H1
Personality = the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that are
organized and relatively enduring and that influence his or her interactions with, and
adaptations to, the intraphysic, physical and social environments.
3 levels of analysis: 1. like all others (human nature)
2. like some others (individual+group differences)
3. like no others (individual uniqueness)
Kloof tussen human nature en group+individual differences, grote theorieen tegenover
persoonlijkheidsonderzoek.
Domain of knowledge = a specialty area of science and scholarship in which psychologists
have focused on learning about some specific and limited aspects of human nature.
Each theoretical perspective within the domains of personality does not capture the whole
person.
Focus on 2 elements: -the theories in the domains
-the empirical research within the domains
-Dispositional Domain: personality is influences by traits the person is born with or develops,
the ways in which individuals differ from one another
-Biological Domain: humans are collections of biological systems, and these systems provide
the building blocks for behavior, thought and emotion. 3 areas: genetics, psycholphysiology
and evolution.
-Intrapsychic Domain: deals with mental mechanisms of personality, many of which operate
outside the realm of conscious awareness (Freud).
-Cognitive-Experiental Domain: focuses on congnition and subjective experience, such as
conscious thoughts, feelings, beliefs and desires about oneself and others. The self and selfconcept, self-view.
-Social and Cultural Domain: personality is influanced by social, cultural and gendered
poitions in the world. Different cultures may bring out different facets of our personalities in
manifest behaviour.
-Adjustment Domain: refers to the fact that personlaity plays a key role in how we cope,
adapt and adjust to events in our daily life. Certain personality features are related to poor
adjustment and have been designated as personality disorders.
A good theory (vb zie blz22):-provides a guide for researchers
-organizes known findings
-makes predictions
Differences between theories and beliefs: theories have reliable evidence, is scientific and
has systematic observations. Theories are tested by systematic observations that can be
repeated by others and that yield similar conclusions.
5 Scientific standards for evaluating personality theories:
- comprehensiveness: does the theory do a godd job of explaining all of the facts and
observations within its domain?
- heuristic value: does the theory provide a guide to important new discoveries about
personality that were not known before?
- testability: does the theory render precise enough predictions that personality psychologists
can test them empirically? The testability of a theory rests with the precision of its
predictions.
- parsimony: does the theory contain few premises and assumptions (parsimony) or many
(lack of parsimony)? It is not that simple theories are always better.
- compatibility and integration across domains and levels
H2
4 sources of Personality Data:
- Self-Report Data (S-Data)  the information a person reveals, based on some
procedure, such as questionnaire or an interview. Most common method. Reasons:
individuals have access to a wealth of information about themselves that is inaccessible to
anyone else. Unstructured is open ended, ‘tell me about...’ (TST). Structured is answer
true/false.
- Observer-Report Data (O-Data)  the impressions and evaluations others make of
whom they come into contact with. Advantages are that observers may have acces to
information not attainable through other sources, and multiple observers can be used to
acces each individual. Inter-rater reliability = the use of multiple observers allows
investigators to evaluate the degree of consensus among observers. 2 Strategies for
selecting observers: who know the person (better position to observe the natural behaviour
& multiple social personalities can be assessed) & who doesn’t know the person. Naturalistic
observation  artificial observation.
- Test Data (T-Data)  participants are placed in a standardized testing situation, with the
idea to see if different people react differently to an identical situation. More controlled
testing conditions then with S-Data. 3 Problems: 1. participants might try to guess what trait
is being measured and then alter their behavior or responses in an effort to create a specific
impression of themselves, 2. the difficulty in verifying that the research participants define
the testing situation in the same manner as the experimenter, 3. the influence of the
researcher. T-Data is a valuable and irreplaceable source of personality information. It
enables experimenters to test specific hypotheses by exerting control over the variables that
are presumed to have causal influence. Also physiological data: fMRI  benefit because the
participants can’t fake responses, and projective techniques, bv Rorschach.
- Life-Outcome Data (L-Data)  refers to information that can be, gleaned from the
events, activities and outcomes in a persons life that are available to public scrunity, public
records (divorces), bv internetpatterns, creditcard histories etc.
S-Data + O-Data to predict L-Data
Issues in Personality Assessment:
- links among various data sources: when using two or more data sources within a single
personality study, how close do they correspond. Lack of agreement does not necessarily
signify an error of measurement.
- the fallibility of personality measurement = how the use of multiple data sources can
correct some of the problems associated with single data sources.
3 Standards to evaluate personality measures:
- Reliability: correlate with the true leverl, to see if it is:
1. repeated measurement (test-retest reliability=met vaak dezelfde uitkomst)
2. examine the relationships among the items themselves at a single point in time (internal
consistency reliability = als de items in een test allemaal goed correleren)
3. obtain measurements from multiple observers (inter-rater reliability = obtain
measurements from multiple observers)
- Validity: the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, 5 types:
1. face-validity = whether the test, on the surface, appears to measure what it is supposed
to measure
2. predictive validity/criterion validity = whether the test predicts criteria external to the test,
high predictive validity when a scale succesfully predict what it should predict
3. convergent validity = whether a test correlates with other measures that it should
correlate with
4. discriminant validity = refers to what a measure should NOT correlate with (a test does
not correlate with what it is nog supposed to)
5. construct validity = a combination of all the others, based on the notion that personality
variables are theoretical constructs.
- Generalizability = the degree to which the measure retains its validity across various
contexts, bv is an intelligencetest equally valid for men and women? Generalizibility is critical
in determining the degree to which the measure can be applied across these social and
cultural contexts.
Research designs in personality:
- Experimental methods (relationships among variables) = typically used to determine
causality; whether one variable influences anohter variable (variable = equality that differs,
or can take different values for different people). To establish the influence of one variable
on another: 1. manipulation, 2. ensuring that participants in each experimental condition are
equivalent to each other at the beginning of the study. If the experiment has manipulation
between groups then the random assigment of participants to experimental groups is a
procedure that helps ensure tahat all groups are equivalent at the beginning of the study.
Equivalence can be obtained by counterbalancing the order of the conditions  critical
because there might be order effects as a consequence of being exposed to one condition
first.
- Correlational studies = a statistical procedure is used for determining whether or not
there is a relationship between two variables, Correlational designs typically try to determine
what goes with wat in nature, rather than attempting to manipulate or influence the
phenomenon under observation. Correlation coefficients (dus in real-life), from -1.00 tot
+1.00. Two reasons why correlations can never prove causality: 1. directionality problem (je
weet nooit wat het gevolg van wat is), 2. third variable problem (een 3e, onbekende,
variabel die mee kan spelen)
- Case studies = bv examining the life of one person in-depth; researcher scan find out
about personality in great detail, gives insights into personality that can be used to formulate
a more general theory to be tested on a larger population. The assessment techniques are
limited only by the imagination of the investigator limitations: findings based on one
individual can not be generalized to other people  dus: case studies are most often used as
a source of hypotheses and as a means to illustrate a principle by bringing it to life.
H3
DISPOSITIONAL DOMAIN
Concerns those aspects of personality, that are stable over time, relatively consistent over
situations, and make people different from each other. The term disposition is used because
it refers to an inherent tendency to behave in a specific way or a predilection to do this
rather than that (vragen zie p59). Traits are seen as the building blocks of personality.
Personality is viewed as being built out of a set of common traits. The most popular
taxonomy of personality traits is The Big Five, has 5 fundamental traits: extraversion,
neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience.
In this domain there is a unique conception of how people change yet remain stable at time.
Trait levels can stay the same overtime, yet the behaviors that manifest those traits change
as the person ages.
3 Fundamental questions guide those who study personality traits:
- how should we conceptualize traits?
- how can we identify which traits are the most important traits from among the 1000 of
ways in which individuals differ (how individuals differ)
- how can we formulate a comprehensive taxonomy of traits – a system that includes within
it all of the major traits of personality?
Those who view traits do not prejudge the cause of someones behavior.
Act Frequency: traits are categories of acts. The Act Frequence Approach to traits involves
3 key elements:
- Act Nomination  which acts belong in which trait categories
- Prototypicality Judgement  identifying which acts are most central to, or prototypical of,
eacht trait category (welke t meest stereotyperend zijn)
- Recording of Act Performance  securing information on the actual performance of
individuals in their daily lives
Critique: the technical implementation of the approach (kijkt bv niet naar de context) &
seems applicable to overt actions, but what about failujres to act and covert acts that are not
directly observable.
But: it has been especially helpful in making explicit the behavioral phenomena to which
most trait terms refer. It is helpful in identifying behavioral regularities and it is helpful in
exploring the meaning of some traits that have proven difficult to study.
Two major formulations of traits:
- traits as internal causal properties of persons that affect over behavior
- traits as descriptive summaries of overt behavior, with the causes of those trends in
conduct to be determined subsequently
Three fundamental approaches in the dispositional domain to identify important traits:
- Lexical Approach = all important individual differences have become encoded within the
natural languange (is lexical hypothesis). Lexical approach has 2 criteria for identifying
important traits: synonym frequence & cross-cultural universality.
- Statistical Approach = consists of having a large number of people rate themselves on
the items, then using a statistical procedure to identify groups or clusters of items. Goal is to
identify the major dimensions, or ‘coordinates’ of the personality map (tabel met .01-.99
(facot loading), hoe groot de rol is van die factor in dat cluster) = facotr analysis. Cluster =
groups of items that covary, go together, but tend not to covary with other groups of items.
Can ben useful in reducing the large array of diverse personality traits into a smaller and
more useful st of underlying factors. Critique: you get out of it only what you put into it, als
je een belangrijke factor weglaat, komt die ook niet naar boven.
- Theoretical Approach = dictates in high specific manner which variables are important to
measure.
Many researchers use a combination of this three.
Taxonomies of Personality:
- Eysenck’s hierarchical model of personality PEN: psychotism, extraversion-introversion,
neuroticism-emotional stability
- Cattell’s 16 personality factor system: 16 basic traits, factor A,B,C,etc... Interpersonal
traits = traits that refer to what people do to and with eachother
- Circumplex Taxonomies of Personality: provides an explicit definition of interpersonal
behavior, specifies the relationships between each trait and every other trait within the
model. 3 Types of relationships specified in the model:
- adjacency =how close the traits
are to each other in the circle
- bipolarity = located at opposite sides of the circle and
negatively correlate with eachothter
- orthogonality = traits that are perpendicular to
eachother on
the model, are entirely unrelated to eachother
- Five Factor Model (Big Five): zie boven, critique: it is the vijf factors fail to capture the
underlying causal personality processes that researchers are really interested in
H4
3 Important assumptions about personality traits:
- Meaningful Differences between Individuals: trait psychology has sometimes been called
differential psychology in the interest of distinguishing this field from other branches of
personality psychology. People differ from eachother in the amounts of the various traits.
Some belief in a few key personality traits, which when you combine them form other traits
according to trait psychologists, every personality, no matter how complex or unusual the
product of a particular combinations of a few basic and primary traits is.
- Consistancy over Time: personality is consistent, attitudes interests and opinions not
consistent. A trait might be consistent, the way it manifests itself in actual behavior might
change substantially. But traits can change by age; if all people show a decrease in a
particular trait, at the same rate over time, they might still maintain the same rank order
relative to each other.
- Consistency across Situations: situationism = situational differences that determine
behavior
Person-Situation Interaction: behavior is a funcion of personality & situation (B=F(PxS)); if
the situation is...., if the personality is...., then this behavior is the result.
Situational specifity  a person acts in a specific away under particular circumstances.
Strong situation = situations in which nearly everyone react in similar ways (death of a pet).
Drie manieren hoe persoon en situatie interacteren:
1. Situational selection = the tendency to choose the situations in which one finds oneself,
people select situations in which they find themselves.
2. Manipulation = the various means by which people influence the behavior of others.
3. Aggregatoin = the process of adding up, or averaging several single observations,
resulting in a better (more reliable) measure of a personality trait than a single observation
of behavior. (Meerdere gegevens over langer tijdsverloop).
Personality traits are average tendencies to behave in certain ways.
Important measurement issues in trait research:
- Carelessness: niet gemotiveerd om goed of eerlijk in te vullen, niet goed lezen. Detecting
problems: use an infrequency scale = vragen als ik geloof niet dat hout brandt, antwoord
iedereen met False, als iemand 2 of meer van zulke vragen met True beantwoord is het niet
betrouwbaar.
- Faking on Questionnaires: fake good to appear better. False negative; a truthful person
was faking and the psychologist rejects that persons data. False positive; a person who was
faking was actually telling the truth.
- Response sets: the tendency of some people to respond to the questions on a basis that is
unrelated to the question content, ook: noncontent responding.
Acquiescence: simply agree with the questionnaire items, oplossing: reverse-scoring.
Extreme responding: avoid the middle part of response(‘beetje’).
Social desirability: act to be socially attractive or likable. 2 Views:
- social desirability as distortion, should be eliminated, not faking or lying, not consciously
- social desirability as a valid part of other desirable personality traits
To minimize the effects of socially desirable responding:
- remove it statistically from the other questionnaire responses
- developing questionnaires that are less susceptible to this type of responding
- use a forced-choice questionnaire, keuzes even ‘sociaal aantrekkelijk’
Personality traits may predict who is likely to do well in a particular job.
Barnum statements = generalities, statements that could apply to anyone (horoscopen). Not
the test is fault, but a persons interpretation.
H11
The Intrapsychic Domain
Motives = internal states that arouse and direct behavior toward specific objects or goals. A
motive is often caused by a deficity, a lack of something. Motives arfe based on needs
(states of tension within a person). Motive psychologists believe that fantasies, free
associations and responses to projective techniques reveal the unconscios motivation behind
many thoughts, feelings and behaviors. The believe:
- people differ from antoher in the type and strenght of their motives
- these differences are measurable
- these differences cause or are associated with important life outcomes, such as business
success
- differences between people in the relative amounts of various motives are stable over time
- motives may provide one answer to the question ‘why do people do what they do?’
2 Types of motivations:
- Implicit motivation = are based on needs (nAch, nPow, nInt), they are measured in fantasy
based measures (TAT). Talking abouts other people because it reflects their unconscious
desires and aspirations, their unspoken needs and wants.
- Self-attributed motivations = reflects primarily a person’s self-awareness of his or her own
conscious motives or normative beliefs about desirbale goals and modes of conduct.
Awareness.
Needs = potentiality or readiness to respond in a certain way under certain given
circumstances. It stands fot he fact that a certain trend is apt to reccur. Each need is
associated with 1. a specific desire or attention, 2. a particular set of emotions, 3.
specification tendencies. Each person has a unique hierarchy of needs, each need interacts
with the various other needs within each person, this interaction is what makes the concept
of motive dynamic ( the mutual influence of forces with a person).
Press = need-relevant aspects of the environment.
Alpha press = real environment, objective reality
Beta press = perceived environment, reality-as-it-is-perceived
Apperception is the act of interpreting the environment and perceiving the meaning of what
is going on in a situation. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a formal technique for
assesing the insight that needs and motives influence how we perceive the world; exists of a
set of black-and-white drawings which are amiguous. Predicts long-term. TAT has poor
internal reliability.
Multi-Motive Grid = newer form of assessing motives, combines TAT and self-report
questionnaire.
The Big Three Motives:
- Need for Achievement (nAch) = the desire to do better, to be succesful, the obtain
satisfaction from accomplishing a task:
- they prefer activities that provide some
challenge
- the enjoy tasks in which they are personally responsible for the
outcome
- they prefer tasks for which feedback on their performance is available
Independence training: parenting practices to promote high achievement in their children
- Need for Power (nPow) = the desire to have an impact on others. Responsibility
training.
- Need for Intimacy (nInt) = the desire for warm and fulfilling relationships with
others/preference for warm, close and communicative interaction with others. They spend
more time during the day thinking relationships, report more pleasant emotions when they
are around other people, they smile, laugh and make more eye-contact, and they start up
conversations more frequently and write more letters.
Humanistic tradition:
- approach to motivation: conscious awareness fo needs, choice and personal responsibility
- the human need for growth and the realization of one’s full potential
- self-actualization: the process of becoming more and more what one idiosycratically is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming, develop one’s potential
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, he defines needs primarily by their goals. More basic needs
found toward the bottom of the hierarchyand the self-actualization need at the top. 1.
Physiological, 2. Safety, 3. Belongingness, 4. Esteem (from others and yourself), 5. Selfactualization.
Characteristics of self-actualizers: p361
Maslow focused on the characteristics of self-actualizers, Rogers focused on the ways to
foster and attain self-actualization. Humanism: people are good and positive.
Roger: fully functioning person  person who is on his way toward self-actualization, not to
be self-actualized yet, but not blocked toward his goal.
All children are born wanting to be loved and accpeted by their parents and others 
positive regard. Conditions of worth; the requirements set forth by parents or significant
others for earning their positive regarde; earned by meeting certain conditions = conditional
positive regard
Rogers: to avoid that people don’t choose for themselves but only to make others happy,
they should have unconditional positive regard ipv conditional positive regard. Persons who
get unconditional positive regard begin to take on the characteristics of a fully functinoing
person and begin to actualize the selves that they were meant to be.
Anxiety is, according to Rogers, the result of having an experience that does not fit with
one’s selfconception; people need to defend themselves against anxiety, to reduce the
descrepancy between one’s self-concept and one’s experiences. To alter the experience by
using a defense mechanism  distortion, the modify their experience rather than their selfimage.
Emotional intelligence (5 components):
- the ability to know one’s own emotions
- the ability to regulate those emotions
- the ability to motivate oneself
- the ability to know how others are feeling
- the ability to influence how others are feeling
EQ may be more important for self-actualizers than IQ, because out of touch with their
emotions.
Rogers clent-centered therapy = therapist makes no attempt to change the client directly,
but creates the right conditions for the client to change himselve. 3 Core conditions:
- atmosphere of genuine acceptance on the part of the therapist
- therapist must express unconditional positive regard for the client
- empathic understanding (the feelings as if they were the therapist’s own)
empathy = understanding the others from his or her point of view
H12
Cognitive/Experimental Domain
Emphasizes an understanding of people’s perceptions, thoughts, desires and toher conscious
experiences.
Cognitive approaches; focuses on the differences in how people think.
Personalizing cognition = recall a similar event from one’s own life.
Objecting cognition = recall objective facts about something.
Cognition = awareness and thinking, specific mental acts such as perceiving, attending to,
interpreting, remembering, believing and anticipation; add up to information processing.
Levels of congnition:
- perception = the process of imposing order on the informatin our sense organs take in
- interpretation = making the sense of, or explaining of, various events in the world
- conscious goals = the standards that people develop for evaluating themselves and others
Personality revealed through Perception:
Witkin’s Rod and Frame Test (RFT) to investigate individual differences, whether someone is
fiel-dependent (visual) of field-independent (their own sensations). Field-indepent people are
better at ignoring distracting information and focusing on the important details of the even.
Reducer-augmenter theory: Petrie, people with low pain tolerance have a nervoussystem
that augments the subjective impact of sensorey cues, with high tolerance which reduces the
effects of sensory stimulation. Kinesthetic figural after effect (KFA): soort blokken, als de
wijdte wordt overschat zijn het ‘augmenters’, als de wijdte wordt onderschat zijn het
‘reducers’.
Personality revealed through Interpretation:
2 kinds of interpretation:
- about responsibility
- about expectations for the future
Kelly: people in efforts to understand, predict, and control the events in their lives, when
people don’t know why something happened they experience greater distress that if they
had an explanation.
Construct = a summerize of a set of observatins and conveys the meaning of those
observations. Scientist employ constructs to interpret observatins. We use constructs all the
time to give meaning to, or to interpret, our social world. Personal constructs = the
constructs a person routinely uses to interpret and predict eventes. People develope
characteristic sets of constructs that they frequently use in interpreting the world.
Post-modernism = an intellectual position grounded in the notion that reality is constructed,
every person and certainly every culture has a versin of reality that is unique, and no single
version of realtiy is any more privileged then another.
Commonality corollay = if two people have similar construct systems, they would be
psychologically similar.
Sociality corollary = how the one construes the world and which main personal constructs
the person uses.
Locus of control = whether people tend to locate that responsibility internally, within
themseles, or externally, in fate, luck or chance. Describes a person’s perception of
responsibility for the events in his or her life. Generalized expectancies = a person’s
expectations for reinforcement held across a variety of situations. When people encounter a
new situation, they base their expectancies about what will happen on their generalized
expectancies about whether they have the abiulities to influence events. External locus of
control = outside someone, cannot control. Internal locus of control = inside, can control.
Another individual difference in how people interpret the world: learned helplessness
(accepteren dat je er niets aan kunt doen en dus eronder lijden), moeten ze niet accepteren
maar vanuit een outside perspective bekijken, en een nieuwe bron van optimisme.
Causal attribution  a person’s explanation of the cause of an event.
Explanatory style: tendencies some people have to frequently use certain explanations for
the causes of events;
external  internal
stable  unstable
global  specific
pessimistic explanatory style: internal, stable, global
optimistic explanatory style: external, temporary, specific
Personality revealed through Goals:
What a person want to happen. Personal project = a set of relevant actions intended to
achieve a goal that a person has selected. People have traits, people do lifetasks. Lifetasks =
the personal versions of culturally mandated goals. The goals that people work on in their
day-to-day lives. Strategies = characteristic ways that people respond to the challenges of
making progress on a particular life task.
Social constraint = one of Cantor’s strategies for solving the problem of making friends and
overcoming feelings of social isolation and ineptitude.
Defensive pessimism = expect the worst in order to avoid feeling anxious and disappointed,
they prepare the failure a head of time, low expectations for their performance and often
focus on worst case outcomes.
Outcome focused strategy = a person turns every situatin into opportunities to focus on
academic tasks.
Intelligence
Achievement view of intelligence: associated with educational attainment; how much
knowledge a peson has acquired, related to others in his or her age cohort.
Aptitude view of intelligence: to become ecucated; the ability or aptitude to learn.
Intelligence was thought of as a single broad factor, often called g for general intelligence.
Intelligence by Gardner: it is the application of cognitive skill and knowledge to solve
problems, learn and achieve goals that are valued by the individual and the culture. There
are (says Garnder) multiple intelligences.
New variable in intelligence research is inspection tim = the time it takes a person to make a
simple discrimination between two displayed objects.
H13
Emotions:
- have distinct subjective feelings, or affects, associated with them
- are accompanied by bodily changes, mostly in the nervous system (ook
gezichtsuitdrukkingen etc)
- are accompanied by distinct action tendencies, or increases in the probabilities of certain
behaviors.
Charles Darwin proposed a functinoal analysis of emotions and emotional expressions, focus
on the ‘why’ of emotions and expressions, in terms of whether they increase the fitness of
individuals.
Emotional states are transitory (come and go), they depend more on the situation a person
is, than a person self.
Emotional trait = a pattern of emotional reactions that a person consistently experiences
accros a variety of life situations, stable and characteristic for each person.
Categorical approach: those who tink that primary emotions are the key, theoretical criteria.
Dimensional approach: based on empirical research, every feeling state can be described as
a combination of pleasantness/unpleasantness and arousal. Refers more to how people
experience their emotions.
Content = specific kind of emotion that a person experiences
Style = the way in which an emotion is experienced
Content of emotional life
Happiness:
- in terms of a judgment that life is satisfying
- in terms of the predominance of positive compared with negative emotions
in one’s
life
Part of being happy is to have positive illusions about the self. Costa+McGrae: two personal
traits influence happiness: extaversion and neuroticism.
Mood induction =mood beinvloeden door muziek, plaatjes etc)
Neuroticism = vulnerable to negative emotions, tend to overreact unpleasant events, tak
elonger to return to a normal state after being upset, complain a lot. Neuroticism is due
primarily to a tendency of the limbic system (= the part of the brain that is responsible for
emotino and fight-or-flight reaction), to become easily activated.
Drie redenen van Eysenck voor biologische basis van neuroticisme:
- stability in neuroticism
- widely found across culture and data sets
- shows one of the higher heritability values
Anterior cingulate = emotions make this activation increase.
Pre-frontal cortex = highly active in the control of emotion
Depression = diathesis-stress model: there is a pre-existing vulnerability, or diathesis, that is
present among people who later become depressed, comes out because a stressful life, loss
of a loved one, career failure, etc. Both elements have to occur together (diathesis+stress)
to make someone depressed.
Beck’s cognitive theory: the vulnerability to depression lies in a particul cognitive schema, a
way of looking at the world. (Cognitive schema = a way of processing incoming informatin,
organizing and interpreting the facts of daily life, the schema involved in depression distorts
the incoming information in a negative way. This cognitive triad includes information about
the self, the world, the future).
Explanatory style = how people explain the causes of events in their lives.
Biology of depression: when someone is depressed, there are imbalances in the levels of
neurotransmitters in the brain. Neurotransmitter theory of depression = imbalance in the
synapses of the nervous system.
Anger-proneness and potential for hostility (=tendency to respond to everyday frustrations
with anger and aggression). Type A personality = competitive, hostile, aggressive
workaholics, always in a hurry etc. Type A is a syndrome (cluster of several traits), become
less satified when growing older.
Style of emotional life
Content is the what of emotional life, style is the how of that emotional liefe.
Affect Intensity  high
 low, hoe intens je je emoties ervaar, not bad or good, pos and neg aspects
High = unstable, ups&downs, physical+psychosomatic sympotoms, rate their life more
severe (‘very good’). More reactive to both positive and negative events in their life, more
mood variablity.
Low = stable, no ups&downs, lack the peacks of positive things, rate their life ‘moderately
good’.
Interaction style and content: together provide a good deal of descriptive and explanatory
power, they descirbe individuals lives as well as allow us to make useful distinctions between
persons.
H14
Self-concept = understanding of yourself
Self-esteem = how you feel about yourself
Social identity = how you present yourself to others
Self-concept (descriptive component of oneself):
‘Who am I?’:
2 jaar oud: anderen hebben verwachtingen; begin self-esteem, vergelijken hun gedrag met
goed/slecht/dat van anderen. 1e Dingen die ze als hun eigenschappen zien: sex and age,
familie
3-12 jaar oud: self-concepts are based mainly on developing talents and skills
5-6 jaa roud: social comparison (ik ben beter/slechter dan hij is daarin). Inner private selfconcept (je kunt geheimen bewaren, wens, verlangens, verbeeldde vriendjes).
Tienerjaren: perspective taking: inbeelden hoe je op anderen overkomt = objective selfawareness (je ziet jezelf als een object van andermans aandacht).
Narrative self = the person’s sense of their own past, present and future, their own story.
Self schema refers to the specific knowledge structure, or cognitive representation of the
self-concept.
Possible selves: man ideas peple have about who they might, hope or fear to become. It
allows us to stay on schedule, to work toward self-improvement.
Ought selves: person’s understanding of what others want them to be, built on what people
take as their responsibilities and commitment to others. Higgins: the ought and ideal selves
refer as self-guides.
2 ways to conceptualize the self:
- focus on the content, what it is that makes up the self-concept for each person
- conceptualize the self in terms of the person’s own evaluation of self-concept.
Self-esteem (evaluative component of the self):
Self-esteem is a general evaluation of self-concept along a good-bad or like-dislike
dimension, the sum of our positive and negative reactions to all the aspects of your selfconcept.
Three aspects: performance, appearance and social self-esteem.
High self-esteem persons fear not succeeding, low self-esteem persons fear failure, high selfesteem persons focus by a failure of other are as in life that re going well.
Self-complexity = many roles and many aspects if our self-concept  many parts
Self-handicapping = a process in which a person deliberately does the things that increase
the probabilitythat he or she will fail (bv gewoon niet leren voor een examen).
Self-esteem variability = an individual difference characteristics, it is the magnitude of short
term fluctuations in ongoing self-esteem.
Social Identity (social component of the self):
The part of ourselves that we use to create an impression, to let other people know who we
are and what they can expect from us. 2 important features of identity:
- Continuity = stay the same everyday
- Contrast = your social identity differentiates you from other people.
Identitity crisis: the feelings of anxiety that accompany efforts to define or redefine one’s
own individuality and social reputation.
Identity deficit: when a person has not formed an adequate identity and thus has trouble
making mayor decisions.
Identity conflicts: an incompatibility between 2 or more aspects of identity.
Resolution to these crises, deficits and conflicts:
- which values are most important to them?
- transorm these abstract values into desires and actual behaviors (action)
This is typically in late adolescence and early adulthood. Resolution for crises during middle
age  dissatisfaction with existing identities (work/marriage), act as adolescents again,
resolution = change ambition, relationship, work, priorities etc.
Biological Domain
H6
Genome = complete set of genes an organism possesses, 23 paar chromosomen met
30.000-40.000 genen.
Eugenetics = we can design the future of the human race by fostering the reproduction of
persons with certain traits and by discouraging the reproduction of persons without those
treats. Differences bv in height caused by genetics (90%) en diet (10%).
Percentage of varaince = individuals vary, or are different from each other, and this
variability can be partitinoed into percentages that are due to different causes (genetic,
environmental causes).
Heritability = a statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of
individuals that can be accounted for by genetic variance, it provides useful information in
identifying the genetic and environmental determinants of personality, ook: the proportoin of
phenotypic variance (observed individual differences) that is attributable to genotypic
varicane (individual differences in the toal collection of genes possessed by each person) 
heritability of .50=50% is genetic.
Misconceptions:
- it can be applied to a single individual (dus NIET)  heritability refers only to differences in
a sample or population, not to an individual
- it is constant (dus NIET)  heritability is a statistic that applies only to a population at one
point in time and in a particular array of environments, if the environements change, then
heritability can change
- it’s an absolutely precise statistic (dus NIET)  heritability is best regarded as merely an
estimate of the percentage of phenotyc differences due togenetic diferences.
Nature-Nurture debate  level of individuals/level of individual differences within a
population.
Three behavioral genetic methods:
1. Family studies = studies that correlate degree of genetic overlap among family
members with degree of personality similarity. Members of a family who share the same
genes also typically share the same environment.
2. Twin studies = gauging whether identical twins (share 100% of their genes), are more
similar than fraternal twins (share 50% of their genes).
Identical twins = monozygotic (MZ) twins.
Fraternal twins = dizygotic (DZ) twins.
Heritability = 2 (Rmz-Rdz)
Two assumptions of the twin method, if they are not met, then the results from twin studies
might be called into question:
- equal environments assumption (als MZ-twins
omgeving meer gelijk is dan
DZ-twins omgeving dan klopt het niet)
- the possibility that twins are not representative of the general
population
from which they come, this can limit generalizations about
heritibality based
on twin studies)
3. Adaption studies = one can examine the correlatins between adapted children and their
adoptive parents, with whom they share no genes,. If there are find positive correlations
between the childres and the adoptive parents, then this provides evidence for
environmental influences. Problem with the adoption studies is selective placement =
children can be placed with adoptive parents who are similar to their birth parents, this may
inflate the correlations.
The most commonly studied personality traits in behavioral genetic designs have been
extraversion and neuroticism. Studies proved that there is no heritable influence on religious
attitudes.
Bailey: onderzoek naar erfelijkheid homosexualiteit, uitkomst: genes provided relatively
modest and indirect influence on adult sexual orientation.
Gender Identity Disorder (GID): two aspects be present simultaneously: 1. cross-gender
identification that is strong and persists over time, 2. persistent psychological discomfort with
one’s biological sex.
Some of the differences in personality might be attributable to neither environmental nor
genetic differences, but to error of measurement. One critical distinction behavioral
geneticists make is between shared and unshared environmental influences for most
personality variables, the shared environment has little or no discernible impact. Most
environmental causes appear to stem from the aspects of the environment that siblings
experience differently. Environments shared by siblings are important in some domains. But,
for many personality traits, such as extraversion and neuroticism, shared environment do no
seem to matter. It is the unique environment experienced by each sibling that carries the
causal weight.
Genotype-environment interaction = the differential response of individuals with different
genotypes to the same environments; perfect example is extraversion-introversion.
Genotype-environment correlation = the differential exposure of individuals with different
genotypes to different environments.
- Passive genotype-environment correlation = when parents provide both genes and the
environment to children, yet the children do nothing to obtain that environment.
- Reactive genotype-environment correlation = when parents (or others) respond to children
differently, depending on the child’s genotypes.
- Active genotype-environment correlation = when a person with a particular genotype
creates or seeks out a particular environment.
Negative genotype-environment correlation when environments go against a person’s
genotype.
Positive genotype-environment correlation when it facilitates the person’s genotype.
Molecular genetics; methods to identify the specific genes associated with personality traits.
Most common method (association method) is to identify whether individuals with a
particular gene have higher or lower scres on a particular trait than individuals without the
gene.
The most frequently examined gene is called D4DR, long D4DR genes relatively
unresponsive to dopamine, so they seek novel experiences.
H8
Natural selection
Darwin: hostile forces of nature = the events that impede survival. Adaptations = the
mechanisms resulting from a long and repeated process of natural selection  inherited
solutions to the survival and reproductive problems posed by the hostile forces of nature.
Sexual selection = the evolution of characteristics because of their mating benefits
Intrasexual competition = members of the same sex compare with each other, the winner
gets greater sexual acces to members of the opposite sex.
Intersexual selection = members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for
particular qualities in a mate.
Inclusive fitness theory (modern evolutionary theory based on differential gene
reproduction): characteristics can affect the survival and reproduction of genetic relatives
‘helping to evolve’. Inclusive fitness theory = personal reproductive succes + the effects you
have on the reproduction of your genetic relatives, weighted by the degree of genetic
relatedness  helps understanding human traits as altruism.
Adaptations are the primary products of the selective process, is reliably developing structure
in the organism, which, because it meshes with the recurrent structure of the world, causes
the solution to an adaptive problem. An adaptive problem = anything that impedes survival
or reproduction..
-By-products of adaptations = incidental effects that are not properly considered to be
adaptations.
-Noise, or Random Variations = perpetuated over generation, no function but do not hinder
the functioning of adaptations.
Evolutionary Psychology, three key premises:
- Domain specificity: adaptatoins are designed by the evolutionary process to solve a
particular adaptive problem (maw speciaal voor één bepaald probleem)
- Numerousness: a large number of domain specific psychological mechanisms to correspond
to the large number of distinct adaptive problems humans have confronted
- Functionality: the notion that our psychological mechanisms are designed to accomplish
particular adaptive goals
Deductive reasoning approach: first a theory, then observe, theory-drive method of empirical
research.
Inductive reasoning approach: first observe, then search for a theory to explain, data-driven
method of empirical research.
Three key levels of personality analysis:
1. Human Nature (few hypothesis):
- Hogan: the most basic human motivators are status and acceptance by the gruop. Social
anxiety (worry about being negatively evaluated in interpersonal situations) is a speciestypical adaptation that prevents social exclusion
- Helping and altruism: helping others is a direct function of the recipients ability to enhance
the inclusive fitness of the helpers. Je helpt mensen met wie je dezelfde genen deelt eerder
dan dat je andere helpt (50%=broer/zus help je eerder dan 12.5%=neef/nicht).
- Universal Emotions, 3 theories: - universality is one criterion for adaption
- emotions are adaptive psychological mechanisms that signal
various ‘fitness affordances in the social environment’
-manipulation hypothesis: emotions are designed to exploit
the
psychological mechanisms of other people
Ekman studies cross-cultural study of emotions
2. Sex differences
Evolutionary-predicted sex differences hold that the sexes will differ in precisely those
domains where women and men have faced different sorts of adaptive problems. 3 keyquestions about sex-differences:
1. in what domains have women and men faced different adaptive problems?
2. what are the sex-differentiated psychological mechanisms of women and men that
have evolved in response to these sex-differentiated adaptive problems?
3. which social, cultural and contextual inputs affect the magnitude of expressed sex
differences?
Sex differences in Agression:
Men engage in violent forms of aggression much more often than women do, and are also
more often victim. Vrouwen moeten goed hun man uitzoeken, daarom moeten mannen
competeren, dus vechten. Effective polygony: most females will have some offspring, males
sometimes many, sometimes none.
Men are the victims of aggression far more than women becaus men are in competition
primarily with other men.
Sex differences in Jealousy:
Evolutionary explanation: mannen hebben er angst voor dat de vrouw een sexuele relatie
met een ander aangaat, want dan loopt hij het risico dat het kind niet van hem is (mannen
hebben dus de angst dat de vrouw een sexuele band met een ander aangaat). Vrouwen
hebben de angst dat hun man een emotionele band met een ander aangaat.
Sex differences in Desire for Sexual Variety:
Men want more sex partners than women, men could increase their reproductive success by
gaining sexual access to a variety of women.
Sex differences in Mate Preferences:
Women place more value on a potential mate’s financial resources and the quality that lead
to such resources. Men place greater value on a woman’s physical appearence, which
provides cues to her fertility. Personality plays a key role in what people want in a marriage
partner.
3. Individual differences
The most common is explaining individual differences as a result of environmental
differences acting on species-typical (human nature) psychological mechanisms.
Environmental triggers of individual differences: kinderen waarbij vanaf 5 jaar de vader niet
meer thuis is, heeft geen effect op vertrouwen in relaties later, voor de 5 jaar dan vroeg
sexueel volwassen, veel partner-switches. Children from divorced homes are more sexually
promiscuous.
- Adaptive self-assessment of heritable individual differences: evaluating one’s personal
strengths and weaknesses. Reactively heritable: a secondary consequence (bv het effect dat
dik/dun zijn heeft op persoonlijkheid)
- frequency dependent strategic individual differences: heritable variants that are more
succesful tend to replace those that are les succesful, resulting in specia-typical adaptions
that show little or no heritable variation (2 eyes)  exception: frequency-dependent
selection = 2 or more heritable variants can evolve within a population (bv biological sex).
Psychopathy = a cluster of personality traits marked by irresponsible and unreliable behavior
as a given strategy becomes more common, it becomes less succesful, when it becomes less
common it becomes more succesful.
Using factor analysis, researchers discovered that the Big Five were closely linked with
solutions to critical adaptive problems.
Limitations of evolutionary psychology:
- adaptations over a long expanse, and we cannot go back in time and determine with
absolute certainty what the precise selective force on humans have been
- evolutionary scientists have just scratched the surface of understanding the nature, details,
and design features of evolved psychological mechanisms
- modern conditions are undoubtly different from ancestral conditions in many respects, so
that what was adaptive in the past might not be adaptive in the present (selection pressures
have changed)
- it is sometimes easy to come up with different and competing evolutionary hypothesis for
the same phenomena
- evolutionary hypothesis can be untestable and, hence, unfalsifiable, solution = to hold up
the same high scientific standards for all competing theories
H9
Intrapsychic Domain
= the factors within the mind that influence behavior, thoughts and feelings. Pioneer =
Freud.
Freud: the unconscious is the part of the mind about which the conscious mind operated
under its own power, subject to its own motivations and according to its own logic.
Freud’s model of human nature relied on the notion of psychic energy to motivate all human
activity. The amount of psychic energy an individual possessed remained constant
throughout his or her lifetime. Strong innate forces (= instincts) provide all the energy in the
psychic system.
2 Fundamental categories of instincts: self-preservation(Darwin:selection by survival) and
sexual instincts (Darwin:selection by reproduction) 2 in 1: life-instinct.
Freud: life instinct = libido, death instinct = thanatos.
Human mind has 3 parts:
- the conscious mind; contains everything you are aware of (thoughts, feelings, perceptions)
- the preconscious mind; memories, dreams, and thoughts that you could easily bring to
your mind if you so desire, you are not presently thinking about it but it can be easily
retrieved and made conscious.
- the unconscious mind; holding thoughts and memories about which the person is unaware.
All kinds of unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, thoughts and feelings during the
course of a typical lifehood.
Jung: Freuds theories put too much emphasis on sexuality and aggression, disagree with
Freud about the inherently negative role of unconscious conflicts. 1 of Jung’s most famous
ideas concerned the presence in each person of a collective consciousness (more prehistoric,
passed on from previous generations), which complemented the personal unconsciousness
(grew out of the person’s own unique experiences).
Expressions or images of basic human needs and instincts that we are all born with =
archetypes. Jung and evolutionary psychologists share that we are born with predispositions
inherited from our ancestors.
Freud believed that unconscious thoughts, feelings and urges could take a life of their own =
motivated unconscious. In order for psychological symptoms to be cured, the unconscious
cause of the symptoms must first be discovered.
Silverman: a research technique to study the validity of psycho analytic concepts:
Subiminal (below the threshold of awareness) Psychodynamic (the phrases used represent
stimuli that psychoanalytic theory suggests have important psychic consequences) Activation
(psychodynamic stimuli activate something in the persons psyche, rsulting in an observable
change in behavior, thoughts or feelings.
ID: reservoir of psychic energy. Most primitve part of the human mindt, the source of all
drives and urges, like a spoiled child: selfish, impulsif, and pleasure-loving. Pleasure principle
= the desire for immediate gratification, so it doesnot listen to reason, does not follow logic,
has no values or morals and has very little patience. Id operates with primary process
thinking (=without logical rules of conscious thought or an anchor in reality), bv in dreams
and fantasies. Wish fulfillment (something unavailable is conjured up and the image of it is
temporarily satisfying).
EGO: executive of personality. Constrains the id to reality, acceptable (=reality principle) the
ego engages in secondary process thikning = the development of strategies for solving
problems and obtaining satisfaction.
SUPEREGO: upholder of societal values and ideals. The superego internalizes the values,
morals and ideals of society. Instilled into the child by society’s various socializing agents,
such as parents, schools and organized religions. The development of the superego was
closely linken to a child’s identification with his or her parents. Superego makes us feel
guilty, ashamed or embarassed. It is the source of our judgement that something is
bad/good.
Id, ego + superego interact: they have different goals, provoking internal conflicts within an
individual. Anxiety = an unpleasant state, which acts as a signal that things are not right and
something must be done. Efforts to defend oneself from anxiety = defense mechanisms.
- Objective anxiety = fear, occurs in esponse to a real, external threat to a person.
- Neurotic anxiety = occurs when there is a direct conflict between the id and the ego. The
danger is that the ego may lose control over an unacceptable dseire of the id (angst alleen al
bij de gedachte aan...).
- Moral anxiety = caused by a conflict between the ego and the superego, an overly
powerful superego which constantly challenges the person to live up to higher and higher
expectations (jezelf straffen).
Defense mechanisms serve 2 functions: to protect the ego & to minimize anxiety and
distress:
Repression = preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges from reachin conscious
awareness. Unpleasant memories are often repressed.
Denial = insist that things are not the way they seem, refusing to see the facts,
fundamental attribution error = the tendency to blame events outside one’s control for
failure but to accept responsibility for success.
Displacement = a threatening or an unacceptable impulse is channeled or redirected from
it’s original source to a non threatening target.
Rationalization = generating acceptable reasons for outcomes that might otherwise
appear socially unacceptable. The goal is to reduce anxiety by coming up with an
explanation for an event that is easier to accept than the real reason.
Reaction formation = in attempt to stifle the expression of an unacceptable urge, a
person may continually display a flurry of behavior that indicates the opposite impulse
Projection = sometimes we see in others the traits and desires we find most upsetting in
ourselves. We literally project our own unacceptable qualities onto others, we can then hate
them instead ourselves. What a person intensely dislikes in or gest upset about with others,
is often revealing of his or her innermost insecurities and conflicts. False consensus effect =
to think that many others share your own preferences, motivations or traits.
Sublimation = the channeling of unacceptable sexual or agressive instincts into socially
desired activities (bijv boksen kijken ipv iemand zelf in elkaar slaan).
Phychosexual stages of personality development: elke stage heeft een conflict, hoe je dat
oplost geeft vorm ‘gives rise to’ een aspect van je persoonlijkheid.
In psychoanalytic theory, the source of individual differences lies in how the child comes to
resolve conflicts in each of the stages of development. Freuds theory = psychosexual stage
theory, children seek sexual gratification at each stage by investing libidinal energy in a
specific body part.
Fixation = when a child fails to fully resolve a conflict at a particular stage of development,
and he/she get stuck in that stage
1. Oral stage, 0-1.5 jaar  mouth, lips & tongue. Conflict is weaning, withdrawing fromt he
breast or bottle biological: the id wants the immediate gratification associated with taking in
nourishment and obtaining pleasures through the mouth. Psychological: excessive pleasure
vs dependency, fear of being left alone.
2. Anal stage, 1.5-3 jaar  expelling feces and retaining feces. Problem is too little or too
much self-control.
3. Phallic stage, 3-5 jaar  he has or she does not has a penis. Major event is discovering
their own genitals and the realization that some pleasure can be derived from touching
them. Sexual desire directed toward the parent from the opposite sex. Oedipal conflict =
wanting (sex) the mother all for himself by eliminating the father castration anxiety, fear of
losing the penis by the father. Beste oplossing voor Oedipus is om op de vader te willen
lijken (identification). Volgens Freud het begin van superego en morality.
Penis envy = a girl blames the mother for lacks a penis, she desires her father yet envies
him for his penis (Electra complex)
4. Latency stage, 6-puberteit  learning the skills and abilities necessary to take on the
role of an adult. Period of psychological rest, or latency. Learning to make decisions for
oneself, learning to interact and make friends with others, developing an identity and
learning the meaning of work.
5. Genital stage, puberty-adult life  libido focused on the genitals, people reach this
stage only if they have resolved the conflicts at the prior stage.
Psychoanalytic therapy: goal is to make the unconscious conscious:
- first identify the unconscious thoughts and feelings
- enable the person with the unconscious urges, memories or thoughts realistically and
maturely.
Major challenge facing the therapist is to penetrate the unconscious mind of the patient, few
methods:
- free association: zeggen wat in je opkomt = psychoanalytic session
- dreams: purpose of dreaming was to satisfy urges and to fulfill unconscious wishes and
desires in disguised form. We must distinguish between the manifest content of a dream
(wat het werkelijk was), and the latent content (what the elements of the dream represent).
3 functions from dreaming:
- it allows for wish fulfillment and the gratification of desires
- dreams provide a safety value byh allowing a person to release unconscious
tension
by expressing his or her deepest desires
- dreams are guardians of sleep (de persoon blijft slapen)
- projective techniques: people are thought to project their own personalities into whta theyu
report seeing in an ambiguous stimulus
Psychoanalist komt met verschillende interpretaties van wat het zou kunnen zijn, zo komt
patient tot inzicht. Insight refers to a intense emotional experience that accompanies the
release of repressed material.
Resistance  the forces that have worked to repress the disturbing impulse or trauma, now
work to resist the psychoanalytic process, resultaat: patient betaald niet, vergeet, komt te
laat.
Transference  the patient begins reacting to the analyst as if he or she were an important
figure from the patients owns life.
H10
Neo-analytici: niet zo’n grote rol onbewuste
Loftus: false memories because popular press and behavior of some therapists.
Imaginaion inflation effect = iets wat niet gebeurd is herinneren alsof het wel echt gebeurd
is.
Spreading activation model of memory = bepaalde elementen (woordjes/plaatjes) worden
opgeslagen samen met associaties.
Humans have a constructive memory = memory contributes t oor influences in various ways
what is recalled.
Confirmatory bias = the tendency to look only for evidence that confrims their previous
hunch and not look for evidence that might disconfirm their belief  therapists suffer from it
Contemporary views on the unconscious:
- motivated unconscious  information can get into our memories without our ever being
aware of the information, bijvoorbeeld subliminal perception = bv in films, snel een shot ‘buy
a coke’. Priming makes that associated material more accessibleto conscious awareness that
is material that is not primed. Something in the unconscious can motivate behavior.
- congnitive unconscious  the content of the unconscious mind is assumed to operate just
like thoughts in consciousness. Unconscious not because thoughts are repressed. Bijv blouse
knopen of typen is onbewust, zonder nadenken, unconscious does has an influence but more
bounded, rule governed and specific.
Another major modification is a shift in focus from id to ego. Freudian psychoanalysis is idpsychology. The psychoanalysis started by Anna Freud and continued by Erikson is ego
psychology. Identity crisis = the desperation and confusion a person feels wehen he or she
has not developed a strong sense of identity.
One of Erikson’s lasting contributions was developing the notion of identity as an important
developmental achievement in everyone’s personality.
Erikson: persoonlijkheid wordt niet in de 1e vijf jaar gevormd, maar gedurende het hele
leven. 8 stages of development, crises of social nature, psychosocial conflicts (je ouders
vertrouwen etc).
Drie punten die overeenkomen met Freud:
- stage model of development
- each stage has a develop mental crisis
- fixation
8 Stages of development:
1. Trust vs Mistrust; sense of trust forms the basis of future relationships
2. Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, 2 jaar; ‘how much of the world do I control?’,
selfconfidence when the parents punish, child may feel shame and doubt over the goals
he/she is contemplating
3. Initiative vs Guilt, 3 jaar; volwassenen nadoen, receive their first parctice in adult tass
during play, develop a sense of initiative, translates into ambition and goal seeking.
4. Industry vs Inferiority, 4 jaar; comparing, sense of industry = als ze werken kunnen ze
bereiken wat ze willen, being productive members of society
5. Identity vs Role Confusion, adolescense; experimenting with identities, identity confusion
= not having a strong sense of who one really is. Some cultures institute a rite of passage
ritual, usually around adolescense, which typically is a ceremony that initiates a child into
adulthood.
Negative identity = identity founded on undesirable role models.
Identity foreclosure = if a person does not have a crisis, or if he or she forms an identity
without exploring alternatives.
A final concept to identity development is a moratorium, taking time to explosure options
before making a commitment to an identity (tijdens school bijv experimenteren relaties,
studies, soc omgeving om te ontdekken wie je bent).
6. Intimacy vs Isolation; people at this stage appear to have a need to develop relationships
that are mutually satisfying and intimate. People grow emotinoally marriage. Isolation of
failure to find or maintin intimacy.
7. Generativity vs Stagnations, adult years; whether or not the person has generated
something that he or she really cares about in life. People feel that theirlies don’t matter,
that they are just ‘going along to get along’
8. Integrity vs Despair, end of life; occurs when we let go of the generative role. Look back
and pass judgement integrity when we can take satisfation in our lives. Despair when we
wanted changes, not satisfied etc.
Karen Horney = feminist psychoanalyticus. Penis is a symbol of social power ipv an organ
the women desired. She says that women realize that they are being denied soc power
because of their gender. Horney said that it is not biological (Freud) but culture that
influenced different life ouctcomes for men and women.
Masculine + feminine = traits or roles typically associated with being male/female. Gender
differences ipv sex differences.
Self-serving bias = the common tendency for people to take credti for successe, yet to deny
responsibility for failure.
Narcissism = trying to appear more powerful, indepent or more like by others, is style of
inflate self-admiration and constant attempts to draw attention to the self and to keep others
focused on oneself. Narcissistic paradox = high self-esteem but doubts on his/her worth as a
person.
Object relations theory = new movement which rethought Freuds emphasis on sexuality, it
emphasizes social relationships and their origing in childhood. The modern analysts maintain
that adult personality is determined by experiences in childhood, but they stress early social
relationships  relationships with parents.
Basic assumptions:
- the internal wishes, desires and urges of the child are not as important as his/her
developing relationships with signifant external others, particularly parents
- the others, particularly the mother, become internalized by the child in the form of mental
objects.
Early childhood attachment. Harlow concluded that attachment between infant and primary
caregiver required physical contact with a warm and responsive mother and that it is vitally
important to the psychological development of the infant, eerste 6 maanden van het leven
goede band met moeder is cruciaal voor een kind.
Strange situation procedure  reacties van kindjes als moeder weggaat en vreemde
binnenkomt, en dan moeder weer komt en vreemde gaat, stijl van hechten, 3 patterns:
- securely attached  stoicijns als moeder gaat, blij als ze terugkomt, open tot vreemde.
Adult secure relationship style = weinig moeite met nieuwe vriendschappen en relaties
- avoidantly attached  ontwijken vd moeder als ze terugkomt, unfazed als ze gaat. Adult
avoidant relationship style = moeilijkheid met anderen vertrouwen, wantrouwend en bang
- ambivalently attached  angstig als ma gaat, huilen etc, daarna moeilijk te kalmeren,
anger and desire als ma terugkomt. Adult ambivalent relationship style = vulnerability,
uncertainty, overly dependent, demanding.
Early experiences and reactions of the infant to the parents are the working models for later
adult relationships.
Parental divorces: vooral last als ouders op jonge leeftijd scheiden. When internal
representations of attachment figures and relationships are being formed. Wallerstein:
resultaat is dperessies, leerporblemen tijdens childhood. It’s in adulthood that children of
divorced parents suffer the most. In eigen relaties bang de fouten van de ouders ook te
maken. Slechte relaties want bang om alleen te zijn.
Kritiek = er is geen controlegroep.
Studies van nu laten zien dat kinderen steeds minder last van gescheiden ouders hebben
dan vroeger, het is normaler geworden.