SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Brief Study Guide
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In preparation for the scheduled exam (see website) make yourself very familiar with
following terms, key topics and concepts
the listed units and chapters refer to the lecture course-required textbook “Biology:
Concept & Connections”; Campbell, Reece, Taylor & Simon; 9th edition
Final Exam
Chapter 10: DNA, DNA replication, DNA transcription and protein translation
DNA Replication:
1. Rehearse the basic chemical composition and structure of DNA and RNA; know that both
biological macromolecules are polynucleotides or so-called nucleic acids
2. Know the 4 nucleotides that cells use to build-up (= synthesize) DNA and RNA molecules
3. Know the names and abbreviations of the 5 nucleotides cells use to make DNA and RNA.
Which nucleotides are found in DNA? Which one in RNA molecules?
4. Rehearse the role of hydrogen bonding in the formation/maintenance of the DNA double
helix. Are hydrogen bonds strong or weak bonds?
5. Know during which phase of the cell cycle DNA replication occurs
6. Know where on the DNA strand in a cell DNA replication (or duplication) begins (hint:
ori)
7. Know the first event during DNA replication. Which one is it and which enzyme is
involved?
8. Know the name of the enzyme which adds the new nucleotides to the leading and lagging
DNA strand.
9. Know the name of the short RNA snipplets/pieces which are necessary for successful
initiation of DNA replication (hint: primers). Rehearse their function. Why are they needed
for successful DNA replication!
10. Know the second function of the DNA polymerase enzyme during DNA replication (think
of repair and control)
11. Be able to define and explain following terms: replication fork, Okazaki fragments, lagging
strand, leading strand, replication bubbles,
12. Be familiar with the term “mutagen” and know some prominent examples (hint:
benzo(a)pyren, nitrosamines, mustard gas); understand how certain mutagenic molecules
can interfere with the normal (otherwise smoothly running) DNA replication process
13. Understand why the cellular DNA replication mechanism leads to two (almost) identical
DNA daughter strands
14. Know which enzyme is responsible to guarantee a stunningly low error rate during DNA
replication
15. Understand why (despite proof-reading of the copied DNA) DNA replication may lead to
rare point mutations and plays a significant role in the (slow) change of genetic material
over periods of time! Discuss the contribution of replication errors happing during DNA
replication to evolutionary change on planet Earth.
DNA Transcription:
1. Know the definition of DNA transcription
2. What is the name of the transcribed molecule
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
3. Know which enzyme is responsible for DNA transcription in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
4. Know the place/location within a cell where DNA transcription takes place
5. Know the three phases of DNA transcription by name (hint: initiation, elongation,
termination) and be able to describe the major events occurring during each of these phases
6. Know the name of the piece of RNA one observes in cells after DNA transcription.
7. Know what happens to the pre-mRNA after DNA transcription in eukaryotic cells
(keyword: RNA processing)
8. What is an operon in bacterial cells? What advantage does it give bacteria? Know one
prominent example of a bacterial operon (hint: think of milk and lactose)
9. Be able to define and explain following terms: intron, exon, RNA splicing, transcription
factor,
10. What is the advantage of RNA splicing one observes in eukaryotic cells?
11. Rehearse the important role of the nuclear pores for the transport of mRNA out of the
nucleus into the cytosol
12. Understand why mutations or dysregulation of certain transcription factors, such as myc or
NFkB, can contribute to the development of cancer
Protein translation & Genetic code:
1. Know the names of the three RNA molecules which are necessary for successful translation
of genetic information on a gene into a protein
2. Know the place within a cell where protein translation takes place
3. Where do you find the ribosomes in eukaryotic cells? Where in bacteria?
4. Of how many protein sub-units is a ribosome made up from?
5. Know the difference between aminoacyl-tRNA and tRNA. Which of the two ones binds to
the ribosome and which one usually leaves a ribosome?
6. Be able to name the three phases of protein translation (hint: initiation, elongation and
termination) and know the major events at the ribosome during each of these phases.
7. Be able to define and explain following terms: P-site, A-site, small sub-unit, large sub-unit,
rRNA, mRNA, codon, anti-codon, transpeptidylation reaction, releasing factor (RF),
translocation
8. Who the heck was Marshall Nirenberg? What did he and his team achieve in the 1960s?
9. Understand why the genetic code of all forms of life on planet Earth is based on a triplet
code and not on a binary code. (compare the genetic code of life with the binary code of
computers)
10. Know how to read and interpret the genetic code table.
11. Know which amino acid is encoded by the codon ATG
12. Be able to define and explain following terms: stop codon, start codon, redundancy of the
genetic code,
13. Know how many codons are actually coding for an amino acid
14. Know some famous and infamous ribosomal toxins and poisons which prevent cellular
protein translation (hint: cycloheximide)
15. Understand why many bacteria target the cellular “protein translation complex” with the
help of released toxins. Be able to name one.
16. Understand why and how DNA mutations, e.g. point mutations, deletions, insertions, can
lead to aberrant or mutated proteins after protein translation
17. Be able to name some factors and/or chemicals that are known to cause DNA mutations
18. Understand why and under which circumstances DNA mutations can lead to cancer
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
Chapter 13: Evolutionary Theory: How species and populations evolve
 Be sure you remember the names of the major contributors to the development of the
modern evolutionary theory (classical and synthetic), including Ch. Darwin, R. Wallace, T.
Dobzansky, E. Mayr, S.J. Gould
 Know the four basic statements and core ideas of the evolutionary theory as introduced by
Darwin in 1859.
 Know the difference between artificial selection and natural selection. Know examples.
 Know the fields which contribute strong evidence for evolution, incl. fossils, biogeography,
comparative anatomy, comparative embryology and molecular biology. Be able to give
examples for each.
 What is a vestiges? What is atavism?
 Fossil evidence supporting the evolution of whales from a four-legged land mammal.
 Know which further ideas and statements have been added to the theory in the 1940s by E.
Mayr and T. Dobzhansky in the so-called “synthetic evolutionary theory”
 Know the definition of “species”.
 What is the core contribution of population genetics to the modern evolutionary theory?
 What are allele frequencies? What is the definition for “gene pool”?
 What is microevolution?
 Be familiar with the Hardy-Weinberg equation and know how to apply the equation to
calculate allele frequencies.
 What is the bottle neck effect? What can lead to it and what are the consequences for a
population of life forms?
 Rehearse the two contributors of variation, i.e. mutations and recombination events. What
causes mutations?
 Understand how diploidy preserves variation despite natural selection favoring certain
allele combinations.
 What is the heterozygote advantage? E.g. sickle cell anemia & malaria.
 Rehearse the 3 different types of natural selection. What is the difference in outcome
between stabilizing, directional and disruptive natural selection?
 Understand why natural selection does not lead to “perfect biological life forms”.
 Understand and be able to interpret the phrase “survival of the fittest” in the context of the
evolutionary theory; what does “fit” mean in a Darwinian sense?
Chapter 14: The origin of species
 What is meant in the evolutionary theory by the term “speciation”?
 How is a species defined according to the modern evolutionary theory?
 Know examples of factors and events which can lead to speciation
 Know the difference between allopatric and sympatric speciation. Know one or two
(textbook) examples for each of these two.
 Rehearse the meaning and examples of prezygotic as well as postzygotic reproductive
barriers. How do and can they contribute to speciation?
 Rehearse examples of important geological, cosmic and tectonic events on planet Earth
which are considered to may have contributed to species separation, speciation or
extinction
o (Key words: Pangaea super continent, Galapagos island, Hawaiian islands, Alvarez
hypothesis, Madagascar, rift valley)
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SAN DIEGO MESA COLLEGE
SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
General Biology Lecture (BIOL 107); Instructor: Elmar Schmid, Ph.D.
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Understand the impact of continental drift and plate tectonics to the evolution of life on
planet earth
Understand the term “selective pressure” in the context of adaptation as part of the
evolutionary theory
Understand the term “artificial selection” and how this relates to the rise of the new
phenotypes and species
Understand why and how reproductive isolation can trigger speciation
Know the difference between microevolution and macroevolution
Rehearse the outcomes of different selective pressures put upon a population and know the
names of the different forms of selection. What is the difference between diversifying and
directional selection?
Know examples of human activities which can lead to reproductive isolation of species
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