolution
The earliest major turning point in the history of man is the Neolithic or Agricultural
Revolution. The Neolithic began when people started to develop permanent or sedentary
agriculture, in addition to domesticating animals for their own use.
Prior to the Neolithic Revolution most people engaged in hunting and gathering to provide
food, as this resulted in limited amounts of food these societies typically only lived in groups
of 30 to 50 people. These societies are known as pre-agricultural societies and they are
societies that existed prior to the advent of agriculture.
Pre-agricultural and agricultural societies had many differences. For example, foraging
societies and agricultural societies were different in that one society required that humans
move with the seasons and the herds to ensure that they had enough food and the other
required humans stay in one place and depend on farming for their food supply. In foraging
societies food was provided by both the males and females, whereas in agricultural
societies it is the men that bare the burden of supplying food. Therefore, foraging societies
were more egalitarian, or equal, than agricultural societies, which were patriarchal, or male
dominated.
While it is widely believed that there was greater equality between sexes during the preagricultural period, it is also believed that disparities, or inequalities, existed in wealth
within the societies. Archeologists believe this to be true because they have discovered,
varying quality of graves in pre-agricultural excavation sites.
There are many different long term effects of the Neolithic Revolution. The most important
effect that continues to shape our lives to this day is the fact that it was the advent of
agriculture that allowed humans to begin to settle in one place and develop sedentary
lifestyles. Another effect of the Neolithic Revolution is that as people began to rely more on
agriculture to supply food and live in one place the concentrations of people began to
increase. Therefore, the Neolithic Revolution led to an overall increase in the world’s
population density.
Early Civilization
Soon after the advent of agriculture humanity saw the creation of early civilizations. As
civilizations began to develop and more and more people were living together it became
necessary to develop a way to organize people and complete public works projects. In
particular, the early civilization required large-scale irrigation projects to allow for increased
agriculture. These civilizations found that they required some form of government to help
organize these large scale projects.
The early governments also found it necessary to create some form of legal code. The
earliest known example of this can be found in the Code of Hammurabi which was
established by the Babylonian King Hammurabi. This code of laws creates guidelines for a
system of law. The code also shows that Babylonian society was marked by social
inequalities. This is shown by the different punishments that are given based on the class
the offender is in.
Patriarchal societies also developed during this time period. A patriarchal society is a male
dominated society. In patriarchal societies women are expected to be obedient and
submissive to their fathers, husbands, and sons. In a patriarchal society wives are expected
to leave their homes at the time of marriage and move into their husband’s family home.
Another development during the early civilizations was the beginnings of specialized labor.
Agricultural surpluses or excess food allowed increasing numbers of individuals to seek
other opportunities for work. It is at this point that you begin to see to an even greater
extent differentiation within societies, or the development of class based societies.
Cultural diffusion and independent development were both prominent in early civilizations.
For example, agriculture is itself considered to be an independent development that was
developed in several different areas of the world independently. Meanwhile, the wheel is
an example of cultural diffusion. It was developed by the Sumerians and then spread
throughout Afro-Eurasia from there.
As noted above, river valley civilizations differed from the early agricultural societies in that
they developed systems of government. It is this same factor that helps to distinguish the
early river valley civilizations from the Classical civilizations. During the Classical period,
many elaborate systems of government were created thus further separating themselves
from the river valley civilizations.
There are many changes that took place at the end of the Classical period, but one area of
great interest is in the area of religion. In China and in Rome, at roughly the same time,
these civilizations saw the rise of new religions, Buddhism and Christianity respectively. In
Rome this created a bigger problem than it did in China in that Christianity conflicted with
the Roman system of government, where Buddhism did not in China. Classical India did not
experience this situation; in fact, Hinduism reasserted itself during the Classical period and
was more a part of that society at the end of the period than it was at the beginning.
Greece
Greece is located at the tip of the Balkan Peninsula and includes over 2000 islands. Greece
is also mountainous and does not contain many rivers. Due to its geography the individual
Greek city-states developed isolated from each other. For this reason they each developed
their own political traditions.
Greece’s geography also made agriculture difficult for many of the city-states. Trade,
therefore became very important to many of the Greek city-states. Trade brought the
Greeks into contact with the Phoenicians, another Mediterranean trading nation, centered
in modern day Lebanon. From the Phoenicians the Greeks learned many important
concepts including the concept of the alphabet.
Greek science and technology are some of the most lasting legacies of the Greek Empire.
The writings of Greek scholars were translated into many different languages, in particular
into Arabic. These teachings would go on to influence scholars in other parts of the world.
This is most evident in Islamic medical books, which build on Greek medical knowledge.
After the fall of the Greece states to the Persian Empire the Greek legacy was carried on by
Alexander the Great. Alexander the Great is known for his creation of the largest empire
the world had seen to that point. However, his empire was not lasting, and fell apart within
a generation of his death. Alexander’s empire did have have a lasting legacy in that it
spread Greek culture, or Hellenistic (Greek-like) culture, throughout the Eastern
Mediterranean and Southwest Asia.
Han/Rome/Persian Empires:
The Roman and Han Empires shared many similarities, despite the fact that they developed
separately from each other. Both empires developed strong bureaucracies that allowed
them to establish a long period with effective centralized rule. The Han, Persian and Roman
Empires all had strong militaries that they used to expand their empires and to maintain
control of the territory that they controlled. To do this they each developed reliable supply
lines and built infrastructure, including defensive walls and roads.
One difference in the Roman and Han Empires was the value that was placed on merchants.
In Rome many merchants became very wealthy and the profession as a whole was well
regarded. In China, however, merchants were considered below peasants. They were
thought to be the lowest profession in that they were people who gained their wealth
through the exploitation of others.
The Silk Road was a major trade route that flourished during the time of the Roman and
Han Empires. The Silk Road was a collection of many different smaller trade routes that
carried goods from China all the way to Europe, Thus connecting Han China to the Roman
Empire.
Many different causes led to the fall of the Roman, Han and Gupta empires. Things like
disease, increased corruption, and weak leadership all played their part in the decline of
these empires. It was however, the intensified invasions and security issues that plagued
the frontiers of all of these empires that led to their eventual decline.
China
Throughout its early history China was ruled by a hereditary monarchy. The Chinese rulers
from very early on claimed the “Mandate of Heaven”. The Mandate of Heaven is the “right
to rule” granted to the rulers of China by Heaven. What is most important about this
principle is that the Chinese believed that a ruler could lose his mandate if he was unjust or
unwise. The way that the Chinese would known if a ruler had lost his mandate was if there
were a series of natural disasters or the ruler lost a series of battles, as well as other bad
omens.
From an early date, the Chinese underwent major construction projects. Two of these
projects were the Great Wall and the Grand Canal. The Great Wall was built to protect
against invasions, while the Grand Canal was meant to provide a new way for goods and
people to travel from Northern to Southern China and vice versa.
Confucianism from a very early date onwards will play a key role in Chinese society. In
Confucian society, scholars, or the scholar gentry, are at the top of the hierarchy. In
Confucian teachings education and being learned is extremely valued. It is for this reason
that the scholars are at the top of the hierarchy. Merchants, however, are not highly valued
in Chinese society at the time. This is because they are believed to take from others for
their own benefit. This is not in line with the Confucian belief that all individuals have a role
in society and as long as they fill their role there will be order. Women were expected to be
subservient to the men in their lives, first to their father, then their husband and finally their
sons.
Both China and India had highly structured social hierarchies. They however, each valued
different members of society. In India the priestly class was placed at the top of the social
hierarchy, whereas in China it was the scholar-gentry. In China merchants were considered
below the peasantry, but this was not the case in India.
The Chinese lack of respect for merchants slowly evolves over time. In fact, during the
fifteenth century, the Ming dynasty sent out fleets of hundreds of treasure ships. These
ships were several times larger than the European caravels that would sail at approximately
the same time.
Buddhism will become very popular in China during the Han dynasty. That being said many
of the Chinese, the nobility in particular, will feel that Buddhism is merely an Indian version
of Daoism, and that the Indians borrowed directly from Laozi. In this way the Chinese
reaffirm their belief in the superiority of their culture.
Japan
During the 1500s, Japan had a feudal society in which there was a highly stratified society. At the top of
the social pyramid was the Emperor, who while considered a god had little to no real power. Below the
Emperor was the Shogun, who was the military leader and help the real power in the society. Below the
Shogun were a series of different Daimyo’s or wealthy landowners. Each of the Daimyos had several
samurai who swore allegiance to them. The samurai were much like the European knights.
Women in Japanese society, much like women in European society were expected to take care of the
home and manage the household finances. They were expected to be deferential to the men in their
lives and to be respectful.
Religions
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three major monotheistic religions. Judaism is the oldest of the
three and it forms the baseline for the other two. Important figures like Adam, Abraham and Moses are
recognized by all three of the major monotheistic religions. Jesus, while the founder of Christianity, and
believed to be the son of God, and therefore divine, or heavenly by Christians, is recognized as a
prophet, as is Moses, by Muslims. In this way the three monotheistic religions share many of the same
important figures. However, the most important belief that they all share is the belief in a single
omnipotent deity, or god.
The Vedic religions in India are the early traditional religions that developed throughout the
subcontinent. The Vedic religions were all written down and the teachings combined to form the
foundation for the Hindu faith. It is the Vedic religions that created the foundation for the Indian caste
system.
Hinduism and Buddhism are both major religions that developed in India. Hinduism is much older and
stems from the different stories as written in the Vedas. Buddhism was developed in the 7 th century CE
and is based on the life and teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. The two religions share the belief in
reincarnation and karma, but the two differ in how one achieves enlightenment. Buddhism denies the
need for the caste system, rites, and sacrifice in the quest to achieve enlightenment, or Nirvana, while
Hinduism believes that they are all a fundamental part of the journey to rejoin with Brahma, or Moksha.
Christianity and Buddhism, while developed nearly 600 years apart, share many similarities, in particular
in how they spread. Both religions were aided in their spread by exiting trade routes, like the Silk Road
and the Mediterranean Sea trade. Both religions were outgrowths of other older religions, Judaism and
Hinduism, respectively. Lastly, in both Christianity and Buddhism there developed monastic orders open
to women. One major difference between the two is that Christians believe that Jesus was divine,
whereas Buddhists believe that while Siddhartha Gautama became enlightened he was not a god.
In both Hinduism and Judaism written scriptures play an important role in the development of the
religion. These religious text provide both of the religions with an ethical code to live by.
Islamic Civilization
Arab expansion took place over a relatively short period of time. Spreading from the
Arabian Peninsula throughout the Middle East North Africa and Spain, Arab expansion
occurred in large areas with relatively large urban centers, like Damascus, Cairo, Tunis and
others. Despite, the rapid and board sweeping nature of Islamic expansion, a few areas in
North Africa help onto their Christian beliefs. The two most notable areas were in Egypt
and in Ethiopia.
The expansion of Islam affected Europe in many different ways. However, the most
important impact of the spread of Islam is the knowledge and ideas that spread with the
Empire. It was through the Islamic world that Europe was reintroduced to the works of
Greek philosophers, scientist and astronomers. One area of particular importance was the
transmission of medical knowledge, as seen in the Islamic medical books, which rely heavily
on Greek teachings.
Other important information that was to spread through the Islamic world was the Indian
numeral and decimal system. Developed in Indian during the classical era, these
mathematical ideas were spread to Europe by way of the Arab world.
In Islam, depictions of God and the prophet Mohammed are discouraged. For this reason,
Islamic art is characterized by geometric and floral designs. Islamic architecture varies
throughout the Islamic World. This is due to the fact that Islamic architecture frequently
blends with local architecture throughout the areas controlled by the Islamic caliphates. In
Spain for example, the Moorish architecture blends traditional Spanish architecture with
the rounded arches and geometric shapes that can be found throughout the Islamic world.
The Byzantine Empire
Prior to the collapse of the Roman Empire the empire split into two parts. The Western
portion of the Empire was plagued by weak leaders, disease, high taxes, corruption and
most importantly a series of invasions from the Germanic peoples to the North. The
Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire was however able to survive because it had a loyal
army, skilled bureaucracy and great reserves of wealth based on agriculture.
Over the course of Byzantine rule the empire exerted a considerable amount of influence,
and at different points, direct control of the Slavic peoples to the north. There are many
different effects the Byzantines had on the Slavic people ranging from their style of art and
architecture to help in developing an alphabet. The most important effect the Byzantine
Empire had on the Slavic people was the conversion of the Slavs to Orthodox Christianity.
Europe
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Europe went into series decline, more so than any other region
of the world at the time. The Viking invasions of the 9th century came at a time when Western Europe was
in turmoil. Government had completely collapsed and the feudal system was beginning to take shape. The
Vikings used rivers to travel throughout Europe and take control of various areas. The territory that the
Vikings expanded into was mostly rural and there were few large urban centers.
The most important element of feudalism was the relationship between a lord and his vassal requires a vow
of service in exchange for a piece of land. This exchange sometimes involved money, food and legal help as
well. In some cases, the lord was a member of the Church, as the Church was a major landowner during
medieval Europe. In England, the feudal relationship was further defined by the Magna Carta which was an
English document that limited the power of the King of England. It showed that even the King is subject to
the law. Soon after the Magna Carta in England France and Britain engaged in the Hundred Years War, a
battle between Britain and France over French land. Joan of Arc was born a female French peasant,
believing that she was called into service by God Joan of Arc dressed as a man and went to fight the British.
Joan of Arc will rise to control parts of the French army and will defeat the British on many fronts.
Life for women in Europe around 1100 CE was marked by in equality. Women were considered beneath
their male counterparts and were expected to manage the household supplies and finances. In Europe,
unlike in some other place women had a few rights, namely they could expect to be the only wife to their
husband, as polygamy was outlawed.
Around 1100 CE a new innovative building technique developed in Europe. This style of building is referred
to as Gothic. It is characterized by tall pointed arches, buttress and high ceilings. Gothic architecture is
mostly commonly seen in cathedrals built in Europe during this time. Gothic architecture would later pave
the way for the Renaissance a time where many different advances made in the world of art. The most
important advancement of the movement was the use of single-point perspective.
The Bubonic plague was a disease that decimated, or wiped out much of the world’s population. It spread
from China along trade routes making its way through the Mongol Empire to Europe, where if killed 1/3 of
the population between 1200 and 1300 CE.
Towards the end of the medieval period Europeans set out on Crusades to the Middle East. There were
many different causes of the Crusades. They ranged from a desire to reclaim the Holy Land to papal efforts
to unite Western European nobles and rulers in support of the papacy, or office of the pope. The crusaders
were knights from all over Europe, many of them from France, hence the reason that they are referred to
as Franks by Muslims of the time period. These knights were often part of military orders of the Catholic
Church who had pledged to preserve Christendom, such as the Templars, Teutonic Knights and Hospitallars.
After the Medieval period European set out on voyages of Exploration. During the 15th century, Europeans
sailed in caravels. These ships were larger than any ship that the Europeans had used previously, so they
allowed them to take longer voyages and carry more cargo. The Caravel was however, significantly smaller
than the Chinese treasure ships.
Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire spread from China in the East throughout Central Asia parts of Eastern
Europe in the East through the Middle East in the South and through Russia in the North. It
was the largest land empire the world has ever known.
During Mongol rule, the territory that it controlled was united under the leadership of the
Mongols. This unity allowed for the reestablishment of the Silk Road and the connection of
East Asia with Europe.
Africa
Trade has historically been very important to the African continent. With so many natural
resources it has been a focus for outsiders for many centuries. During the period 900-1450
CE, the sub-Saharan trade was characterized by the trade of gold to the Middle East and
Europe. It is also trade that led to the growth of Islam, before 1450, in West Africa was
largely the result of the influence of Muslim traders from the north involved in the TransSaharan trade.
The spread of Bantu-speaking people over Southern Africa before 1400 CS was sparked by
the need to find new areas of food and trade. Evidence for this can be found in their
knowledge of agriculture. The Bantu migrations were the migration of the Bantu peoples
from southern Africa to the East coast of Africa. The effects of this migration can be seen in
the diffusion of iron metallurgy in sub-Saharan Africa and the development of the Swahili
language.
The Americas
The 1400s are considered to be a major turning point in world history because it is at this
point that America will be incorporated into a broader global network of exchange.
Two of the most important civilization in the Americas prior to the arrival of the Europeans
were the Aztec and Incan civilizations. Both of these civilizations acquired their territory
through conquering their neighbors and both developed innovative farming techniques that
they used to increase agricultural output.
The Columbian Exchange was an exchange of goods, ideas, diseases and other things
Between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This exchange of goods had many
different effects in that it led to the spread of new foods to the Eastern hemisphere that will
supply more reliable sources of food and will cause populations to grow. The Columbian
exchange will also be responsible to the pandemic diseases that will decimate, or wipe out
the Amerindian population.
Trade
Indian Ocean Trade is unique in that it both flourished and was conducted by a mixture of
Asian, Middle Eastern and East African merchants, in this way, the Indian Ocean trade was a
center for cultural diffusion as so many different cultures interacted in the trade.
The monsoon winds were what allowed Indian Ocean trade to take place. It was the
understanding of the wind and current patterns of the region that allowed traders to travel
with relative ease throughout the regions. Similar knowledge was also important in the
development of trans-Atlantic trade.
During the 15th century the most important commodity that was traded in the transSaharan trade was gold, but the second most important was slaves. Mali was a central hub
for West Africa, where the trade of gold was most important.
There are many different effects of trade in the Indian Ocean region and in Africa. Many
different religions spread along the Indian Ocean trade. Islam spread throughout the region
through trade, but it was not the only one. During the early days of the Indian Ocean trade
Hinduism spread to South East Asia from India, it will however be replaced by Islam. Also in
East Africa the language of Swahili developed as a direct result of the trade. Swahili is a mix
of the Bantu languages and Arabic, the language used by many of the Indian Ocean traders.
Increased interregional trade directly resulted in the development of cities in East Africa
and in South East Asia. Cities like Kilwa, Mombasa, Cambay and Goa were all directly tied to
the trade.
The expansion of communication and trade networks in Afro-Eurasia from 600 CE to 1450
CE resulted in the spread from South Asia of technological and scientific concepts, such as
the decimal and zero.
The trans-Atlantic trade was important because of the growth of cash crops such as sugar
and tobacco as significant commodities on the global world market. Increased production
of cash crops like sugar led to a significant increase in the trade of slaves after 1500.
Ibn Battuta, was a merchant and hajji who travelled through much of the known world,
some of the places that he visited included India, Mali and Persia, amongst others.
During the period 1000 to 1450 the Middle East was engaged in regular trade with China,
India and Sub-Saharan Africa.