UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
Maiduguri, Nigeria
CENTRE FOR DISTANCE
LEARNING
SOCIAL SCIENCES
ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
ANT 201:
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT: 2
ii
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Published
UNIT: 2
2008©
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced
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This text forms part of the learning package for the academic
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Further enquiries should be directed to the:
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P. M. B. 1069
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This text is being published by the authority of the Senate,
University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri – Nigeria.
ISBN:
978-8133-
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ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT: 2
P R E FA C E
This study unit has been prepared for learners so that they
can do most of the study on their own. The structure of the
study unit is different from that of conventional textbook.
The course writers have made efforts to make the study
material rich enough but learners need to do some extra
reading for further enrichment of the knowledge required.
The learners are expected to make best use of library
facilities and where feasible, use the Internet. References are
provided
to
guide
the
selection
of
reading
materials
required.
The University expresses its profound gratitude to our course
writers and editors for making this possible. Their efforts
iv
CDL, University of Maiduguri, Maiduguri
ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
will no doubt help in improving access to
UNIT: 2
University
education.
Professor J. D. Amin
Vice-Chancellor
v
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ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT: 2
HOW TO STUDY THE UNIT
You are welcome to this study Unit. The unit is
arranged to simplify your study. In each topic of the unit,
we have introduction, objectives, in-text, summary and selfassessment exercise.
The study unit should be 6-8 hours to complete. Tutors
will be available at designated contact centers for tutorial.
The center expects you to plan your work well. Should you
wish to read further you could supplement the study with
more information from the list of references and suggested
readings available in the study unit.
PRACTICE EXERCISES/TESTS
1. Self-Assessment Exercises (SAES)
This is provided at the end of each topic. The exercise
can help you to assess whether or not you have actually
studied and understood the topic. Solutions to the exercises
are provided at the end of the study unit for you to assess
yourself.
2. Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)
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ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT: 2
This is provided at the end of the study Unit. It is a
form of examination type questions for you to answer and
send to the center. You are expected to work on your own in
responding to the assignments. The TMA forms part of your
continuous assessment (C.A.) scores, which will be marked
and returned to you. In addition, you will also write an end
of Semester Examination, which will be added to your TMA
scores.
Finally, the center wishes you success as you go through
the different units of your study.
vii
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ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE
Anthropology is the study of humankind. The anthropologist is concerned
primarily with a single species-HOMO-SAPIENS the human species, its ancestors,
and near relatives. Because the anthropologist is a member of the same species that is
being studied, it is difficult, if not impossible to be completely objective in this
pursuit. However, anthropologists have found that the use of the scientific approach
produces useful generalizations about human behaviour. With the scientific approach,
anthropologists are better able to arrive at a realistic and unbiased understanding of
human diversity.
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ANT 201: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
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1.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
THE STUDY OF ANTHROPOLOGY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Anthropology is the study of humankind. The anthropologist is concerned
primarily with a single species-HOMO-SAPIENS the human species, its ancestors,
and near relatives. Because the anthropologist is a member of the same species that is
being studied, it is difficult, if not impossible to be completely objective in this
pursuit. However, anthropologists have found that the use of the scientific approach
produces useful generalizations about human behaviour. With the scientific approach,
anthropologists are better able to arrive at a realistic and unbiased understanding of
human diversity.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic you should be able to
i. Explain the importance of ethnography in anthropological study.
ii. Describe all the key terms within the broad concepts of culture and
functionalism
1.3
IN-TEXT
1.3.1
DEFINITION OF ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is defined as the study of human communalities and differences
and expressly includes the entire temporal and geographic range of human kind in its
scope. The devotion of anthropology to the study of all peoples regardless of where
and when they lived has cast more light on the human nature.
1.3.2
PRACTICES OF ANTHROPOLOGY
The discipline of anthropology may be divided into two fundamental areas, namely
as follows physical and cultural anthropology.
(1)
PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Physical Anthropology is that aspect of anthropology which is primarily
concerned with humans as biological organisms. The physical anthropologist
applies knowledge of genetics and biochemistry to achieve a fuller understanding of
human variation and evolution. Physical anthropologist lays the foundation for the
study of humans as cultural animals, which is the branch of anthropology known as
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Cultural Anthropology. Cultural Anthropology is divided in to specific fields of
Archeology, Linguistics and Ethnology. Although each of these areas has its own
special interests, all deal with cultural data.
(2)
ARCHEOLOGY
Archaeology is the branch of cultural anthropology concerned with the study
of material objects as a means of describing and explaining human behaviour. For
the most part, it focuses on the material aspects of the human past because material
objects rather than ideas are often what survives of the human past. The
archeologist studies the tools, pottery and other enduring relics that remains as the
legacy, of extinct cultures.
(3)
ETHNOLOGY
While the archaeologist studies cultures of the past, the ethnologist
concentrates on cultures of the present. While the archeologist focuses on the study
of material objects to learn about human behavior the ethnologist concentrates on
the observation of human behavior as it can be seen and discussed with those whose
culture is to be understood. In other word; ethnologist are primarily concerned with
cultures as they can be observed in action.
(4)
LINGUISTICS
The branch of cultural anthropology that studies human languages is called
linguistics. Perhaps the most distinctive human feature is the ability to speak.
Linguistics may deal with the description of a language (the way it forms a sentence
or conjugates a verb) or with the history of languages - the way languages develop
and influence each other with the passage of time. Ultimately it is languages that allow
people to preserve and transmit their culture from generation to generation.
1.3.3
EXPLANATION OF SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN
ANTHROPOLOGY
In anthropology like in other disciplines we use many concepts to describe the
subject matter we deal with. In this topic you will be introduced to only some basic
concepts in anthropology. We shall be studying the following sub-topics.
I. Ethnography.
II. Culture concept.
III. Functionalism
Within each of these sub-topics, which are themselves concepts in
anthropology we shall learn quite a number of concepts that are basic concepts in the
discipline of anthropology in addition to learning about these broad sub-topics.
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1.3.3.1
UNIT: 2
Ethnography
Fundamental to the ethnologist’s approach is ethnography or field work. It
has been observed with some validity that the ethnographer is an archeologist who
catches his archeology alive. Whenever possible the ethnologist becomes an
ethnographer by going out to live among the people under study, eating their food,
speaking their language e.t.c. participating in their social activities such as marriage
and death ceremony etc.
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1.3.3.2
UNIT: 2
Participant Observation
The anthropologist studying a group of people, must be meticulous observer
in order to be able to get a broad overview of a culture without placing undue stress
on any of its components parts. Only by discovering how all social institutionspolitical, economic, and religious-fit together can the ethnographer begin to
understand the culture system. The popular image of ethnographic field-work is that
it takes place among far-off, exotic people.
1.3.3.3
The Concept of Culture
The concept of culture was first developed by Sir Edward Burnett Taylor, a
British anthropologist in 1871, he defined culture as, “that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society”. One problem with the definition is
that it treats ideas and objects as equivalent. Recent definitions tend to put less stress
on tangible things and behaviour, and more on abstract values and beliefs that lie
behind observable things and behaviour. To put it another way, culture is not
observable behavior but rather the values and beliefs which lie behind that behavior
and which it reflects.
1.3.3.4
Modern Definition of Culture
Culture is a set of rules or standards which when acted upon by the members
of a society produce behaviour that falls within a range or variance the members
consider proper and acceptable.
1.3.3.5
Characteristics of Culture.
Culture as a way of life of a group of people has many characteristics.
The characteristics of culture are as follows:
i.
Culture is shared
Culture is a set of shared ideals, values, and standards of behavior; it is
the common denominator that makes the actions of individuals
intelligible to the group.
ii.
Culture is Learned
All culture is learned, not biologically inherited. One learns one’s
culture by growing up in it. Ralph Linton referred to culture as
humanity’s “social heredity”. The process whereby a culture is
transmitted from one generation to the next is called enculturation.
iii. Culture is Symbolic
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Leslie White, an American anthropologist, considered that all human
behavior originates in the use of symbols. Art, religion and money
involve the use of symbols. The most important symbolic aspect of
culture is language which is the substitution of words for objects.
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iv.
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Culture is Integrated
The tendency for all aspects of a culture such as economic, political
and the social to function as an interrelated whole is called integration.
1.3.3.6
Functions of Culture
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
A Culture must provide for the production and
distribution of goods and services necessary for life.
It must provide for biological continuity through the
reproduction of its members.
It must acculturate new members so that they can become
functioning adults.
It must maintain order between its members and outsiders.
It must motivate its members to survive and engage in
those activities necessary for survival.
Theories about cultures and society: a. Evolution b.
Diffusionism.
a) Evolutionism
The theory of evolutionism assumes that complex societies develop out of simple
ones. Some evolutionists argue that the so called primitive societies that still exist
today are survivals from the past. Max Muller and Mac Lennan were among the
earliest.
b) Diffusionism
The theory of diffusionism scholars attacked the evolutionists and argued that
evolution alone cannot account for all the difference between the primitive or small
scale societies.they became interested n the distribution of cultural traits and elements
which means they hoped to find out how cultural traits have diffused from a
common origin or origins. The diffusionists argued that all cultural traits were
originally developed in Egypt and subsequently spread through out the world in
waves of emigration. The diffusionists were condemned mainly for atomizing culture
into elements. One of the best known early diffusionists was F.F.Graebner.
1.3.3.7
Functionalism
An important school of anthropology which arose in opposition to the
extreme evolutionist and diffusionist positions was known as functionalism. The
functionalists looked to contemporary cultures rather than to history as a means of
studying the role of specific cultural traits in maintaining a social system.
Functionalism has two different approaches put forward by two different
theoreticians
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1.
UNIT: 2
A. R. RADCLIFFE-BROWN
One of the major theoreticians of the functionalist school was the British
anthropologist Radcliffe-Brown. The approach of Radcliffe-Brown and his followers
is referred to as Structural Functionalism to distinguish it from the approach of another
functionalist Bronislaw Malinowski. The structural functionalists maintained that each
custom and belief of a society has a specific function that serves to perpetuate the
structure of that society. i.e. its ordered arrangement of parts- so that the society’s
continued existence is possible.
2.
BROWNISLAW MALINOWSKI
Another major theoretician of the functionalist school was the polish-born
anthropologist Brownislaw Malinowski. Malinowski argued that people every where
share certain biological and psychological needs and that the ultimate function of all
the cultural institutions is to fulfill those needs .The nature of the institution
according to Malinowski, is determined by its function. Malinowski outlined three
fundamental levels of needs which he claimed had to be resolved by all cultures. The
needs are as follows:
1.
A culture must provide for biological needs such as the need for food and
procreation.
2.
A culture must provide for instrumental needs, such as the need for law and
education.
3.
A culture must provide for integrative needs such as religion and art.
The functionalist approach laid good foundation for ethnographic as well as
methods of scientific observation.
1.4 SUMMARY
Anthropology is the systematic study of human kind. In employing a scientific
approach anthropologists seek to produce useful generalizations about human
behaviour and to arrive at an unbiased understanding of human diversity.
Three areas within cultural anthropology are archeology, which studies
material objects to explain human behavior, linguistics, which studied languages, and
ethnology, which focuses on human behavior as it can be observed in action.
Culture is the way of life of a society, and it has to do with all learned behavior
passed on, from one generation to another.
The functionalist, in opposition to the evolutionists and diffusionists, looked
to contemporary cultures rather than to history as a means of studying the role of
specific cultural traits in maintaining a social system.
1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
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(1)
(2)
(3)
UNIT: 2
Why is ethnography very important to the study of
anthropology?
State the functions of culture.
Differentiate between structural-functionalism and
functionalism.
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1.6 REFERENCES
Fried Mortion H. The Study of Anthropology New York. Crowell 1972
Good enough, Ward H. Description and Comparison in Cultural Anthropology
Chicago Aldine, 1970
Voget, Fred W.A.A History of Ethnology New York; Holt Rineheart and
Winston, 1975
Keesing Roger. M. Cultural anthropology. A contemporary perspectives New York
Holt Rineheart and Winston 1976.
1.7 SUGGESTED READING
Fried Mortion H. The Study of Anthropology New York. Crowell 1972
Voget, Fred W.A.A History of Ethnology New York; Holt Rineheart and
Winston, 1975.
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UNIT: 2
INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Humans as Animals.
Human beings are not separate from nature or even in nature. Rather we are
of nature one among millions of species. Part of the task of Anthropology is
understanding the human species in relation to the rest of the animal kingdom
and identifying the continuities and discontinuities between ourselves and
other animals. In what ways are we like other animals and what is it that makes
us specifically humans?
2.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Define physical anthropology and differentiate it from other aspects of
anthropology.
ii. Explain the evolutionary process, that is, how humans developed as they
did.
iii. Define the following concepts which are relevant to the study of physical
anthropology e.g. Fossils, Primates.
2.3 IN-TEXT
2.3.1
Definition of Physical Anthropology
Physical Anthropology is that aspect of Anthropology which is primarily
concerned with humans as biological organisms. Physical Anthropologists study the
biology of both modern human populations and their fossil remains.
2.3.2
Human In Evolutionary Context
Anthropology includes the study of primates other than humans ,in order to
explain why and how humans developed as they did. One might properly question
the value of studying primates other than humans when it is humans and their
distinctive cultural capacities that concerns us.
But humans did not start out as cultural beings. Indeed, some evolutionists
think that they did not even start out as humans. Their roots like those of the other
living primates lie in ancient time and in less specialized biological creatures. Their
development was influenced by the same evolutionary processes. It is believed
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therefore that studying the environment of those times, the anatomical features which
evolved in response to that environment, and the rudimentary cultural adaptations of
those primates who share in the human ancestral heritage, we will draw closer to an
understanding of how humans developed as they did.
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2.3.3
UNIT: 2
ENVIRONMENT
The primates emerged during a period when the earth was undergoing radical
changes .The geographical changes favoured the distribution of forest grasslands and
deserts. A new wild climate favoured the spread of dense tropical and sub tropical
forests over much of the earth. This led to an increase in the numbers and spread of
grasses, ivies, shrubs and other flowering plants such as the trees that are found in the
forests. Forestation set the stage for the evolutionary development from the rodent
like ground existence to tree living. Forests also provided our early ancestors with
new ecological niches, or functional positions in their habitats. The way in which
early primates anatomically adapted has considerable relevance for humans, their
close relatives.
2.3.4
Anatomical Features and Characteristics of the
Primates
The primates order includes the lower primates-tarsiers, lemurs and tree
shrews; while the higher primates are new and old world monkeys anthropoid apes
and humans.
As the early primates became tree dwelling, various modifications took place
in dental characteristics sense organs, the brain, and skeletal structure that helped
them to adapt to their environment. Learned social behavior particularly in gorillas
and chimpanzees also aided survival in an arboreal environment. Arboreal means
dwelling on the top of trees.
Chimpanzees live in structured social groups and express their sociability
through communication on by visual and vocal signals. They also exhibit an ability to
learn from experience and can make and use tools. Gorillas also live and travel in
groups and communicate visually and by calling.
2.3.5
HUMAN ANCESTORS
It is believed that all of the physical and cultural changes that took place in the
early hominids came at about the same time through a process of mutual
reinforcement.
There are two types of known human ancestors, they are namely as follows:
1. Ramapithecus and
2. Australopithecus.
1. Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest member of the human family on the
basis of its jaw structure and dentition and is believed to have exhibited a
rudimentary bipedal locomotion so that its hands were freed for other uses.
2. Australopithecus known from many fossil remains was more human in
appearance and in physiological characteristics.
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2.3.6
UNIT: 2
A AFRICANUS, A ROBUSTUS AND A BOISE
Most anthropologists divided the Australopithecus into three distinct species,
namely; A africanus, A robustus, and A boise.
A africanus, had large jaws relative to its brain case , A Robustus have a large
brain case relative to its jaws. This hominid, fully bipedal and able to run erect, was
well equipped for generalized food gathering in the savannah environment.
A Boise, Super Robust species, differ from the former in superficial respects
such as heavier and more robust physical frame. It is of major significance that some
kinds of Australopithecus were meat eaters and tool makers.
The inclusion of meat in the diet provided a kind of nutrition that could
support a larger brain, once it evolved. Tool making which depended on fine
manipulation of the hands and hunting which required analytical thinking put a
premium on a more sophisticated nervous system which will play a part in the
evolution of a more developed brain.
2.4 SUMMARY
Physical anthropology includes the study of primates other than humans in
order to explain why and how humans developed as they did. As the early primates
became tree dwelling, various modifications took place in their physiological
characteristics. Learned social behavior, particularly in gorillas and chimpanzees, also
aided survival in an arboreal environment. All of the physical and cultural changes
that took place in the early hominids came at about the same time through a process
of mutual reinforcement. Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest human ancestor, on
the basis of its jaw structure, dentition and rudimentary bipedal locomotion.
Australopithecus another early human ancestor, was more human in
appearance. Australopithecus was of three types the A. africanus, the A robustus and
the A boise.
2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
(1)
(2)
(3)
Mention the human ancestors you know and discuss their anatomical
features.
Discuss the influence of the environment on the evolutionary process of
primates
Define the following concepts which are relevant to the study of physical
anthropology, e.g. a) Fossils b)Primates c) Bipedal Locomotion and d)
Hominids.
2.6 REFERENCE
Hester, James J. Introduction to Archaeology, New York. Holt, Rineheart and
Winston. 1976
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Jolly, Alison, The Evolution Of Primate Behaviour, New York; Macmillam 1972
Lasker Gabriel .W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed New York; Holt, Rineheart and
Winston, 1976
Constable George and the editions of life. The Neaderthals New York.
Time-life Books 1973.
2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Lasker Gabriel .W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed New York; Holt, Rineheart
and Winston, 1976
Brace, C. Loring, Harry Nelson, and Neol Korn. Atlas of Fossil Man, New
York; Holt, Rineheart and Winston 1971.
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REFERENCES
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3.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
THE EMERGENCE OF CULTURAL
ESSENTAIALS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
With the emergence of the genus, HOMO, culture became a major force in
human evolution by imposing its own selective pressures. Moreover, culture itself
evolved slowly at first but with increasing rapidity, so that evolution was no longer a
matter of biological change alone.
Anthropologists have divided the evolving Homo Lineage into three
successive species, namely as follows (i) HOMO-HABILIS
(ii) HOMO-ERECTUS (iii) HOMO-SAPIENS.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. To know the types of HOMO lineage.
ii. To be able to explain the physical and cultural variations of the
HOMOs.
iii. Be able to define the concepts relevant to the study of Physical
Anthropology. The concepts are as follows:
a. Evolution means gradual changes in a species.
b. Bipedal means walking on two feet.
c. Australopithecus means a close relative of the human
species who lived a million years ago.
d. Ecology means the study of the interrelationships of
organisms and their environment.
e. Fossils are the preserved remains of plants and animals
that lived in the past.
f. Anthropoid are higher Primates, Monkeys, Apes and
humans.
g. Arboreal means tree dwelling or dwelling on the tree.
h. Hominid means a member of the family of humans.
i. Anatomy means the scientific study of the structure of
human and animal bodies.
j. Adaptation means the process of adjustments of a species
to a specific environment; or a particular trait that makes
species more suited to and successful in its environment.
3.3 IN-TEXT
3.3.1
HOMO HABILIS
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The earliest recognized species of HOMO, is HOMO HABILIS whose
known remains date back as far as 2 million years ago. The most distinctive feature of
HOMO HABILIS compared with Australopithecus, is its larger brain case strongly
suggesting a greater degree of intelligence. The development of tools for example
made HOMO HABILIS a more accomplished hunter and gatherer. Greater
dependence on this way of life in turn created selective pressure for more efficient
bipedalism. At the same time larger brains and more dexterous hands made possible
the planning and production of better tools. Culture had entered our ancestors
adaptive pattern and as time went by, it became an increasing important part of the
pattern.
3.3.2
HOMO ERECTUS
The next figure in human evolution was been designated Homo erectus. No
previous hominids were as widespread as Homo erectus whose remains have been
found in Asia up into China, Europe and Africa. In spite of this broad distribution,
the fossils reveal no more significance physical variations than are seen in modern
human population.
Fossils indicate that Homo erectus had a larger brain than Australopithecus
one which was within the lower range of modern brain size.
The dentition was fully human, though large by modern standard. The leg and
foot bones indicate that bipedal locomotion was improved over Australopithecus and
that Homo erectus could probably walk and run as well as modern people. Homo
erectus developed culture as one might expect given the larger brain. Homo erectus
had outstripped its predecessors in cultural development. From sites in China and
Europe, we have the first clear evidence for the use of fire for protection, warmth
and cooking. For example at Choukoutien a fossil site about 30 miles from peking,
thousands of broken and charred bones of deer, sheep, antelope, roebuck, small
hares, camels, bison and elephants indicate that homo erectus was accomplished
hunter who cooked food.
It is likely that Homo erectus used fire that originally started by lighting or
through spontaneous Combustion rather than by instruments developed for kindling
fire. But the use of fire itself represents a very significant step in human cultural
adaptation.
It may have influenced the forces of natural selection which previously
favored individuals with heavy jaws and large, sharp teeth (needed for chewing and
ripping uncooked meat) thus paving the way for reduction in tooth size as well as
supportive facial architecture. Like tools and intelligence, fire gave people more
control over their environment.
The technological efficiency of Homo erectus is evidenced in a refined tool
making, with the development of the hand axe and, later specialized tools for
hunting, butchering, food processing, hide scraping and defense.
Efficiency in technology and improvement in hunting techniques, in language
and communication reflected a considerable advance in organizational ability.
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3.3.3
UNIT: 2
HOMO SAPIENS
3.3.3.1
NEANDERTHALS
The fossils remains of the Homo sapiens dating back 200,000 years was
discovered in the 1930s and 1940s. The most outstanding characteristic of these new
humans was apparently a larger brain well within the range of modern human brain
size. A probable descendant of this primitive Homo sapiens population is
Neanderthals.
There are two types of Neanderthals: Classic and Generalized. The Classic was
so called because it was the first type to be found. Classic Neanderthal was typically
heavier and lived in Europe. The Generalized type was lighter and more modern in
form and facial features and lived in the Near East.
Apparently, several local varieties of Neanderthals were in existence within
which there was a good deal of individual variation. Adaptation to the environment
for the Neanderthals were of course both physical and cultural. Neanderthals
extensive use of fire was essential to survival in an arctic climate like that of Europe
at the time.
They lived in small bands or single family units both in the open and in caves
and undoubtedly communicated by speech. Remains indicate that they believed in
some form of after life and that religious belief played a part in their lives.
3.3.4
CRO-MAGNONS
In what is called upper Paleolithic times about 35,000-40,000 years ago, the
Neanderthals were replaced by people who possessed a physical appearance similar to
ours. These people who were true Homo sapiens are usually called Cro-Magnons.
Cro-Magnons remains revealed considerable physical variability as one might expect
from any human population. Generally speaking however, these people had
characteristically modern looking faces.
At this time in human evolution culture has become a more potent force than
biology, people no longer require physical bulk for survival. Fast technological
developments had contributed to the increasing complexity of the brain by the time
of the Neanderthals and this complexity now enabled people to create an even more
sophisticated technology.
One important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the west is the art of this
period. The Cro-Magnon level of artistic proficiency is certainly amazing, humans had
not produced art work of this caliber before this time. Tools and weapons were
decorated with engravings of animal figures, pendants, made of bone and ivory were
created; and there was sculpting in clay. More spectacular and quiet unlike anything
undertaken by the earlier Neanderthals, are the cave paintings in Spain and France.
Apart from decorative function these paintings served a religio-magical
function, which attest to a highly sophisticated aesthetic sensibility.
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3.4 SUMMARY
There are three types of Homo, namely as follows (1) Homo habilis (2)
Homo erectus (3) and Homo Sapiens.
Homo habilis the earliest known human species, had lager brain case strongly
suggesting a greater degree of intelligence. Homo habilis was probably the first
systematic hunter-gatherer and extensive stone tool maker
Homo erectus the human species that flourished from about 1.5 million to
300,000 years ago. Homo erectus had certain unique characteristics, including a very
thick, large brain case and a moderate teeth; but its skeleton was functionally modern.
Homo erectus population are generally quite similar, they do show some geographical
variation.
Homo sapiens are humans who lived from about 250,000 to 40,000 years ago,
sufficiently advanced to be assingned to our own species. The most outstanding
characteristics of these new humans were apparently a large brain well within the
range of modern human brain size.
There are two types of Homo sapiens namely as follows: (i) the Neanderthal
who live in Europe and Near East and (ii) Cro-Magnon who lived in Western
Europe.
3.5 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
(1) Describe what the fossils indicate about the homo erectus.
(2) Differentiate between the Neanderthals and the Cro-Magnon.
(3) Briefly describe one important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the West.
3.6 REFERENCES
White Edmund and the Editors of Life. The First Man. New York: Time-Life
Books 1972.
Pilbeam David, The Ascent of Man: An introduction to Human Evolution. New
York Macmillan 1972.
Lasker Gabriel .W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed New York; Holt, Rineheart and
Winston, 1976.
Constable George and the editions of life. The Neaderthals New York. Time-life
Books 1973.
3.7 SUGGESTED READINGS
Brace, C. Loring, Harry Nelson, and Neol Korn. Atlas of Fossil Man, New
York; Holt, Rineheart and Winston 1971.
Lasker Gabriel .W. Physical Anthropology 2nd ed New York; Holt, Rineheart
and Winston, 1976.
Lawick-Goodall, Jane Van. In the Shadow of Man, New York Dell, 1972.
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TOPIC 4:
TA B LE
O F
C O N TE N T S
PAGES
4.0
TOPIC:
VARIATION IN MORDERN HOMO SAPIANS
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4.0 TOPIC:
UNIT: 2
VARIATION IN MODERN HOMO SAPIENS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Studying human variation
Human beings belong to a single species, so they have many more
similarities than differences. Nevertheless, the degree of physical variation in
modern Homo-sapiens is very great. Humans display a high degree of
polymorphism, or genetically determined variety within populations.
More over, the species is decidedly polytypic, with many differences
among population.
Some of these variations are continuous, appearing as smooth
gradients between extremes. Others are discontinuous, dividing the species
into discrete types. The most interesting variations are those that are under
genetic control at least to some degree, and so are subject to evolutionary
processes.
4.2
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this topic, you should be able to:
i. Explain human variation in terms of similarities and differences.
ii. Describe where human variation are continuous and where they are
discontinuous.
4.3 IN-TEXT
4.3.1
FACTORS EXPLAINIG HUMAN VARIATION
4.3.1.1
CULTURAL FACTORS
To explain any pattern of variation, we must often take cultural factors into
account. Unlike those of most other species, human populations are defined not only
geographically but also by many cross-cutting social and cultural divisions. These subdivisions of the population may have considerable effects on genotype frequencies.
Cultural adaptations have also come to play a role in the process of selection,
as in the case of technologically advanced settlers who displaced native populations in
many areas for example when the English settlers first set foot in North America or
the Arab in east Africa, they made use of a sophisticated technology including guns to
displace the native populations . Culture may also impose selective forces of its own,
thus influencing biological evolution.
4.3.1.2
VARIATION IN BLOOD PROTEINS
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Some of the best-known human physical variation are found in blood proteins. A
notable example involves hemoglobin, the red oxygen-carrying protein found inside
red blood cells. Chemically, hemoglobin S differs only slightly from normal
hemoglobin. This minute difference has massive consequences, however, people who
are homozygous for the hemoglobin S allele suffer from sickle-cell anemia which can
result in early death.
4.3.1.3
VARIATION RELATED TO DISEASE
1. Malaria and the sickle-cell gene
Malaria is suspected to act as a maintaining force in many other
polymorphisms besides sickle-cell. This reflects the fact that the malaria
parasite attacks the red blood cells and blood is easily sampled.
In many areas faciparum malaria is one of the leading causes of death
especially among children. The close correspondence between the distribution
of the gene and that of the malaria gave genetic the clue for a direct
relationship between genes and environment to solve puzzles in human
variability.
2. Blood Group Substance:
is a set of molecules located on the surface of the
red blood cells, represent perhaps the most familiar human variation that is
under simple genetic control.
4.3.1.4
DIET-RELATED VARIATION
Disease is not the only selective factor that might underlie many forms of
human physical variation. What a population eats may be as important an influence
on its gene pool as what viruses and bacteria it has to contend with.
Differences in diet have probably played an important role in creating
variation in the digestive enzymes-those proteins that make it possible for the body to
break down food chemically. After all there is a saying that what you eat is you.
4.4 SUMMARY
Human beings belong to a single species, so they have many more
similarities than differences. The degree of physical variation in modern
HOMO SAPIENS are caused by many factors, such as (1) Cultural factors –
human population are defined not only geographically but also by many crosscutting social and cultural division. (2) Blood factors – some of the best
known human physical variation are found in blood proteins. (3) Variation
Related to Disease- Malaria and the sickle-cell gene affects the physical
variation of the people. (4) Diet-Related Variation Factors- what a population
eats may be as important an influence on its gene pool as what viruses and
bacteria it has to contend with. Diet play a big role in human variation.
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UNIT: 2
4.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
(1)
(2)
(3)
Explain the role of diet related factor in human variation.
Describe the role of cultural factors in human variation.
How do blood proteins contribute in physical human variation?
4.6 REFERENCES
Principles of Human of Genetics 3rd ed. San Francisco W.H. Free man
Blood Groups in Man, Race R.R. and Sanger R. Philadelphia 1975
Principles of Human Biochemical Genetics 2nd rev. ed New York Elsevier, Harris H
1975
4.7 SUGGESTED READING
Blood Group in Man. 6th ed Philadelphia Lippincott Race R.R and Sanger R
1975.
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SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
TOPIC 1: The study of Anthropology.
Question 1:
Why is ethnography very important to the study of
anthropology?
Answer: Ethnography is important to the study of anthropology because
the ethnographer tries to get first class information and data of the
people he or she is studying. Usually ethnographers spend prolonged
periods living with the people they study, by eating their habits and
customs, the ethnographer is able to understand a society’s way of life
to a far greater extent than any “armchair anthropologist” ever could;
one learns a culture best by learning how to behave and acceptable in
the society in which one is doing field work.
Question 2:
State the functions of culture.
Answer: The functions of cultures are as follows:
1. A culture must provide for the production and
distribution of goods and services necessary for life.
2. It must provide for biological continuity through the
reproduction of its members.
3. It must acculturate new members so that they can
become functioning adults.
4. It must maintain order among its members.
5. It must likewise maintain order between its members and
outsiders.
6. It must motivate its members to service and engage in
those activities necessary for survival.
Question 3:
Differentiate between Structural Functionalism and
Functionalism.
Answer: The difference between Structural Functionalism and
Functionalism is that Structural Functionalism maintained that each
custom and belief of a society has specific function that serves to
perpetuate the structure of that society - its ordered arrangement of
parts so that the society’s continued existence is possible. The work of
the anthropologist then was to study the way in which customs and
beliefs function to solve the problem of maintaining the system. To the
Structural Functionalist, ceremonies serve to regulate individual
conduct and promote a feeling of solidarity among the members of a
group. According to this view, the significance of a revivalist meeting
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for example lies in the fact that it serves to bring people together, its
religious value is secondary.
Functionalism maintained that people everywhere share certain
biological and psychological needs and that the ultimate function of all
cultural institutions is to fulfill those needs.
The nature of the institution is determined by its function.
There are three fundamental levels of needs which must be resolved by
all cultures. Those needs are as follows:
i. A culture must provide for biological needs such as the need or
food and procreation.
ii. A culture must provide for instrumental needs such as the need
for Law and Education.
iii. A culture must provide for integrative needs such as religion
and art.
TOPIC 2: Introduction to Physical Anthropology.
Question 1:
Mention the human ancestors you know and discuss
their anatomical features.
Answer: There are two types of human ancestors, namely as follows:
I. Ramapithecus.
II. Australopithecus.
Ramapithecus is regarded as the earliest member of the human
family on the basis of its jaw structure and dentition and is believed to
have exhibited a rudimentary bipedal locomotion, so that its hands were
freed for other uses.
The second known human ancestor is the Australopithecus.
Australopithecus known from many fossil remains was more human in
appearance and in physiological characteristics. There are three species of
Australopithecus namely as follows: A africanus, A robustus and A boise.
A africanus had larger brain case relative to it jaws.
A robustus had large jaws relative to its brain case.
A boisei, super robust species differ from the former in
superficial respects such as heavier and more robust physical frame.
QUESTION 2: Discuss the influence of the environment on the
evolutionary process of the primates
ANSWER:
The environment influenced the evolutionary process of
the primates in the following ways. Forestation set the stage for the
evolutionary development from a rodent like ground existence to tree
living. Forest also provide our early ancestors with new ecological
niches, or functional positions in their habitats. The relatively small size
of the early primates allowed them to exploit the smaller branches of
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trees; which larger and heavier competitors and predators could not
follow. The access to the smaller branches also opened up an abundant
new food supply. The primates were able to gather leaves, flowers,
fruits, insects, birds egg etc.
The move to an arboreal existence brought a combination of
the problem of earth bound existence and those of flight. Animals
living on the ground developed a slower-paced, more flexible
relationship to the environment.
The way in which early primates anatomically adapted has
considerable relevance for humans, their closer relative.
QUESTION 3: Define the following concepts (1) Evolution (2)
Australopithecus (3) Ecology (4) Arboreal (5) Fossils (6)
Bipedal (7) Hominid (8) Anatomy (9) Adaptation (10)
Anthropoid.
ANSWER:
The definitions of the concepts are as follows:
(i)
Evolution means gradual change in a species.
(ii)
Bipedal means walking on two feet
(iii)
Australopithecus means a close relative of the human species
who lived millions of years ago.
(iv) Ecology means the study of the interrelationships of organisms
and their environment.
(v)
Fossils means the preserved remains of plants and animals that
lived in the past
(vi)
Anthropoid: higher primates, monkeys, apes and humans.
(vii) Arboreal means tree dwelling or dwelling on the tree.
(viii) Hominid means A member of the family of humans.
(ix)
Anatomy: means the scientific study of the structure of human
and animal bodies.
(x)
Adaptation: means the process of adjustment of a species to a
specific environment; or a particular trait that makes species
more suited to and successful in its environment.
TOPIC 3:
THE EMERGENCE OF CULTURAL
ESSENTIALS.
QUESTION 1:
Describe what the fossils indicated about the Homo
erectus.
ANSWERS:
Fossils indicate that Homo erectus had a large brain than
Australopithecus one that was within the lower range of modern brain
size. The dentition was fully human, though large by modern standard.
The leg and foot bones indicates that bipedal locomotion was
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UNIT: 2
improved over Australopithecus and that HOMO erectus could
probably walk and run as well as modern people.
Culture developed as one might expect given the larger brain.
HOMO erectus had out stripped its predecessors in cultural
development.
QUESTION 2: Differentiate between the Neanderthals and the CroMagnons.
ANSWER: A primitive descendant of HOMO sapiens population is
Neanderthals. The most outstanding characteristic of these new human
was apparently a larger brain well within the range of modern human
brain size.
There are two types of Neanderthals Classic and Generalized
.Classic so called because this was the first type to be found. Classic
Neanderthal was typically heavier and lived in Europe. The generalized
type was more lighter and more modern in form and facial features and
lived in the Near East.
The Neanderthals were replaced by people who possessed a
physical appearance similar to ours. These people who were true
HOMO sapiens are usually called Cro-Magnons.
Cro-Magnons remains revealed considerable physical variability
as one might expect from any human population. The Cro-Magnons
had characteristically modern looking faces.
QUESTION 3: Briefly describe one important aspect of Cro-Magnon
culture in the West.
ANSWER:
One important aspect of Cro-Magnon culture in the
west is the art of this period. The Cro-Magnon level of the artistic
proficiency is certainly amazing, humans had not produced art work of
this caliber before this time. Tools and weapons were decorated with
engraving of animals figures, pendants, made of bones ivory were
created; and there was sculpting in clay.
TOPIC 4
VARIATION IN MODERN HOMO
SAPIENS
QUESTION 1:
Explain the role of diet related factor in human variation.
ANSWER:
What a population eats may be as important an influence
on its gene pool as what viruses and bacteria it has to contend with.
Differences in diet have probably played an important role in creating
variation in the digestive enzymes- those proteins that make it possible
for the body to break down food chemically.
QUESTION 2: Describe the role of cultural factors in human variation.
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UNIT: 2
ANSWER:
Cultural factors play important role in human physical
variation. Cultural adaptations have also come to play a role in the
process of selection, as in the case of technologically advanced settlers
who displaced native populations in many areas for example when the
English settlers first set foot in North America or the Arab in East
Africa, they made use of a sophisticated technology including guns to
displace the native populations. Culture may also impose selective
forces of its own, thus influencing biological evolution.
QUESTION 3:
How does a blood protein contribute in physical human
variation?
ANSWER:
Some of the best known human physical variations are
found in the blood proteins. A notable example involves hemoglobin,
the red, oxygen-carrying protein found inside red blood cells.
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UNIT: 2
TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT
INSTRUCTION:
Answer all questions
TIME ALLOWED:
3 Hours
(1)
State the functions of culture
(2)
Mention the types of Australopithecus you know and explain their
anatomical features and characteristics
(3)
Differentiate between the Ramapithecus and the Australopithecus
(4)
Compare and contrast between the theories of StructuralFunctionalism and Functionalism
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