Chapter 6 – Feedback, Reinforcement, and Intrinsic Motivation
Reinforcement – the use of rewards and punishments that increase or decrease the likelihood
of a similar response occurring in the future. Based on theories of behavior modification and
operant conditioning.
Principles of reinforcement:
 If doing something produces good results, we’ll do it again.
 If doing something produces bad results, we will avoid doing it again.
 Principles are complex because people react differently to the same reinforcement.
 People cannot always repeat the desired behavior.
 People may receive different reinforces in different situations.
Approaches to Influencing Behavior:
 The positive approach strengthens desired behaviors by motivating participants to
perform them and rewarding them when they occur. Sport psychologists think this is the
best.
 The negative approach focuses on errors and thus attempts to eliminate unwanted
behaviors through punishment and criticism. – the primary motivation is fear.
Most coaches combine positive and negative approaches. Sport psychologists agree that the
predominant approach with sport and physical activity participants should be positive.
Positive Reinforcement – if coach is positive, the athletes: like their teammates better, enjoy
their athletic experience more, like their coaches more and have greater team cohesion
1) Choose effective reinforcers:
 Social – praise, smile, publicity
 Material – trophies, medals
 Activity – play a game rather than drill
 Special outings – go to professional game
2) Schedule reinforcement effectively:
 During the early learning stages, continuous and immediate reinforcement is desired
 In later stages, intermittent, immediate reinforcement is more effective.
 The sooner after a response that a reinforcement is given, the more powerful the effect on
behavior
 A continuous schedule requires rewarding after every correct response.
 A partial schedule requires rewarding intermittently.
3) Reward appropriate behaviors
 Reward performance, not just results
 If an individual performs the skill correctly, that’s all he can do – he may not be able to
control the outcome
4) With difficult skills, shape the behavior of the learner by reinforcing close approx. of
the desired behavior
5) Reward performance, not only outcomes
6) Reward effort
7) Reward emotional and social skills – we MUST teach sportsmanship, responsibility,
and good judgement
Provide feedback
 Knowledge of results helps people improve performance by providing specific feedback
regarding the (in)correctness of their response by enhancing their motivation
 Feedback should be sincere and contingent on some behavior
 Should provide motivational and informational feedback
 Use varied types of feedback – verbal praise, facial expressions, and pats on the back
Benefits of feedback:
1) Motivational  Feedback about performance helps motivate and instruct
 Feedback is reinforcing
 Helps establish goal-setting
2) Instructional – provides information about:
a. specific behaviors that should be performed
b. levels of proficiency that should be achieved
c. the performer’s current level of proficiency in the desired task
Using feedback during practice sessions:
 Fb should have info. Relevant to performing the skill correctly
 Fb should be appropriate to the performance
 Fb should be given ASAP
 Fb should promote the performer taking personal responsibility for performance &
behavior
 Fb should be short, clear and age-appropriate
How to give feedback:
1) Call the student (athlete) by name
2) Tell him/her something he/she is doing correctly.
3) Explain what they need to improve
4) Set some criteria for this improvement
5) Watch them perform the skill again.
Punishment
 80% - 90% of reinforcement should be positive
 In society, we use punishment more
 Punishment can control and change negative behavior
Problems with punishment:
 Fear of failure causes decrease in performance – choking – focus on fear of losing rather
than doing what needs to be done
 Punishment can reinforce the undesirable behavior by drawing attention to it
 Can create an unpleasant and aversive learning environment
 Are unwilling to try new skills for fear of punishment if not successful.
Guidelines for punishment:
1) Be consistent
2) Punish the behavior, not the person
3) Allow athletes to have input in deciding punishments
4) Do NOT use physical activity as punishment
5) Make sure the punishment is not rewarding
6) Impose punishment impersonally
7) Do not punish athletes for errors while they are playing
8) Do not embarrass individuals in front of teammates
9) Use punishment sparingly, & enforce it when you use it
What not to do: (pg. 131)
 Intimidation
 Criticism
 Criticism with sarcasm
 Physical abuse
 Guilt
Modifying behavior in sport:
Behavior management – systematic application of the basic principles of reinforcement to
change behavior.
Behavioral techniques:
 Feedback and reinforcement in football
 Behavioral coaching in golf –
o Backward chaining – the last step in a chain is taught first, then the next to the
last step, etc until the entire skill is learned – very effective
 Recording and shaping in basketball
 Inappropriate tennis behaviors
Implementing Behavioral Programs:
1-Target the behavior
2-Define targeted behaviors
3-Record the behaviors
4-Provide meaningful feedback
5-State the outcomes clearly
6-Tailor the reward system
Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Rewards
Intrinsic motivation – striving inwardly to be competent and self-determining – rewards
within the participant.
Extrinsic rewards -rewards from external sources.
Basic question – Do extrinsic rewards undermine intrinsic motivation?
o Research shows that being paid for working on an intrinsically interesting activity can
decrease a person’s intrinsic motivation toward the activity.
o How rewards are perceived is crucial in determining whether intrinsic motivation
increases or decreases.
o Rewards that are perceived to control a person’s behavior or suggest the individual is
not competent decreases intrinsic motivation
o Rewards that emphasize the informational aspect and provide positive feedback about
competence increase intrinsic motivation
o How the reward will affect intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient
perceives the information to be more controlling or more informational
o Athletic scholarships can either decrease or increase athletes’ level of intrinsic
motivation, depending on which is more emphasized – the controlling or the
informational aspect
o The more an individual is extrinsically motivated, the less he will be intrinsically
motivated
Cognitive evaluation theory
Any events that affect individual’s perception of competence and feelings of selfdetermination ultimately will also affect their levels of intrinsic motivation
How Extrinsic Rewards Affect Intrinsic Motivation:
 Competitive success tends to increase intrinsic motivation, whereas competitive failure
tends to decrease intrinsic motivation
 Positive feedback produces higher levels of intrinsic feedback than negative feedback.
Higher levels of intrinsic motivation are related to the following:
 Playing for an autonomous (democratic) versus a controlling coach
 Participating in a recreational versus a competitive league
 High versus low perceived competence
 High versus low perceived control
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation:
 Provide for successful experiences
 Give rewards contingent on performance
 Use verbal & nonverbal praise
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Vary content & sequence of practice drills
Involve participants in decision making
Set realistic performance goals
What makes a task intrinsically motivating?
 Balance of skill & challenge
 Complete absorption in the activity
 Merging of action & awareness
 Total concentration